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UNIVERSAL 







Presented 

With the Compliments of 



THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE 

OF 

THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 


HARVARD DICTIONARY OF MUSIC 




HARVARD 


Diaionary of Music 


By 

WILLI APEL 



1950 

HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS 
re, Massachusetts 


COPYRIGHT, 1944 

BY THE PRESIDENT AND FELLOWS OF HARVARD COLLEGE 


First printing, November 1944 
Second printing, December 1944 
Third printing, 1945 
Fourth printing, 1946 
Fifth printing, 1947 
Sixth printing, 1950 


PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 



PREFACE 


Nowhere in literature is a preface more clearly out of place than in a book 
which, like the present one, is predestined to be read without leisure and 
to be consulted (somewhat like a dentist) in the case of an emergency only. 
Moreover it seems incongruous to write a wordy preface for a book which 
by its very nature aims at the utmost conciseness. In the way of general 
description it will suffice to say that this book is designed to provide 
accurate aAd pertinent information on all musical topics and that it is 
addressed to the musical amateur as well as to the student and the scholar. 
To reconcile the different, if not conflicting, interests of these three groups 
of readers has been one of the chief concerns of the author. In the majority 
of the articles this has been no problem, since an article on “Major and 
Minor” or “Eroica,” for instance, falls just as clearly within the province 
of the first group as does one on “Lai” or “Oktoechos” within that of the 
last. In the case of articles which are of interest to the amateur as well 
as to the musicologist the difiiculty has been solved — successfully, it is 
hoped — by clearly dividing the niaterial into two paragraphs, one of 
which treats the subject from the present-day point of view, the other, 
from that of the historian. The articles on “Sonata” and “Fugue” may be 
cited as examples. A special feature of this book, not to be found in any 
other music dictionary in the English language, is the bibliography, 
which covers book publications as well as the periodical literature — die 
latter more completely than any other music dictionary in any language. 

The most distinctive trait of the present work is the restriction to mu- 
sical topics, which has entailed the omission of biographical articles. The 
reason for this restriction is that the biographical field is adequately cov- 
ered in a considerable number of recent reference books, several of which 
are devoted exclusively to biography, while exactly the opposite is true of 
the information on the various aspects of music itself. In this respect even 
the best dictionaries fail even to approximate the standard which has long 
been established in the biographical field. This situation indicates the 
point of departure and the raison d’Hre for the present publication. 

The restriction of subject matter means the exclusion not only of indi- 
vidual composers, ajsp of individual organizations, orchestras, pub- 
lishers. There are, however, general articles on “Societies,” “Orchestras,” 
“Publishers,” which supply information about the most important mem- 

[v] 



PREFACE 


bcrs of such groups. For the purpose of orientation the list of general 
articles (“Synoptic Guide”) given on p. 2 may be consulted. 

There remains the pleasant duty of acknowledging gratefully the as- 
sistance which the author has received from many sides. A complete list 
of those scholars who have contributed original articles is found on p. x. 
Less obvious, but hardly less important, is the collaboration of others who 
have given valuable advice or other assistance, as follows: 

Mrs. Willi Apel, Boston: Final check of the periodical literature. 

Mr. Artur Bogen, Cambridge: Preparatory work for the articles on indi- 
vidual operas. 

Dr. Manfred F. Bukofzer, University of California: Reading of articles on 
Medieval and Oriental music. 

Mr. Leonard Burkat, Boston Public Library: Reading of the articles on 
Periodicals and Publishers. 

Dr. Yuen Ren Chao, Harvard University: Reading of the articles on 
Chinese and Japanese music. 

Dr. Alfred Einstein, Smith College: Reading of various articles on i6th- 
and 17th-century music. 

Mr. Klaus Goetze, Cambridge: Material for the article on Pianoforte 
playing. 

Dr. Lloyd Hibberd, Graham-EckCs School, Palm Beach: Reading of the 
entire manuscript. 

Prof. Edward B. Hill, Cambridge: Reading of articles on modern instru- 
ments. 

Dom Anselm Hughes, O.S.B.: Reading of articles on liturgical music. 
Dr. Otto Kinkeldey, Cornell University: See below. 

Mrs. Edward B. Lawton, Berkeley, California: Material for the article on 
the Mass. 

Dr. Curt Sachs, New York University: Reading of articles on ancient in- 
struments. 

Mr. Nicolas Slonimsky, Boston: Proofreading of the entire manuscript, 
with particular regard to “Music Since 1900.” 

Dr, Harold Spivacke, Library of Congress: Reading of articles on Orches- 
tras, Periodicals, Publishers, and others. 

Mr. David Stone, Howard University: Material for the article on Piano 
playing; final check of the periodical literature. 

I am particularly indebted to Professor Kinkeldey, who not only has 
read the entire sections A and B of the Dictionary, but also numerous 
articles (e.g,, Auffuhrungspraxis; Binary and ternary form; Character 
piece; Choral, chorale; Classicism; Expression; Figural, fi^rate, figured; 

[vij 



PREFACE 


Folk song; Modern music; Plainsong notation; Song form) which the 
author would have been hesitant to publish in their present form Without 
the backing of the authority which Professor Kinkeldey, the dean of 
American musicology, so justly enjoys. 

I also wish to express my gratitude to the members of the staff of the 
Music Department of the Boston Public Library whose kind cooperation 
has greatly facilitated the completion of the book. 

Grateful acknowledgment is made to Mr. W. W. Norton, New York, 
for permission to reproduce a number of illustrations of instruments, taken 
from C. Sachs, The History of Musical Instruments (1940); and to the 
Macmillan Company, London, to reproduce from Grove’s Dictionary the 
illustrations for the article “Bow” and the drawing of the colascione for 
the article “Lute.” 

In conclusion the author wishes to say that he will appreciate suggestions 
for corrections to be used in a second edition which may be forthcoming 
sooner or later. 

W. A. 

Boston^ Massachusetts 
May jg44 


NOTE 

Addenda and corrigenda will be found on page 825 and following pages. 



LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 

I. Periodicals 

Reference is usually made by annual volume numbers (i, ii, iii, . . .), if a list of con- 
tents is given with the volume. Otherwise, copy numbers are added (e.g., ii, no. 4). 
Special methods of reference (e.g., when the volume numbering is inconsistently used) 
are indicated below. In the case of articles the title of which is essentially identical 
with that of the subject under consideration, this title is usually omitted. 

AM Acta Musicologica (quarterly, 1928-). 

AMF Archiv fur Musif{forschung (quarterly, 1936-). 

AMW Archiv fiir Musil{wissenschaft (quarterly, 1918—28). 

BAMS Bulletin of the American Musicological Society (annual, 1936-). 

BI Bach fahrbuch (annual, 1904-). 

BSIM Abbreviation for a monthly publication which appeared from 1905 to 1914 

under five different titles, as follows: i-iii: Le Mercure musical\ iv— v: 
Bulletin frangais de la Societe Internationale de Musique; vi-vii: S.LM, 
Revue musicale mensurelle; viii-ix: Revue musicale S, L M.; x: La Revue 
musicale 5 . /. M. See also RMC. 

BUM Bulletin de la societS "Union musicologique" (semiannual, 1921-26). 

DM Die Musi\ (i 901-15 in 24 copies per year, numbered i.i-i.24, . . ., 

xiv.1-xiv.24; 1922 to date in 12 copies per year, numbered xv.1-xv.12, etc.). 
JMP fahrbuch der Musi\bibliothe\ Peters (annual, 1894-). 
fMW fahrbucher fiir musi\alische Wissenschaft (two volumes, 1863 and 1867). 

KIM Kongress der Internationalen Musi\gesellschaft (Leipzig, 1904; Basel, 

1906; Vienna, 1909; London, 1911). Also included under this sign are: 
Bericht iiber den Musi\wissenschaftlichen Kongress^ Basel, 1924; Bericht 
iiber den /. musi\wissenschaftUchen Kongress der Deutschen Musi\‘ 
gesellschafty Leipzig, 1925; Kongressbericht {Compte renduy Report) y 
Internationale Gesellschaft fiir Musikwissenschafty Liege, 1930. Cf. R. S. 
Angcll, in Music Library Association NoteSy 1944, no. 2. 

KJ Kirchenmusi\altsches fahrbuch (1885-1932); preceded by Cdcilien-Kalen- 

der (1876-84). 

LRM La Rassegna Musicale (monthly, 1928-). 

MA Musical Antiquary, The (quarterly, 1909-13). 

MfM Monatshefte fiir Musi^geschichte (monthly, 1869-1905). 

ML Music and Letters (quarterly, 1920-). 

MM Modern Music (quarterly, 1924-). 

MQ Musical Quarterly (quarterly, 1915-). 

MR Music Review (quarterly, 1940-). 

PAMS Papers Read by Members of the American Musicological Society (annual, 

193^)- 

PM A Proceedings of the Musical Association (annual, 1874-). 

RdM Revue de musicologie (quarterly, 1922-), preceded by Bulletin de la so- 
ciit 6 frangaise de musicologie (quarterly, 1917-21). Reference by year 

[ viii ] 



LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 


and continuous numbering of copies, c.g., 1922, no. i; 1937, no. 64, etc. 

RM Revue musicaley La (cd. by Pruni^res, monthly, 1920-). 

RMC Revue musicaley La (cd. by Combarieu, monthly, 1 901-10). Merged m 
1911 with BSIM. 

RMI Rivista musicale italiana (quarterly, 1870-). 

SIM Sammelbande der Internationalen Musi\gesellschajt (quarterly, 1900-14). 
StM Studien zur MusiJ^wissenschaft (Beiheftc der Denkmaler dcr Tonkunst iQ 
Oestcrreich; annual, 1913-34). 

TG Tribune de St, Gervais (monthly, 1895-?). 

VMW Vierteljahrsschrift fur Musi^wissenschaft (quarterly, 1884-94). 

ZIM Zeitschrift der Internationalen Musi\gesellschaft (monthly, 1900-14). 
ZMW Zeitschrift fur Musi\wissenschaft (quarterly, 1918-35). 

II. Boo\s 

AdHM G. Adler, Handbuch der Musi^geschichtCy 2 vols., 1930. 

ApMZ W. Apel, Musib^ aus friiher Zeity 2 vols. 

ApNPM W. Apel, Notation of Polyphonic Musicy 1942 (2d ed., 1944). 

AR Antiphonale Sacrosanctae Romanae Ecclesiacy 1924 (No. 820, edition in 

neumatic signs). 

BeMMR H. Besseler, MusiJ{ des Mittelalters und der Renaissancey 1931. 

BiiHM E. Biicken, Handbuch der Musi^wissenschafty 7 vols., 1928-32. 

CS H. Coussemaker, Scriptorum de musica medii aevi nova seriesy 4 vols., 

1864-76. 

DdT Denhjndler deutscher Ton\unsty 65 vols., 1892-1931. 

DTB Denkmaler der Tonf^unst in Bayerny 36 vols., 1900-31. 

DTOe Denkrndler der Tonbjunst in Oesterreichy 83 vols., 1894—1938. 

EiBM A. Einstein, Beispielsammlung zur Musi^geschichtCy 1930 (incorporated 
in his A Short History of MusiCy 2d edition, 1938). 

GD Grove, Dictionary of Music and MusicianSy 5 vols., 1938; supplementary 

vol., 1940. 

GSHM Th. Gerold, Histoire de la musique des origines d la fin du xive sihclcy 1936. 
GR Graduale Sacrosanctae Romanae EcclesiaCy 1924 (No. 696, edition in neu- 

matic signs), 

GS M. Gcrbert, Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra potissimumy 3 vols., 

1784; facsimile edition, 1931. 

HAM Historical Anthology of Music, ed. by A. T. Davison and W. Apel, Har- 
vard University Press. 

LaMWC P. Lang, Music in Western Civilizationy 1941. 

LavE Lavignac, Encyclopedic de la musique y 19131!; Histoire: i.i— 5; Technique: 
ii.i-6. 

LD Liber Usualis Missae et Officiiy 1937 (No. 780, edition in neumatic signs). 
MoML H. J. Moser, Musil^-Lexi^ony 1935. 

OH Oxford History of Music (mainly vol. i of the first ed., 1901). 

ReMMA G. Reese, Music in the Middle AgeSy 1940. 

RiHM H. Riemann, Handbuch der Musi\geschichtey 5 vols., 1904-13. 

RiMB H. W\tm2XiWy Mu^}(jgeschichte in Beispieleny 1925. 

RiML H. Riemann, Musi\ Lexil{pny 2 vols., 1929. 

SaHMI C. Sachs, History of Musical InstrumentSy 1940. 

[ix] 



UST OF ABBREVIATIONS 

SaRM C. Sachs, Reallexi\on der Musi 1 {instrumente^ 1913. 

SchGMB A. Schcring, Geschichte der Musi\ in Beispieleny 1931. 

TaAM G. Tagliapictra, Antologia di musica ... per pianoforte^ 18 vols., 1931/2. 
WoGM ]. Wolf, Geschichte der Mensurcdnotationy 3 vols., 1904. 

WoHN J. Wolf, Handbuch der Notations^unde, 2 vols., 1913-19. 

m. Contributors of Articles 

A. E. Alfred Einstein, Smith College (Madrigal comedy). 

A. T. D. Archibald T. Davison, Harvard University (Anglican chant; Conducting; 

Glee; Just note and accent; Music education; Psalter). 

A. T. M. A. Tillman Merritt, Harvard University (Counterpoint; Harmonic analy- 
sis; Harmony I). 

D. D. Dorothea Doig, Longy School of Music, Cambridge (Tests). 

D. J. G. Donald J. Grout, University of Texas (Opera; Comic opera; Ballet in opera; 

and related articles). 

E. B.H. Everett B. Helm (Composition; Degrees; Profession; Scholarships; Soci- 

eties I). 

E. C. Eunice Crocker, Radcliffe College (Canzona). 

E. P. Ernest La Prade, National Broadcasting Company (Electronic musical in- 
struments; Radio broadcasting of music). 

G. C. Gilbert Chase, Library of Congress (Latin American countries). 

G. D. H. G. Donald Harrison, Aeolian-Skinner Company (Organ I-IX). 

H. A. Hans Abraham, Cambridge (Copyright). 

H. G. M. Henry G. Mishkin, Amherst College ( Accademia; Bologna School). 

H. J. S. Helen Joy Sleeper, Wellesley College (Fancy). 

H.L. Hugo Lcichtentritt, Cambridge (Music criticism). 

H.N. Hugo Norden, Boston (Bowing). 

J. F. O. John F. Ohl, Fisk University (Recorder). 

J. T. H. John Tasker Howard, Glen Ridge, New Jersey (American music; Ameri- 
can Indian music). 

L. H. Lloyd Hibberd, Graham-Eckes School, Palm Beach (Dictionaries; Jazz). 
L. S. Leo Schrade, Yale University (Maniera). 

N. S. Nicolas Slonimsky, Boston (Russian music II). 

P. A. Putnam Aldrich, University of Texas (Ornamentation and related articles). 
P. L. M. Philip Lieson Miller, New York Public Library (Phonograph and recorded 
music). 

R. S. A. Richard S. Angell, Columbia University (Libraries). 

R. Y. R. Rulon Y. Robison, Boston University (Register; Voice). 

W. D. D. William D. Denny, Vassar College (Orchestra; various instruments). 

W. P. Walter Piston, Harvard University (Harmonic rhythm). 

V. Z. Victor Zuckerkandl, Princeton, N. J. (Urlinie) . 

IV. Signs 

* indicates reference to other articles. 

•j* indicates publications consisting mainly or exclusively of music. 





If you want to understand the invisible, look 
carefully at the visible. [See ^Aesthetics III (b).] 



SYNOPTIC GUIDE 


Ust of articles of a general character and of master articles 
containing reference to others 


Acoustics 
Aesthetics 
Analysis 
Appreciation 
Arrangement 
Chamber music 
Church music 
Color and music 
Composition 
Concert 
Conducting 
Copyright 
Counterpoint 
Dance music 
Degrees 
Dictionaries 
Editions, Historical 
Electronic musical instru- 
ments 

Exotic music 
Expression^ 

Festivals 


Folk music 
Form 

Gregorian chant 
Harmonic analysis 
Harmony 
History of music 
Improvisation 
Instrumental music 
Instruments 
Libraries 

Mechanical instruments 
Melody 
Modern music 
Music criticism 
Music education 
Musicology 
Notation 
Opera houses 
Orchestras and concert 
halls 

Oriental music 
Ornamentation 


Periodicals 

Phonograph and recorded 
music 

Poetic meter 

Primitive music 

Printing of music 

Profession of music 

Publishers 

Radio broadcasting 

Rhythm 

Scholarships 

Singing 

Societies 

Sources prior to 1450 
Style 

Tests and measurements 

Text and music 

Texture 

Theory 

Tonality 

Vocal music 

Wind instruments 


Articles on Nations and Races: American Indian; American; Arabian; Argentina; 
Armenian; Australian; Babylonian; Belgian; Brazilian; Bulgarian; Byzantine; Cana- 
dian; Central America; Chile; Chinese; Colombia; Cuba; Czech; Danish; Egyptian; 
English; Eskimo; Ethiopian; Finnish; French; German; Greek; Hindu; Hungarian; 
Icelandic; Irish; Italian; Japanese; Javanese; Jewish; Mexico; Negro; Netherlands; 
Norwegian; Oriental; Peru; Polish; Portuguese; Roman; Rumanian; Russian; Scot- 
tish; Spanish; Swedish; Swiss; Syrian; Tibetan; Turkish; Venezuela; Yugoslavian. 



HARVARD DICTIONARY OF MUSIC 



A, Sec *Pitch names; •Letter notation; 
•Hexachord; *Pitch. On the title page 
of *part-books of the i6th century A 
stands for altus. In liturgical books it 
stands for antiphon, 

Ab [G.]. Off, chiefly with reference to 
the discontinuation of an organ stop. 

Abandonne [F.]. With abandon; un- 
restrained. 

A battuta [It.]. See *Battuta. 

Abbandono, Con ; abbandonasi 
[It.J. With abandon, unrestrained. 

Abbellimenti [It.] . Embellishments, 
•ornaments. 


abbreviations used in musical notation 
are indicated in the accompanying table. 

A-b-c-dieren [G.]. The use of 
pitch-letters, a, b, c . . . , rather than of 
•solmization syllables, in singing and ele- 
mentary instruction. This system pre- 
vails in Germany. 

Abdampfen [G.]. To *mute. 

Abduction from the Seraglio. Sec 
•Entfiihrung aus dem Serail. 

Abegg Variations. R. Schumann’s op. 
I, dedicated to his friend Meta Abegg. 
The first five notes of the theme a-bb- 
e'-g'-g' read, in German pitch names, 
A-B-E-G-G. 


Abbreviations. The most important 




Abendlied [G.]. Evening song. 

Abendmusik [G.]. Evening musical 
performances, usually of a religious or 
contemplative character. The term ap- 
plies particularly to the famous concerts 
started in 1673 by Dietrich Buxtehude 
in the Marienkirche of Liibeck in North 
Germany. These took place annually on 
the five Sundays before Christmas, fol- 
lowing the afternoon service, and con- 
sisted of concerted pieces of sacred music 
for orchestra and chorus and of organ 
music [see DdT 14]. They continued 
throughout the i8th and 19th centuries. 
In 1705 J. S. Bach walked 200 miles from 
Arnstadt to Liibeck to hear the Abend- 
musi\. 

Lit.: W. Maxton, in ZMW x; C. Stiehl, 
Die Organisten an der St, Marien}{irche 
und die AbendmusiXen zu LtibeeX 
(1885). 

A bene placito [It., at pleasure]. An 
indication permitting a certain freedom 
in performance, equivalent to ad libi- 
tum. 


[3] 


Abbreviations 



ABGESANG 

Abgesang [G.]. See •Barform. 

Abgestossen [G., detached]. ^Di- 
tachc [see •Bowing (b)]. 

Abnehmend [G.]. Diminuendo. 

Abschieds-symphonie [G.]. •Fare- 
well Symphony. 

Abschnitt [G.j. Section. 

Absetzen [G.]. (i) To separate, either 
notes [•D^tache] or phrases. — (2) In 
16th-century parlance, absetzen in die 
Tabulatur means to transcribe (vocal 
music) into •tablature. 

Absolute music [L. absolutusy sepa- 
rated]. Music which is dissociated from 
extramusical implications. The term is 
used most frequently in contradistinction 
to •program music, i.e., music in which 
pictorial or poetic ideas arc portrayed. 
It also excludes vocal music, especially 
that type of vocal music in which the 
text clearly influences the musical lan- 
guage and structure (c.g., a song by 
Schubert). In German usage the term is 
employed in a stricter sense, excluding 
not only program and vocal music but 
also music of a definite emotional char- 
acter (•Romantic musu), so that Bach 
and, to some extent, Mqzart become the 
main representatives of absolute music. 

Absolute pitch. Properly, “the posi- 
tion of a tone in reference to the whole 
range of pitch . . . , conceived as inde- 
pendently determined by its rate of vibra- 
tion” (Webster). The German term for 
this is absolute Tonhohe, Usually, how- 
ever, the term is used to denote what 
should be termed more accurately “abso- 
lute judgment of (absolute) pitch,” i.e., 
the capacity of a person to identify a 
musical sound immediately by name, 
without reference to a previously sounded 
note of different pitch [see •Relative 
pitch]. This faculty, called in German 
absolutes Gehoty is a tonal memory 
which is inborn with certain individuals 
but can also be acquired by practice, as 
recent experiments have shown. The 
faculty, whether inborn or acquired, is 
found chiefly in persons possessing some 

[ 


ABSOLUTE PITCH 

degree of musical experience or aptitude, 
but it can by no means be considered a 
measuring stick of musical talent. In 
fact, it is just as frequent (perhaps more 
so) among mediocre orchestral players 
as among great composers and outstand- 
ing artists. While Mozart had an ex- 
tremely acute sense of absolute pitch, 
Wagner and Schumann are reputed to 
have lacked it. 

Absolute pitch is in various respects a 
valuable asset to a musician, particularly 
to a conductor, but it may prove a real 
inconvenience when music for one rea- 
son or another must be transposed in per- 
formance to another key, as is frequently 
the case in vocal music, in order to ac- 
commodate the range of the singer [see 
remark under •chiavette]. It is ques- 
tionable, indeed, whether it is an advan- 
tage or a disadvantage to hear a composi- 
tion “all wrong” simply because it is a 
half tone higher or lower. Needless to 
say, all the discussions about the “true 
pitch” of Beethoven’s C minor Sym- 
phony, for example, are entirely pointless 
unless the standard pitch of Beethoven’s 
day is taken into account. Since this 
pitch has considerably changed (still 
more so in the case of Bach), it can be 
definitely said that, from the standpoint 
of absolute pitch, all present-day per- 
formances of music written prior to the 
general acceptance of the modern concert 
pitch [see *Pitch (2)] are “wrong.” 
Generally speaking, they are higher than 
the composer wanted them to be. A mu- 
sician with absolute pitch who lived one 
hundred years ago if brought back to life 
today would be horrified to hear Bee- 
thoven’s Fifth Symphony played in what 
would be to him C-sharp minor. 

Lit.: C. H. Wedell, The Nature of the 
Absolute Judgment of Pitch (1934); L- 
A. Petrau, An Experimental Study of 
Pitch Recognition (1932); A. Wellek, 
Das absolute Gehor und seine Typen 
(1938, bibl.); C. E. Seashore, The Meas- 
urement of Musical Memory (1917); 
O. Abraham, in SIM iii, viii; F. Auer- 
bach, in SIM viii; H. Riemann, in ZIM 
xiii; J. Kobelt, in AMW ii (bibl.); G. 
R6vesz, “t)bcr die bciden Arten des abso- 

] 



ABSTOSSEN 


ACATHISTUS 


luten Gehors” (Z/M xiv); N. Slonimsky, 
in American Mercury xxi. 

Abstossen [G.]. (i) In violin playing, 
same as ^ahgestossen, — (2) In organ 
playing, to take off a stop [see *Ab]. 

Abstract music. Same as ^absolute 
music. 

Abstrich [G.]. Down-bow. 

Abzug [G.]. *Scordatura. 

Academic Festival Overture {A\a- 
demische Festouvertiire), The title of 
Brahms’s op. 80, an orchestral composi- 
tion written for the University of Breslau 
as a recompense for the degree of Doctor 
of Philosophy conferred upon him 
(1879). 1^ is a presentation of various 
German student songs, much in the man- 
ner of a ^potpourri. 

Academie [F.]. ^Academy. In the 
early part of the 19th century the term 
was used for concerts or recitals. Bee- 
thoven in one of his letters says: “Heute 
keine Akademie,” i.e., “No concert to- 
night.” 

Academy [Gr., derived from the olive 
grove of Academe, the meeting place of 
Plato and his disciples near Athens]. A 
term applied to scholarly or artistic so- 
cieties and to musical organizations of 
various types. The movement started in 
Italy around 1600 [see *Accademia]. 
The societies outside of Italy include: 
{a) Learned associations^ part of whose 
activity is the promoting of musical 
studies. They usually have a member- 
ship limited to those of demonstrable 
ability, maintain periodic discussions and 
proceedings which are often gathered 
into publications, and generally offer 
honors, medals, or prizes for achieve- 
ment in composition or research. Many 
of these are state-supported: Paris, Insti- 
tut de France, division Academic des 
Beaux Arts; Berlin, Akademie der 
Kiinste; Brussels, Academie Roy ale; 
others in Stockholm and Moscow. (^) 
Organizations for the 0 tting of operas 
and concerts: Paris^ Academie de Mu- 
sique; London, Royal Academy of Music 


and Academy of Ancient Music; Munich, 
Akademie der Tonkunst; New York, 
Academy of Music (today the Metro- 
politan Opera); Brooklyn, Academy of 
Music (founded 1861), etc. [sec *Con- 
cert halls; *Opcra houses], (c) Institu- 
tions of musical education: London, 
Royal Academy of Music; Berlin, Staat- 
liche Akademie fiir Kirchen- und Schul- 
musik; Munich, Koniglichc Akademie 
der Tonkunst (founded 1846); Phila- 
delphia, Academy of Music (1870); New 
York, Academy of Allied Arts (School 
of Music, 1928). See also ^Societies. 

A cappella [It. cappella, chapel]. 
Music written “for the choir of a chapel,” 
i.e., choral music without instrumental 
accompaniment. The music of Palestrina 
[see ^Palestrina style] is usually consid- 
ered the model of a cappella music. An 
a cappella choir is one formed for the cul- 
tivation of unaccompanied singing. His- 
torians of the 19th century held the idea 
that all “early music” — i.e., music be- 
fore 1600 — was a cappella. Such a state- 
ment is correct, however, only with re- 
spect to strictly liturgical music, such as 
masses and motets. Secular music, 
whether for a soloist or a choral group, 
was frequently accompanied or dupli- 
cated by instruments, particularly in the 
period 1300-1450 [see *Ars nova; *Bur- 
gundian School]. 

Lit.: J. Handschin, Die Grundlagen 
des a-cappella-Stils (1929); Th. Kroyer, 
in Kretzschmar Festschrift (1918), 
AMW ii; AM vi, no. 4. 

Acathistus [Gr., not seated]. A hymn 
of praise of the Byzantine Church, sung 
in honor of the Virgin upon the Satur- 
day of the fifth week in Lent by the 
whole congregation standing. Both text 
and music were written by the patriarch 
Sergios in A.D. 626, on the occasion of the 
deliverance of Constantinople from the 
Persians. The poem consists of 24 stanza! 
the initial letters of which represent the 
alphabet (acrostic). It belongs to the 
general species of Byzantine poetry 
known as kontakjon [see ’•^Byzantine 
chant II ] . 

Lit.: H. J. W. Tillyard, Byzantine 



ACCADEMIA 


ACCENT 


Music and Hymnography (1923), p. 16; 
AdHM i, 131. 

Accademia [It.]. Italian learned asso- 
ciation, named after Plato’s Academy 
[see *Academy]. An A. di Platone was 
founded in 1470 at the court of Lo- 
renzo dc’ Medici in Florence. With the 
beginning of the 17th century, the move- 
ment spread enormously in Italy; every 
place of some repute had its accademia^ 
and larger cities had numbers of them. 
They were of two types: (a) Learned 
societies founded for the promotion of 
science, literature, and arts, part of whose 
activity was the encouragement and cul- 
tivation of music. The most famous of 
these was the A, dei Arcadi of Rome 
(founded 1692), which included among 
its members the musicians Marcello, 
Corelli, Alessandro Scarlatti, Gluck. 
Handel attended many meetings, but as 
a foreigner was not eligible for member- 
ship. Other institutions of the same type 
existed, in Florence: A. della Crusca 
(1588), A. dei Filarmonici; in Bologna: 
A, dei Gelati (1588), A, dei Concordi 
(1615), A. dei Filomusi (1622), A, dei 
Filarmonici (1675); in Venice: A. Pelle- 
grina (1550), A. degli Olimpici\ and 
elsewhere, (b) Organizations of profes- 
sional and amateur musicians which had 
the cultivation of music as their sole pur- 
pose. The activities of these groups were 
varied; they gave public and private con- 
certs, conducted research investigations 
in the history of music and in the sci- 
ence of sound, founded music schools, 
and even launched operatic enterprises. 
The most important of these is the A, 
F Harmonica of Bologna, founded in 1666 
by Count Vincenzo Carrati, which in- 
cluded among its members such distin- 
guished figures as Bassani (1657-1716), 
Corelli (1653-1713), Torelli (d. 1708), 
Domenico Gabrielli (1640-90), Padre 
Martini (1706-84), Mozart (1756-91), 
Rossini (1792-1868), and Busoni (186^ 
1924). Cf. N. Morini, La Reale Ac- 
cademia filarmonica di Bologna (1930); 
A. Einstein, in BAMS vii. H. G. M. 

Accarezzevole [It.]. Caressing. 


Accelerando [It.]. Becoming faster. 

Accent, (i) The stress of one tone over 
others. According to the position of the 
stressed note within the measure, one 
may distinguish between regular (nat- 
ural) accent, which falls on the first and, 
in compound meters, also on other beats 
(secondary accent); and irregular (un- 
natural) accent, which falls on a nor- 
mally weak beat. According to the 
means of achieving stress, the following 
distinctions are usually made: dynamic 
accent, which results from reinforcement; 
*tonic accent, which results from higher 



pitch; and *agogic accent, which results 
from longer duration of the stressed note. 
Of these, the dynamic accent is by far the 
most important, the other two being 
largely subsidiary or incidental. Irregular 
dynamic accent is usually indicated by 
signs such as sfy >, — . Ex. i (Mozart, 
Symphony in G minor) shows an irregu- 
lar dynamic accent which, at the same 
time, is tonic and agogic also. Frequently, 
the emphasis on the weak beat is en- 
hanced by means of striking dissonances, 
as in Ex. 2. The *tonic accent has played 
a role in the discussions on Gregorian 
chant and on other types of medieval 
monophonic music. 

(2) [F.]. In French music of the 17th 
and 1 8th centuries, an ornamentation be- 
longing to the class of ^Nachschlage. 

(3) Signs used in ancient Greek liter- 
ature (probably also in Hebrew poetry, 
e.g.. Psalms, Book of Job) to indicate a 
change of pitch of the voice in recitation; 
accentus acutus for a raising; a, gravis 

for a lowering; a. circumflexus \ 
for an inflection (raising followed by low- 
ering) of the voice. These signs are 
considered today as the origin of the 
neumes (accent ncumes; see '•^Neumes 
II) and of certain other related systems 


[ 6 ] 



ACCENTUATION 

of notation, called *ekphonctic notation. 
Cf. WoHN i, 6i. 

(4) The notational signs used in Jew- 
ish chant [see * Jewish music II]. 

Accentuation. The proper placement 
of accents, especially in music set to a 
text. See ^Declamation; *Text and music. 

Accentus, concentus. The terms are 
used in liturgical music in two different 
though related meanings: (a) liturgi- 
cally, as referring to the chanting of the 
priest {accentus) and to that of the 
schola^ i.e., the choir, the soloists, or both 
{concentus)^ (b) stylistically, as referring 
to two opposite types of plainsong, the 
syllabic recitation, largely on a monotone 
with slight inflections, as in the psalm 
tones {accentus)^ and the melismatic 
type found in the alleluias, graduals, etc. 
{concensus). The chant of the priest is 
usually of the simpler type; that of the 
schola of the more elaborate. See P. 
Wagner, Einfuhrung in die Gregoria^ 
nischen Melodien, hi (1921), p. 4. 

Acciaccato [It.]. “Crushed,” i.e., 
brusquely, forcibly. 

Acciaccatura [It. acciaccare, to crush]. 
Italian name for an ornament of harpsi- 
chord music {c. 1675-1725) which calls 



for the lower second of the normal note 
to be simultaneously struck and immedi- 
ately released. It usually occurs in con- 


[ 


ACCIDENTALS 

nection with chords; cither written out 
as an ordinary note, but to be played as 
described above [Ex. i, Domenico Scar- 
latti, Sonata; Ex. 2, Scherzo in Bach’s 
Partita no. 3] ; or indicated by a diagonal 
dash, in which case arpeggio execution 
is usually intended, particularly in slow 
tempo. The direction of the dash indi- 
cates the direction of the arpeggio [Ex. 
3]. The French name for this ornamen- 
tation was arpegement figure. For an 
erroneous usage, frequent in modern 
writings, of the term acciaccatura, see 
under *Appoggiatura III. 

Accidentals. I. General, The signs of 
chromatic alteration momentarily intro- 
duced for single notes or measures, as 
opposed to those given in the ^signature. 
The signs of chromatic alteration to- 
gether with their names in English, 
French, German, and Italian are given 
in the following table: 

# b X 


E 

sharp 

flat 

double-sharp 

F: 

di^se 

bemol 

double dicse 

G 

Kreuz 

Be 

Doppelkrcuz 

It 

diesis 

bemolle 

doppio diesis 


bb 


b 

E: 

double-flat 


natural 

F: 

double bemol 

bccarre 

G 

Doppel-Be 


Auflosungszeichen 

It: 

doppio bemolle 

bequadro 


The sharp raises the pitch one semitone, 
the flat lowers it one semitone; the 
double-sharp and double-flat raise and 
lower two semitones respectively; the 
natural cancels any of the other signs. 
The use of the compound signs b#, bb, 
to cancel partly or entirely a previous 
X or bb is quite frequent but unneces- 
sary. The simple signs if, b, ^ answer 
the purpose [Ex. i]. In modern practice 
a sign affects the note immediately fol- 
lowing and is valid for all the notes of 
the same pitch (but not in different oc- 
taves) within the same measure. Recent 
composers frequently add bracketed ac- 



cidentals to those demanded by this rule, 
in order to clarify complicated passages 
or chords. 


] 




ACCOMPANIMENT 


ACCIDENTALS 


11 . History. All the signs used for 
chromatic alteration developed from the 
same sign, namely, the letter b which 
indicates the whole tone above a. The 
fact that in the diatonic scale c-d-e 
... no perfect fourth above f is avail- 
able necessitated, as early as the loth 
century, the introduction of another b, 
a semitone lower than the diatonic b 
[see *Hexachord]. These two b’s were 
distinguished by their shape, the higher 
one being written in a square form and 
called b durum {durus^ hard, angular), 
the lower in a round form and called 


Early 

shapes 


^ b B durum 
b B molle 
< K Sharp 

n Double sharp 
^ Double sharp 


b molle {mollis, soft, round). It is from 
these designations that the German 
names Dur and Moll for major and 
minor mode are derived. When in the 


ensuing period the introduction of other 
chromatic tones became necessary, the 
sign b durum and its later modifications 
\ t were used to indicate the higher of 
two semitones; the sign b molle or b, the 



D c Cir Of C 


lower one. Thus, in early music, b f is 
not F-natural (canceled), but F-sharp; 
likewise, b f is not F-flat, but F (in dis- 
tinction from a previous F-sharp); [see 
Ex. 2, from Frescobaldi’s Canzone 
(1628)]. Bach continued to use the 
sign b for the cancellation of a previous f#. 
In Germany, during the i6th century, 
the sign b durum was erroneously inter- 
preted as the letter h, to which it bears 
some visual resemblance. Hence, in Ger- 
man terminology h denotes the B-natural, 
and b the B-flat. 

In the printed books of the i6th cen- 
tury the sharp sign usually occurs in a 
diagonal position. The double-sharp (in- 
troduced in the early i8th century; cf. 
Bach’s Well-tempered Clavier, 1722, and 
J. G. Walther’s Musi\ Lexicon, 1732) 
originally appeared as a sharp with 


doubled lines, either in a straight or in 
a diagonal position. The present sign is 
a simplification of the latter. 

In music prior to 1700 an accidental 
is not valid for the entire measure, but 
only for the next note and immediate 
repetitions of the same note. See Ex. 3. 



For the problem of accidentals in 
music of the 13th to the i6th centuries, 
see ^Musica ficta. Cf. F. Niecks, “The 
Flat, Sharp, and Natural” {PM A xvi). 

Acclamation. A type of Byzantine 
poetry and music which served as a 
salutation for the emperor in the cere- 
monial of the Byzantine court of the 
9th and loth centuries. The acclama- 
tions are practically the only type of non- 
liturgical Byzantine music known to us. 
Acclamations are still used today in Rus- 
sia and the Balkans for welcoming high 
dignitaries of the church. Those begin- 
ning with the traditional phrase “Many 
be the years” were called polychronion 
[cf. the examples in ReMMA, 77 and 
in MQ xxiii, 207]. 

Lit.: AdHM i, 128; E. Wellesz, Byzan- 
tinische Musi\ (1927); H. Tillyard, in 
The Annual of the British School of 
Athens, xviii. 

Accolade [F.]. *Brace. 

Accompagnato. Accompanied. See 
♦Recitative II (c). 

Accompaniment. I. The musical 
background provided by a less important 
for a more important part. For instance, 
in piano music, the chords or other sub- 
sidiary material of the left hand, as 
against the melody of the right hand. 
The term also refers to the support given 
to a soloist (singer, violinist) by a pianist 
or an orchestra. The auxiliary role of 
the accompaniment frequently leads to 
an underestimation of its musical and 
artistic importance, on the part of the 
soloist as well as the audience. Vocalists, 
especially, are inclined to demand an un- 
due subordination of .their accompanists, 


[ 8 ] 




ACCOMPANIMENT 


ACCOMPANIMENT 


condemning them to complete slavery in 
questions of interpretation, of tempo, of 
dynamics, etc. This situation is the more 
dangerous, since the possession of an 
outstanding voice and vocal technique is 
no guarantee of musical taste and artistic 
discrimination. 

The modern church organist as well 
as the leader of a choir is frequently con- 
fronted with the problem of providing 
suitable accompaniment for the singing 
of the congregation or the chorus, either 
improvised or written out. Following 
are a number of books on this subject: 
J. F. Bridge, Organ Accompaniment 
(iSS 6 ); D. Buck, Illustrations in Choir 
Accompaniment (1877); C. Forsyth, 
Choral Orchestration (1920); W. Hickin, 
Pianoforte Accompaniment^ A. H. 
Lindo, The Art of Accompanying 
(1916); Ch. W. Pearce, The Organist* s 
Directory to the Accompaniment of the 
Church Service (1908); A. M. Richard- 
son, Modern Organ Accompaniment 
(1907). See also *Vamp. 

II. References to instrumental accom- 
paniment of songs are not infrequently 
found in the Bible (harp-accompani- 
ment is suggested by the remark *‘on 
eight strings,” given with Psalms 6 and 
12) and in the writings of the ancient 
Greeks. Pictorial reproductions and lit- 
erary documents of the Middle Ages 
show the use of harps, fiddles, bells, 
small drums, trumpets, etc,, in connec- 
tion with the monophonic songs of the 
troubadours and Minnesinger, and in 
conjunction with dance music. Neither 
in ancient nor in medieval music was 
this improvised type of accompaniment 
ever of a harmonic nature; it was merely 
a unison- (or octave-) doubling of the 
voice part, with occasional *heterophonic 
elements. The same type of accompani- 
ment is to be found with the Oriental 
nations, especially in *China, ^India, 
•Arabia. While the polyphonic music 
of the 9th to the 13th centuries (organa, 
motets) does not admit the separation of 
the polyphonic fabric into parts of 
greater or lesser importance, such a sepa- 
ration takes place in the French secular 
compositions of thci, 14th and early 15th 

[ 


centuries (ballades, virelais by G. de 
Machaut and his successors, sec •Ars 
Nova; chansons of Dufay and his con- 
temporaries, see •Burgundian School). 
It disappears again with the rise of 
Flemish sacred music and of Flemish 
counterpoint (Ockeghem, Obrecht), 
which is essentially opposed to any dis- 
tinction between principal and auxiliary 
parts. The instrumental doubling of 
vocal parts, such as was occasionally 
practiced in this period, can scarcely be 
considered an accompaniment. In the 
1 6th century the renewed shift to secular 
things immediately led to a revival of 
accompanied melody, e.g., in the lute- 
songs of the German Schlick (1512), of 
the Spanish Valderrabano (1547), and of 
the English Dowland (1597). 

III. A new era of accompaniment 
began with the period of thorough-bass 
(Baroque period, 1600-1750), which 
calls for a harmonic accompaniment to 
be improvised upon the notes of the bass. 
Moreover, the growing interest in florid 
and singable melody brought about a 
gradually increasing separation of the 
musical substance into a predominant 
melody with subordinate accompaniment 
(e.g., in the aria). Whereas, throughout 
the Baroque period, the written-out ac- 
companiment (and, consequently, the 
improvised one, too) shows many traits 
of contrapuntal and harmonic interest, 
it degenerated, in the second half of the 
1 8th century, into a stereotyped pattern 
of plain chords, arpeggios, •Albcrti-bass 
figures, etc. As a curiosity it may be 
mentioned that, about 1760, sonatas were 
frequently written for the “pianoforte 
with the accompaniment of a violin or 
flute” (Mondonville, 1734, see •Editions 
XXIV, 9; Schobert, see DdT 34), that is, 
with the violin or flute merely duplicat- 
ing the upper part of the pianoforte. In 
this connection it is interesting to note 
that Samuel Wesley speaks of }. S. Bach's 
“Six sonatas for harpsichord with an ob- 
bligato violin accompaniment.” 

IV. About 1780 Haydn and Mozart 
evolved a new type of accompaniment 
known as accompanimento obbligato ^ 
characterized by a greater individuality 

] 



AQomy 

of the lower parts, by the occasional in- 
troduction of fugal elements, by the oc- 
casional shift of the melody from the 
higher part into a lower part, etc. This 
style is particularly evident in the 
quartets written in this period. Because 
of these efforts Beethoven was able to 
say of himself: “Ich bin mit einem obli- 
gaten Accompaniment auf die Welt 
gekommen.” What Haydn and Mozart 
did in the field of instrumental music, 
Schubert achieved in the field of song, 
by freeing the pianoforte accompaniment 
froih the slavery of mere chord-filling 
and making it an independent, some- 
times the most interesting, part of the 
composition. Composers such as Schu- 
mann, Brahms, and H. Wolf adopted 
his method, whereas others (e.g., Tchai- 
kovsky) rarely went beyond a chordal 
accompaniment in lush harmonies of a 
rather ephemeral interest. More recent 
composers (Mahler, Strauss) have re- 
peatedly used the whole orchestra as an 
instrumental background for a solo 
singer. 

V. The extraordinary growth of ac- 
companied melody as it occurs in the 
songs of the 19th century has had a de- 
plorable effect upon the minds of musi- 
cal scholars and editors engaged in the 
study and publication of early mono- 
phonic music, such as Greek music, ex- 
otic melodies, Gregorian chant, the songs 
of the trouveres. Minnesinger, etc. Nu- 
merous volumes have been published in 
which the melodies of the pre-Christian 
era or of the Middle Ages are coupled 
with cheap accompaniments in the styles 
of Schumann, Brahms, or Debussy. Even 
well-known scholars have not withstood 
this temptation [cf., e.g., O. Fleischer, 
Reste der altgriechischen Tonl{unst 
(1899)]. More recent attempts to give 
Aese accompaniments an “antique*’ air 
[see reference under *Quartal harmony] 
are only more dangerous and misleading. 
For literature on the 17th-century ac- 
companiment see •Thorough-bass. See 
also •Additional accompaniment. 


ACOUSTIC BASS 

ments such as the lute for which various 
systems of tuning were in use during the 
17th century [cf. WoHN ii, 91; ApNPMy 
7if]. See *Scordatura. 

Accordare [It.], accorder [F.]. To 
tune. 

Accordatura [It.]. See *Accord (2). 

Accordion. A portable musical instru- 
ment consisting of a rather large rec- 
tangular bellows with reeds in the two 
headboards. It has pushed-out and 
drawn-in reeds, the former sounding by 
expiration, the latter by inspiration. The 
modern accordion has a piano keyboard 
at the right side for the playing of mel- 
ody notes, while buttons on the left side 
operate bass notes and full chords. The 
earliest instruments of this type were 
made by Buschmann (1822), Buffet 
(1827), and Damian (1829). 

A similar instrument, preferred to the 
accordion in England, is the concertina 
invented by Wheatstone in 1829. This 
is of hexagonal shape and is provided at 
each side with a number of studs. It 
possesses a full chromatic scale and pro- 
duces the same note whether the bellows 
are pressed or drawn. Artistically, this 
instrument is superior to the accordion. 
A good deal of solo music has been writ- 
ten for it by virtuosos such as G. Regondi, 
W. B. Molique, G. A. Macfarren, and 
E. Solas, and it has occasionally been used 
in the orchestra (Tchaikovsky, Orches- 
tral Suite op. 53). The bandoneon is an 
Argentine variety of the accordion with 
buttons on each side, each of them for a 
single tone. 

Accordo [It.]. Chord. 

Accuse [F.]. With emphasis. 
Achromatic. *Diatonic. 

Achtel, Achtelnote, Achtelpause 
[G. achtel^ one-eighth]. See *Notes and 
rests. 

Achtfuss [G.]. Eight-foot (stop) [see 
•Foot (2)]. 


Accord [F.]. (i) Chord. — (2) Man- Acoustic bass (also called resultant 
ner of tuning, especially that of instru- bass). On organs, a 32-foot stop which 

[ 10] 



ACOUSTICS 


is obtained as a differential tone of a 16- 
foot stop and a 10%-foot stop. Accord- 
ing to the acoustic phenomenon of the 
differential tones [see ^Combination 
tones] the simultaneous sounding of C 
(produced by the 16-foot) and of G (pro- 
duced by the io%-foot) produces the 
tone Cl (32-foot), The acoustic bass is 
frequently used where the great expense 
of the large 32-foot pipes is prohibitive. 

Acoustics. The science which treats 
of sounds. From the standpoint of the 
musician the most important problems 
of acoustics are: (i) the nature of the 
musical sound; (2) ^intervals; (3) ♦con- 
sonance and dissonance; (4) ♦resonance; 
(5) ♦architectural acoustics. Only the 
first problem will be treated here; for the 
others, see the respective entries,. 

I. Vibration, The generation of sound 
is invariably bound up with the vibra- 
tion of an elastic body, i.e., of a body 
which, when its equilibrium is disturbed, 
develops inner forces which try to restore 
the equilibrium. Such a process does not 
end at once, since the body upon return- 
ing to its initial position still has a certain 
amount of kinetic energy which causes 
it to go beyond this position so that a 
new contrary disturbance results. This 
leads to a repetition of the whole move- 
ment in the reverse direction and, in fact, 
to a succession of movements back and 
forth which would continue indefinitely 
were it not for friction, which causes 
them to diminish and finally to stop. A 
tongue of steel fastened at one end may 
serve as an example [Ex. i]. 

The movement A — B — A (or A — C-A 
or B - A - C) is called “single vibration” 
(half-vibration); the movement A-B- 
A-C-A (or B~A~C-A-B) is 
called “double vibration” or simply “vi- 
bration” or “cycle” (in modern writings 
usually the double vibration is used as 
the unit of measurement). The distance 
B~C is called “amplitude.” The num- 
ber of vibrations made in one second is 
called “frequency.” Example 2 repre- 
sents a vibration of 3 cycles. 

(In order to understand the relation of 
this graph to the vibration it is meant to 

[i 


ACCOMPANIMENT 

represent, one iinaginc uic lovy^cst 
point of the tongue, A, to be made lumi- 
nous and then photographed. If for this 
purpose a single exposure of film is used, 
a horizontal dash ( — ) will appear. If, 


I. O 



c 


Ex, /; Vibration of Elastic Body; O, fixed end; 
A, position of equilibrium; B, position of initial 
disturbance; C, reverse position. Ex. 2: Vibration 
of 3 Cycles; a = amplitude; v= (double) vibration; 
s = single vibration. Ex. 3: Path of Vibrating 
Tongue. Ex. 4: Vibration of 6 Cycles. Ex. 5: Fad- 
ing Sound. Ex. 6: Vibrating String; A, B, fastened 
ends of the string; C, point of plucking. 

however, a quickly moving film is used, 
this dash will appear drawn out into an 
oscillating curve [Ex. 3] ). 

If the same tongue is plucked with 
different degrees of force, the ear will 
notice different intensities of sound, and 
the vibration curve will show different 

i] 



ACOUSTICS 

amplitudes, corresponding to the differ- 
ent magnitudes of the initial disturbance. 
This leads to the first law of acoustics: 
The intensity of a sound depends upon 
the amplitude of the vibration [see *Bel] . 
Therefore a fading sound will show a 
vibration curve of gradually diminishing 
elongations [see below]. 

Still more important is another ele- 
ment of variety, namely, that which en- 
ters if sounds of different pitch are 
studied. If the photographic experiment 
described above is repeated with a shorter 
tongue, a higher tone will be heard and 
the resulting curve will show vibrations 
of narrower width (provided that the 
speed of the moving film remains un- 
altered) [Ex, 4]. This means that the 
single vibration of the higher-pitched 
tongue takes a shorter time than that of 
the lower-pitched one. In other words, 
the higher sound makes more vibrations 
per second, i.e., has a greater frequency, 
than the lower sound. This is the basis 
of the second law of acoustics: The pitch 
of a sound depends only upon the fre- 
quency of the vibration, A sound is audi- 
ble if its frequency is approximately be- 
tween 16 and 20,000 cycles; the tones of 
the piano vary from about 30 to 4,000, 
those of the violin from about 300 to 
3,000. The frequency of a middle A (a'), 
i.e., of concert pitch, is 440 (or 880, if 
single vibrations are counted). 

In the above law, the word only is of 
particular importance. It expresses the 
fact, known to every musician, that the 
pitch of a vibrating string is not altered 
by the greater or lesser force with which 
the string is plucked, or, in other words, 
that the pitch docs not depend upon the 
amplitude. The piano player obtains a 
tone of the same pitch regardless of 
whether he uses a pianissimo or a fortis- 
simo touch. The same principle is borne 
out by the fact that a sound does not alter 
its pitch when it gradually decreases in 
intensity. This means that a curve rep- 
resenting a fading sound [Ex. 5] will 
always have the form a^ not the form b. 

II. Vibrating Strings, If a violin is 
plucked or bowed, each single point of 
the string will make an up-and-down 

[i 


ACOUSTICS 

vibration comparable to that made by the 
lowest point of the steel tongue previ- 
ously described. All these vibrations have 
the same frequency, but differ in ampli- 
tude. For the purpose of our explana- 
tions, the vibration of the string can be 
considered as being represented by that 
of its point of highest vibration ampli- 
tude, i.e., of the point at which the string 
is plucked. If this is the middle point of 
the string, the resulting phenomenon can 
be roughly illustrated by Example 6. 

III. Frequency, Vibrating Length, and 
Fitch, The pitch produced by a vibrat- 
ing string depends upon its material 
(steel, copper, etc.), its diameter, its ten- 
sion, and its length. For the present pur- 
pose it is sufficient to consider only the 
latter factor, the others being regarded as 
constant. These conditions are realized 
in the case of a single string whose vibrat- 
ing length can be changed by stopping 
(violin) or by means of a movable fret 
(*monochord). The following funda- 
mental law results: The frequency is 
in inverse proportion to the vibrating 
length. This means that if the whole 
string (e.g., one yard) gives a sound of 
the frequency 600, the string of the half 
length (one-half yard) gives a sound of 
the double frequency, 1200, while a 
string of two-thirds of a yard produces 
the frequency 600 X % = 900, etc. 
More important from the musical point 
of view is the relation between a given 
vibration and the pitch of the sound it 
produces. This problem was investigated 
and solved by Pythagoras, who estab- 
lished the law relating the pitch of a note 
to the length of the string by which it 
is obtained. The results have a more 
general application, however, if they are 
expressed in frequencies rather than in 
vibrating lengths. Thus expressed, they 
remain unchanged regardless of whether 
the sound is produced by a pipe or by a 
string, and they do not depend upon ad- 
ditional factors such as the tension, thick- 
ness, or material of the string. The 
fundamental principle is as follows: If 
the frequency 6 f a tone is n, that of the 
octave is 2n, that of the fifths %n, and 
that of the major third, 54 n. From these 

] 



ACOUSTICS 

tones, all the others of the diatonic scale 
can be derived [sec *Intervals, Calcula- 
tion of, II]. The result is as follows: 

edefgabe' 
Frequency (« = i): i % % % 2 

Frequency (» = 24): 24 27 30 32 36 40 45 48 

Vibrating length: i % % % % % m % 

The illustration [Ex. 7] shows a num- 

ber of frequencies calculated for the tone 
F = 360 (the correct frequency for f' is 
352). It must be noted that these fre- 
quencies give the tones of *just intona- 
tion, not of equal temperament [see 
^Temperament]. 

IV. Harmonics, The acoustic effect 
produced by a single vibration of the 
type described above is called a pure 
sound; but practically no vibrating body 
produces a pure sound. All the musical 
instruments produce composite sounds, 




Frequency; Harmonics 

consisting of the main sound, or funda- 
mental, plus a number of additional pure 
sounds, the so-called overtones, which, 
however, are not heard distinctly be- 
cause their intensity (amplitude) is 
much less than that of the main sound. 
The frequencies of the overtones are 
exact multiples of the frequency of the 
fundamental. In other words, an instru- 
ment which produces the tone of the fre- 
quency n actually produces vibrations 
(pure sounds) of the frequencies n, 2«, 
3«, 4«, . . . (up to 2Qn and more). The 
illustration [Ex. 8] shows the first 15 
overtones of the tone O/A^more com- 
mon designation for these tones is par- 
tial or harmonics. It should be noted. 


ACOUSTICS 

however, that these terms (if properly 
used) include the fundamental, while the 
term overtone (if properly used) ex- 
cludes it. Thus, the first overtone is the 
second harmonic, etc. Although the 
terms harmonics and partials are fre- 
quendy used as interchangeable, the lat- 
ter has, in scientific studies, a wider 
significance, since it includes also non- 
harmonic overtones, such as occur in 
noises, also in bells. With the exception 
of the octaves (2,4,8) none of the har- 
monics are tones of equal temperament. 
Those which result from the factors 3 
and 5 (3,5,6,9,10,12, etc.) are tones of 
*)ust intonation (see the above table of 
frequencies) whereas the harmonics 7, 
II and 13 (indicated by black notes) can 
only approximately be identified with 
tones available in our system of tuning 
and notation. As can easily be seen, the 
7th harmonic, which is 7 = is lower 
than the B-flat of just intonation which 
is X 4 = this, in turn, is 
slightly lower than the B-flat of equal 
temperament (in *cents, the three tones 
are: 972, 996, 1000, respectively). Simi- 
larly, the nth harmonic, which is ii = 
is lower than the F-sharp of just 
intonation (^% X % = ^%) and, in 
fact, nearer to the F than to the F-sharp 
of equal temperament. Finally, the 13th 
harmonic is 13 = whereas the A of 
just intonation is % X 8 = 

The physical cause of the harmonics 
is to be found in the fact that a vibrating 
body, such as a string, vibrates simul- 
taneously as a whole and in sections of 
one-half, one-third, one-fourth, etc., of 
the entire length. The secondary vibra- 
tions, however, have a much smaller am- 
plitude, approximately between one-fifth 
and one-fiftieth of that of the fundamen- 
tal [Ex. 9]. 

The existence of these additional tones 
in what the car believes to be a single 
sound was shown first by Helmholtz 
(1821--94), by means of ^resonators of 
various sizes which reinforce one fre- 
quency and eliminate all the others. The 
harmonics can easily be demonstrated by 
the following simple experiment on the 
pianoforte: Depress the key of C with- 


[13] 




ACOUSTICS 

out producing a sound, i.e., merely raise 
the damper of the key of C; then strike 
forcefully the key of Ci and release it 
at once; the higher C, corresponding to 
the tone of the depressed key, will 
clearly be heard. The experiment can 
be repeated by depressing the keys of G, 
c, e, g, etc., and striking each time the 
key of Cl. In every case, the tone cor- 
responding to the depressed key will be 
heard. The explanation of the phenome- 
non is found in the fact that the har- 
monics C, G, c, . . . produced by the 
fundamental tone Ci generate, by way 
of resonance, sympathetic vibrations in 
the shorter strings corresponding to these 
tones. The harmonics are the cause of 
three important musical phenomena, 
namely, ♦timbre, the ♦natural tones of 
wind instruments, and the ♦harmonics 
of the violin. 

V. Pipes, In pipes (organ pipes, and 
all wind instruments) an enclosed air 
column is caused to vibrate in what is 
technically termed “stationary waves.” 
These are characterized by a regular 
alternation of places of highest density 
(nodes) and highest rarefaction (anti- 
nodes or loops) between which the den- 
sity of the air decreases from the maxi- 
mum to the minimum. At the place of 
maximum density the amplitude of the 
vibrating particles of air is at a mini- 
mum, and vice versa. The whole phe- 
nomenon can conveniendy be described 
by graphs similar to that used for a vi- 
brating string, if the point of highest 



Open and Closed Pipes 

amplitude is interpreted as the loop, the 
stationary point as the node. In an open 
pipe, a loop develops at each end, with a 
node in the middle; in a *stopped pipe, 
a node develops at the closed end, a loop 
at the open end. From the accompany- 

[ 


ACOUSTICS 

ing drawing it appears that an open 
pipe generates a sound the wave length 
of which is double the length of the pipe 
(N'N" = 2 AB), while a stopped pipe 
generates a sound the wave length of 
which is four times the length of the pipe 
(N'N" = 4 AB) and which, therefore, 
is an octave lower than that produced by 
an open pipe of the same length. An 
open pipe sounding C measures approxi- 
mately eight feet [see ♦Foot (2)]. 

Like a vibrating string, an air column 
vibrates not only as a whole but also in 
parts (J 4 , Yi, Yy etc., of its length), 
thus producing harmonics. While an 
open pipe produces all the harmonics 
(as does a string), a stopped pipe seg- 
ments so as to give out only the odd- 
numbered harmonics, 1,3,5, The rea- 
son is that an even harmonic (e.g., 2) 
would call for a loop (or a node) at both 
ends of the pipe, while in a stopped pipe 
there is always a loop at the open end, a 
node at the closed end [see ♦Wind instru- 
ments III; ♦Organ IX]. 

VI. Interference, This is the technical 
term (not a very fortunate one) for the 
numerous phenomena resulting from the 



B 'VA/>5^VVV\y^^ 

^AA4^AAAAAAAAAA/ 

INTERFERENCE 

Ex, A: Vibrations of the Same Frequency. Ex. B: 
Vibrations of Different Frequencies: I, of 12 cycles; 
11 , of 14 cycles; III, resulting vibration showing 
2( = 14 — 12) maximum vibrations per second 
(beats). 

superposition of two or more air vibra- 
tions. The general principles of the very 
complex phenomenon can be grasped 
from the drawing [Ex. A], showing two 
original vibrations (I, II) of the same 
frequency as well as the result of their 
superposition (III = I H). More im- 



ACTION 

portant is the interference of vibration^ 
of different frequencies, c.g., of 2 and 3 
cycles per second, or of 12 and 14 cycles 
per second [Ex. B]. The example illus- 
trates the manner in which *beats are pro- 
duced, in the present case 2 (14-12) per 
second. For a more complicated phenom- 
enon of interference, see *Combination 
tones. 

Related articles: Architectural acous- 
tics; Beats; Bel; Cents; Combination 
tones; Comma; Consonance and Disso- 
nance; Intervals, Calculation of; Just in- 
tonation; Pitch; Pythagorean scale; Reso- 
nance; Savart; Temperament; Timbre. 

Lit.: W. T. Bartholomew, Acoustics 
of Music (1942; bibl.); P. C. Buck, 
Acoustics for Musicians (1918); J. Broad- 
house, Musical Acoustics (1926); E. G. 
Richardson, The Acoustics of Orchestral 
Instruments and of the Organ (1929); 
J. Jeans, Science and Music (1937); 
D. C. Miller, Science of Musical Sounds 
(1916); J. Redfield, Music: a Science and 
an Art (1928); Stevens and Davis, Hear- 
ing (1938); A. H. Davis, Modern Acous- 
tics (1934); N. W. McLachlan, The New 
Acoustics (1936); Olson and Massa, Ap- 
plied Acoustics (1934). See also under 
* Architectural acoustics; ^Electronic mu- 
sical instruments. Additional bibliog- 
raphy in D. H. Daugherty, A Bibliog- 
raphy of Periodical Literature in Musi- 
cology . . . (1940), pp. iiyff. 

Action, (i) Any kind of mechanism 
used in instruments as a means of trans- 
mitting the action of the fingers to the 
sound-producing parts; in other words, 
a sort of artificial prolongation of the 
fingers (or feet). On keyboard instru- 
ments, the action forms an essential, even 
the characteristic, part of the instrument 
[see *Pianofortc I; *Organ II]. The 
term is also applied to the key-mechanism 
of wood-wind instruments which en- 
ables the player to control holes which 
are out of reach of the hand (e.g., the 
*Boehm-action of the flute). The action 
of the harp is the mechanism controlled 
by the player’s feet upofi the pedals by 
which a transposition of a semitone or a 
whole tone can be effected [see *Harp]. 

[ 


ADDITIONAL ACCOMPANIMENT 

(2) In modern French usage the word 
action sometimes is used for an opera, 
e.g., in Vincent d’Indy’s Fervaal (1897). 

Act tune. See *Entr’actc. 

Adagietto [It.], (i) A tempo some- 
what faster than adagio. — (2) A short 
adagio. 

Adagio [It., comfortable, easy], (i) 
Slow tempo, slower than andante and 
faster than largo. — (2) A movement 
written in slow tempo, especially the sec- 
ond (slow) movement of sonatas, sym- 
phonies, etc. See *Tempo marks. 

Adagissimo. Extremely slow. 

Adaptation. ^Arrangement. 

Added sixth. The sixth added to a 
triad, or the entire chord thus obtained 
e.g., c-e-g-a. In classical harmony, 
the chord of the added sixth occurs pref- 
erably on the fourth degree, i.e., with a 
subdominant function (f-a-c'-d' in 
C major; also f-ab-c' — d'). It is usu- 
ally explained as the first inversion of 
the seventh-chord on the second degree 
(d-f-a-c'). Although according to 
strict rules the chord must be resolved 
into the dominant or the tonic, it is used 
in more recent works [•Impressionism] 
as a color-modification of the triad which 
does not call for resolution. Jazz writers 
have abundandy availed themselves of 
this over-sweet effect, especially for the 
final chord of a piece. 

Additional accompaniment. Desig- 
nation for 19th-century revisions or en- 
largements of earlier orchestral scores, 
especially those of the i8th century (Han- 
del, Bach). With the ever-increasing 
size of the 19th-century orchestra and 
concert hall, men felt the need of ex- 
panding the instrumentation; but with 
the ever-diminishing understanding of 
true Baroque style, many stylistic incon- 
gruities were allowed to enter. Thus, not 
only were admissible and sometimes 
necessary changes made (replacement of 
obsolete instruments by newer ones, 
doubling of certain parts, etc.), but also 
the voice leading was chan^d, the writ- 



ADDOLCENDO 


AEOLOPANTALON 


ing was “improved/* new parts were 
added, and in many instances the original 
intention of the composer was thor- 
oughly misunderstood or disregarded. 
The composers whose works were most 
frequently subjected to arrangement 
were Handel and Bach. The Messiah of 
Handel has been particularly unfortu- 
nate in this regard. Mozart was among 
the first to make a more modern arrange- 
ment of it; subsequendy various other 
musicians made further arrangements of 
Mozart’s arrangement. Many other 
works of Handel have fared similarly, 
e.g., under the hands of Mendelssohn, 
who later expressed regret for having 
published his arrangements. Bach’s can- 
tatas suffered mistreatment from Robert 
Franz. Wagner made arrangements of 
Beethoven’s Ninth, of Gluck’s IphigSnie 
en Aulidcy etc. Recent times have wit- 
nessed a growing understanding of the 
Baroque style and a consequent demand 
for authentic, unarranged, performances. 
See *Auffuhrungspraxis. Cf. N. Kil- 
burn, “Additional Arrangements to 
Handel’s Acii^ {SIM iii). 

Addolcendo [It.]. Becoming dolce. 

Addolorato [It.]. Sadly. 

A deux [F.]. See ♦A due. 

Adirato [It.]. Angered, infuriated. 

Ad libitum [L., at will]. An indica- 
tion which gives the performer the lib- 
erty: (i) to vary from strict tempo (con- 
trast a ^battuta); (2) to include or omit 
the part of some voice or instrument 
(contrast ^obbligato); (3) to include a 
•cadenza according to his own inven- 
tion. 

A due [It.]. Direction in orchestral 
parts indicating that two instruments 
notated on one staff (e.g.. Flute i and 2) 
are to sound in unison [see * AW uni- 
sono]. However, the term is also used 
in the almost opposite meaning, synony- 
mous with *divisi. The same ambiguity 
exists with the French term h deux, 
A due corde, sec ♦Due corde. A due 


maniy for two hands. A due voci (coriy 
stromentiy etc.), for two voices (choirs, 
instruments, etc.). 

Aengstlich [G.]. Anxiously. 

Aeolian, aeolian mode. Sec *Church 
modes; *Modality. 

Aeolian harp [Gr. Acolos, the God of 
the Winds], An instrument comprising 
a long narrow box, with six or more gut 
strings stretched inside over two bridges. 
The strings arc tuned in unison, but 
vary in thickness and, therefore, tension. 
If the box is placed in a free current of 
air (preferably in an open window), the 
strings, according to their different ten- 
sion, vibrate differently and thus pro- 
duce a great variety of harmonics over 
the same fundamental (cf. the “singing” 
of the telephone wires). The sound 
varies considerably with the changing 
force of the wind and produces a highly 
romantic, mysterious effect. The instru- 
ment was known in ancient China and 
India, and in Europe during the Middle 
Ages, It enjoyed special popularity in 
the Romantic period around 1800. The 
intimate charm of this instrument is most 
beautifully set forth in Eduard Moerike’s 
poem Die Aeolsharfe and in its musical 
settings by Brahms and (especially) 
Hugo Wolf. 

Various attempts have been made to 
harness this elusive sound to a keyboard, 
with an artificial jet of wind provided 
by footbellows (Schnell’s Animochord 
or Aero-clavichordy 1789; H. Herz’s 
Piano t^olieny 1851). Cf. SaRMy 16. 

Aeoline. Old name for •mouth-har- 
monica. Also an early type of •harmo- 
nium {aeolodicon) . 

Aeolopantalon. An instrument in- 
vented in 1825 by Dlugosz, Warsaw; it 
was a combination of a harmonium-like 
instrument (Aeolomelodil^ony with brass 
tubes affixed to the reeds) and a piano- 
forte, so that both instruments could be 
used in alternation. Its only claim to re- 
membrance lies in the fact that the young 
Chopin played on it in various recitals. 


[ 16] 



AEQUALSTIMMEN 

Aequalstimmen [G.]. (i) The eight- 
foot pipes of the organ. — (2) *Equal 
voices. 

Aerophones. See •Instruments III. 

Aerophor (aerophon). A device in- 
vented by B. Samuels in 1912 by which 
the player of a wind instrument is pro- 
vided with additional air from small 
bellows operated with the foot. The air 
is pressed, through a tube with mouth- 
piece, into the mouth of the player when- 
ever his breath does not suffice, e.g., for 
long-held tones or long melodies in full 
legato. R. Strauss has written passages 
requiring the use of the aerophon (Al- 
pine Symphony and Festal Prelude). 

Aesthetics of music. I. Aesthetics is 
generally defined as the philosophy or 
study of the beautiful. Musical aesthetics, 
therefore, should be the study of the 
beautiful in music, the ultimate goal of 
such a study being the establishment of 
criteria which would allow us to say 
whether or why one particular composi- 
tion is beautiful while another is not. 
The main objection to such a point of 
view is that beauty is by no means the 
only (and probably not even the fore- 
most) criterion of what may be roughly 
described as “quality” or “artistic value.” 
At least the possibility must be admitted 
that music, like other works of art, may 
be “valuable” without necessarily being 
“beautiful” — unless the term beauty is 
interpreted so broadly as to include fea- 
tures which may well be much closer to 
its opposite. Therefore, a definition such 
as the following provides a much better 
basis for the study in question: Musical 
aesthetics is the study of the relationship 
of music to the human senses and intel- 
lect, This definition corresponds exactly 
to the original meaning of the Greek 
word aisthesisy i.e., feeling, sensation. 
The following words by R. Schumann 
{Gesammelte Schriften uber Musi\ und 
Musi\ery i, 44) adequately describe the 
peculiar problem of musical aesthetics 
[translation by the writer^: 

“In no other field i$ the proof of the 
fundamentals as difficult as it is in music. 

[ 


AESTHETICS OF MUSIC 

Science argues with mathematics and 
logic; poetry possesses the decisive, 
golden word; other arts have chosen 
nature as their arbiter, borrowing their 
forms from her. Music, however, is a 
poor orphan whose father and mother 
nobody can name. But, perhaps, it is pre- 
cisely this mystery of her origin which 
accounts for the charm of her beauty.” 

II. For more than 2000 years philoso- 
phers have tried to solve the mystery of 
music. Among them we find Pythagoras 
(550 B.C.), who explains music as the ex- 
pression of that universal harmony which 
is also realized in arithmetic and in as- 
tronomy; Plato (400 B.C.), for whom 
music is the most appropriate means of 
social and political education [also Con- 
fucius; sec *Chinesc music I]; Plotinus 
(d. 270), who interprets music as a mys- 
tic and occult power; Boethius (d. 524), 
who divides music into three fields, 
musica mundana (the Pythagorean har- 
mony of the universe), musica humana 
(the harmony of the human soul and 
body), and musica instrumentalis (music 
as actual sound), a classification which 
prevailed in musical theory for more 
than 1000 years; J. Kepler {Har monices 
mundi libri v, 1619), who in a great 
structure of thought correlates the musi- 
cal tones and intervals with the move- 
ments of the planets and their astrological 
functions; W. Leibniz (1646-1716), who 
paves the way for the psychological 
method of musical aesthetics by interpret- 
ing music as the “unconscious exercise in 
arithmetic”; A. Schopenhauer {Die Welt 
als Wille und Vorstellung, 1819), who 
considers music the purest incarnation 
of the “absolute will” and as the expres- 
sion of human feelings (love, joy, hor- 
ror) in their abstract interpretation as 
metaphysical ideas; then G. T. Fechner 
(1801-87), who insists that music is the 
expression of “general mood” rather than 
specific “feelings”; and finally C. Stumpf 
{Tonpsychologicy 1883-90), who inaugu- 
rated the scientific study of musical psy- 
chology on the basis of experiments and 
statistics, especially with regard to the 
problem of •consonance and dissonance. 
Stumpf’s procedure has been the point 

] 



AESTHETICS OF MUSIC 


AESTHETICS OF MUSIC 

of departure for many investigations 
along similar lines, especially in Amer- 
ica, e.g., C. E. Seashore, The Psychology 
of Music (1938); M. Schoen, The Effects 
of Music (1927), and others [see ♦Tests] . 
For a criticism of these methods, cf. 
C. C. Pratt, The Meaning of Music 
(1931), i3ifl. 

It will be seen that not until the ad- 
vent of the 19th century did these theo- 
ries of music begin to accord with the 
present-day interpretation of musical 
aesthetics as defined above, a statement 
which should not be construed as a de- 
preciation of the much broader and, in 
a sense, “greater” views — cosmic, po- 
litical, or theological — held by the phi- 
losophers of antiquity and of the Middle 
Ages. While in those periods music 
found its proper place and justification 
in the universe, in the state, or in God, 
for us it has lost these transcendental 
affiliations, but has instead gained a se- 
cure place in everyday life. 

III. With the foregoing survey of the 
theories and views held by philosophers 
and psychologists as a general back- 
ground, we may now turn to a study of 
the contributions to our problem made 
by the musicians themselves. As might 
be expected, these contributions aim at a 
more detailed penetration into the ques- 
tions of musical aesthetics and are usu- 
ally concerned with the study of indi- 
vidual composers or works rather than 
with music in the abstract. The various 
theories can be conveniently divided into 
two groups, according to whether they 
consider music (a) as a heteronomous 
art, i.e., as the expression of extramusical 
elements, or (b) as an autonomous art, 
i.e., as the realization of intrinsic prin- 
ciples and ideas (F. Gatz). 

(a) In the former class we find the 
^Affel^tenlehre of the i8th century and 
its 16th-century predecessors, the *Musica 
reservata and the *Maniera, In the 17th 
century, music was frequently inter- 
preted as an oratorical art, by relating its 
structural and stylistic elements (such as 
figuruy repetitioy fugUy climax) to cor- 
responding principles of speech [cf. A. 
Scheringy in KJy 1908]# In the late Ro- 

[ 


mantic period the interpretation of musi- 
cal compositions was largely based upon 
programmatic and allegorical concepts. 
Music was understood as a sort of psy- 
chological drama and explained in terms 
such as “desperate struggle,” “the knock- 
ing of Fate,” “threatening fortissimo,” 
“gloomy minor,” etc. An early exponent 
of this school of thought is A. B. Marx, 
in his L. van Beethoven (1875). A more 
intelligent use of this approach was at- 
tempted by H. Kretzschmar, the inventor 
of musikalische HermeneutiJ^ [see ♦Her- 
meneutics]. He considers music not as 
a substitute for the pictorial arts or for ob- 
jects of nature, but rather for poetry, i.e., 
as a Sprach\unst of lesser clarity, but of 
finer shades and deeper effects, than the 
ordinary language. He goes back to the 
“affects” of the i8th century which, ac- 
cording to him, must be based upon the 
study of the musical detail (themes, in- 
tervals, rhythm, etc.). He also relates the 
music to the life of the composer (Bee- 
thoven’s “period of happiness,” etc.). 
The latter point was emphasized by H. 
Riemann, who maintains that the writ- 
ten composition as well as the actual per- 
formance is nothing but a means of trans- 
ferring a psychological situation (Erleh- 
nis) from the fancy of the composer to 
that of the listener. Kretzschmar’s 
method has been elaborated by Schering 
[see under *Hermeneutics] . A recent 
American publication, E. Sorantin, The 
Problem of Musical Expression (1932), 
may be mentioned as an example of 
20th-century Affe^tenlehre (expression of 
joy, grief, longing, etc.). 

(b) In strong contrast to all these con- 
tributions is the more recent school of 
thought, which rejects the allegorical, 
emotional, programmatic, poetical foun- 
dation of musical aesthetics, and explains 
music as a purely musical phenomenon, 
as an autochthonous and autonomous 
creation which can be understood only 
in its own terms. The founder of this 
school was E. Hanslick who, in his Vom 
musH{alisch Schonen (1854), formulated 
the sentence: “Musik ist tonend bewegte 
Form” — music is form moving in 
sounds (the term ♦form, naturally, must 
1 ] 



AEVIA 

be taken in its widest sense, including all 
structural and stylistic elements of 
music). He admits the use of designa- 
tions such as “powerful,” “graceful,” 
“tender,” “passionate,” but only in order 
to illustrate the musical character of the 
passage, not to suggest a definite feeling 
on the part of composer or listener. Still 
farther in this direction went August 
Halm (Von zwei Kulturen der MusiJ{^ 
1913), who must be considered the most 
outstanding representative of musical 
aesthetics of the present day. The follow- 
ing quotation from the Talmud, given 
at the beginning of his book, is an ade- 
quate expression of the central thought 
of musical autonomy: “If you want to 
understand the invisible, look carefully 
at the visible.” Halm, as well as his suc- 
cessors, E. Kurth, H. Hermann, F. Joede, 
and others, advocated the separation of 
the musical work from the emotional 
world of both the composer and the 
listener, and the emancipation of the 
musical thought from “sensuous intoxi- 
cation and hallucination.” 

See also ^Aflektenlehre; ♦Hermeneu- 
tics; ♦Musica reservata; ♦Maniera. 

Lit.: F. M. Gatz, Musi 1 {; Aesthetic in 
ihren Hauptrichtungen (1929); H. H. 
Briton, Philosophy of Music (1911); 
H. Riemann, Catechism of Musical Aes- 
thetics (1895); R. Schaefke, Geschichte 
der Musi\-aestheti\ (1934); H. Besseler, 
“Grundfragen der Musik-aesthetik” 
(JMP xxxiii). For a bibliography of re- 
cent psychological studies, cf. D. H. 
Daugherty, A Bibliography of Periodical 
Literature in Musicology . . . (1940), 
pp. io8fI. Cf. also MoMLy 538f. 

Aevia. An artificial word, consisting of 
the vowels of ♦alleluia (u = v). It is 
occasionally used as an abbreviation in 
manuscripts of Gregorian chant. Sec 
♦Euouae. 

Affabile [It.]. In a pleasing manner. 

Affaiblissant [F.j. Weakening, di- 
minuendo. 

Affanato [It.]. “Panting,” i.e., as in 
distress. 


AFRICAN MUSIC 
Affannoso [It.]. Sadly. 

Affektenlehre [G.; doctrine of affec- 
tions J . The aesthetic theory of the *emp- 
findsamer Stil (sensitive style) of the 
later i8th century, formulated by J. 
Quantz and Ph. Em. Bach, according 
to which the chief aim of music is to 
portray certain typical emotions, such as 
the tender, the languid, the passionate, 
etc. This theory, which is realized in the 
works of Ph. Em. Bach, marks an im- 
portant advance over the superficiality 
of the Italian “stile galante” (*gallant 
style) and, in spite of its rationalistic 
nature and schematic methods, paves the 
way for the free expressiveness of the 
Beethoven style. See *Aesthetics III (a); 
♦Musica reservata. 

Lit.: W. Serauky, Die musi\alische 
Nachahmungsaestheti\ im Zeitraum 
iyoo-18^0 (1929); M. Kramer, Beitrdge 
zu einer Aestheti\ der Affectenlehre in 
der Musil^ von i^^o-iyoo (Diss. Halle 
1924); H. Goldschmidt, Die Musi 1 {aes- 
theti\ des j8. Jahrhunderts (1915); G. 
Frotscher, Baches Themen-bildung unter 
dem Einfluss der A§e\tenlehre (1926); 
R. Schaefke, “Quantz als Aesthetiker” 
(AMW vi); H. Abert, in AMW v; H. 
Kretzschmar, in JMP xviii, xix; F. Stege, 
in ZMW x; A. Schcring, in JMP xlv. 

Affetti [It.]. The term appears as a 
title of various publications around 1600 
[Dolci Affetti (1595); S. Bonini, Affetti 
spirituali in istile di Firenze or recitativo 
. . . (1615); B. Marini, Affetti musicaliy 
op. I (1617)], probably in order to em- 
phasize the emotional character of the 
music. It is also used in early violin 
sonatas to designate a certain type of 
ornamentation, either tremolo or arpeg- 
gio [cf. SchGMBy no. 183; RiHM ii. 2, 
120]. 

Affettuoso [It.]. Affectionate^ with 
warmth. 

Affrettando [It.]. Hurrying. 

African music. Sec ♦Primitive music; 
♦Arabian music; ♦Ethiopian Church 
music; •Coptic Church music. 


[X9l 



AFTERNOON OF A FAUN, THE 

Afternoon of a Faun, The. See 
•Symphonic poem IV. 

Agende [L. agenda^ that which has to 
be done]. The Protestant counterpart of 
the Catholic liturgy or of the Anglican 
rites, i.e., the entire ritual of the service 
of the German Protestant Church. Cf. 
H. Krctzschmar, Die musi\altsche 
Agende (1894); R. v, Liliencron, Musi- 
\alischditurgische Geschichte des evange- 
lischen Gottesdienstes i^ 2 j-ijoo (1892). 

Agevole [It.]. Lightly and easily. 

Aggradevole [It.]. Agreeably. 

Agilmente; conagilita [It.]. Lively, 
speedily. 

Agitato [It.]. Agitated, excited. 

Agnus Dei. The last item (except for 
the •Ite missa est) of the Ordinary of the 
Mass [see *Mass A and B III]; there- 
fore, the final movement in Mass com- 
positions. It consists of three invocations: 
“Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi: 
miserere nobis. Agnus Dei, . . . mise- 
rere nobis. Agnus Dei, . . . dona nobis 
pacem.” The musical structure of the 
chant is usually AAA (sometimes with 
a different beginning for the middle A), 
or A B A. See •Gregorian chant IV. 

Agogic. An accent is said to be agogic 
if it is effected, not by dynamic stress or 
by higher pitch, but by longer duration 
of the note [see •Accent]. In German 
writings the term Agogi\ is used to de- 
note ^ the subtleties of performance 
achieved by modification of tempo, as 
distinct from Dynami\^ i.e., gradations 
which involve variety of intensity. Thus, 
the use of rallentando and accelerando, 
of tempo rubato, the dwelling on certain 
notes, also rests, breathing signs, fer- 
matas, etc., all fall under Agogi\, The 
term was introduced by H. Riemann 
{MusH{alische Dynami\ und Agogii^y 
1884) particularly in order to describe 
those deviation's from strict tempo and 
rhythm which are necessary for an in- 
telligible rendering of the musical phrase. 

Agr6ments. The ornaments intro- 
duced in French music of the 17th cen- 


AIR 

tury, which were finally adopted into all 
European music and were generally indi- 
cated by stenographic signs or as notes 
in small type. The agriments are char- 
acterized by a definitely stereotyped me- 
lodic contour, a close relationship with a 
single note of the melody to be orna- 
mented, and a small melodic range. See 
•Ornamentation II. P. A. 

Aida. Grand opera by Giuseppe Verdi 
(1813-1901), libretto by A. Ghislanzoni; 
commissioned by the Khedive of Egypt 
for the new Opera House at Cairo and 
produced there in 1871. The plot has an 
ancient Egyptian background and centers 
around the love of the Egyptian warrior 
Radames (Tenor) for the captive Ethi- 
opian princess Aida (Soprano), and the 
jealousy of Amneris (Mezzo-soprano), 
daughter of the king of Egypt Amonasro 
(Bass). Amneris, repudiated by Rada- 
mes, discovers a treacherous plot of the 
two lovers designed to aid Ethiopia, and 
both die. 

Although reputedly making use of a 
few Egyptian musical themes, the gen- 
eral style of the opera is that of the Italian 
grand opera. Striking features are the 
brief atmospheric prelude (in place of 
a conventional operatic overture) and the 
use of a few •leitmotifs (e.g., Amneris* 
jealousy). 

Aigu [F.]. High, shrill. 

Air [F.]. (i) French 18th-century term 
for song in general [see under •Chan- 
son]. — (2) In French opera and ballet 
of the I7th-i8th centuries, an instrumen- 
tal or vocal piece designed to accompany 
dancing, but not cast in one of the stand- 
ard dance patterns such as the minuet, 
gavotte, etc. Sometimes (e.g., Rameau) 
it is qualified as air tendrey air gracieuxy 
etc. — (3) In the •suites around and 
after 1700, a movement, found in the 
optional group, of a melodic rather than 
dance-like character — in a way, a “song 
without words” [cf. Bach’s Partitas nos. 
IV and VI]. As yet, no clear connection 
between these airs and those described 
under (2) has been discerned, probable 
as it is that such a connection existed. — 


[20] 



AIR DE COUR 

(4) See *Ayre. For air de characihre^ 
etc., see *Aria. 

Air de cour [F., court song]. Short 
strophic songs, sometimes with a refrain, 
for one or more voices with lute accom- 
paniment, which were cultivated in 
France in the late i6th and in the 17th 
century. They are in simple syllabic 
style and in binary form. The texts are 
chiefly love-poems in affected pricieux 
language, some of them in ^vers me sure. 
The repetition of each of the two sections 
was frequently ornamented at will by the 
singer. Principal composers are Pierre 
Guedron {c, 1565-1625); Antoine Boes- 
set {c. 1585-1646); Jean de Cambefort 
(d. 1661); Michel Lambert (1610-96). 
Cf. Th. Gerold, L*Art du chant en France 
au XV lie si^cle (1921); L. de la Lau- 
rencie, \Chansons au luth et airs de cour 
au XVle sibcle (1931); A. Arnheim, in 
5 /Mx. D.J.G. 

Ais, aisis [G.]. See *Pitch names. 

Akademie [G.]. ^Academy. Sec also 
under *Academie. 

Akkord [G.]. Chord. 

Akoluthia [Gr.]. The order of the 
service of the Byzantine Church, particu- 
larly that of the office, thus usually not 
including the Mass, which was called 
leiturgeia (liturgy). Cf. E. Wellesz, By- 
zantinische Musi\ (1927), p. 23. 

Akzent [G.]. Accent. A\zentneumeny 
accent neumes [see *Neumes II]. 

Alala. A type of Galician folk song 
expressing passion and longing. Older 
examples use syllables such as la-la or 
ai-le-lo-la and are interesting because of 
the preservation of plainsong-like ele- 
ments. Cf. F. Pedrell, ^Cancionero mu- 
sical popular espanol (1918-22), ii, ziyff. 

A la mi re, alamire. See *Hexachord 
III. 

Alba, albe, aube [F., dawn]. In the 
repertoire of the Provencal ^troubadours, 
a poem dealing with the departure of the 
lover in the early morning. It usually is 
a dialogue between the lover and a 


AL FINE 

guardian friend who warns him of some 
approaching danger [cf. GeHM, 301; 
ReMMAy 215]. The German Minne- 
singer counterpart of the alba is the 
Tagelied (day-song) or Wdchterlied 
(guardian-song) which Wagner revived 
in the second act of his Tristan (Bran- 
gane’s warning call). Many examples of 
Tagelied y however, arc of a more devo- 
tional nature, serving as a sort of morn- 
ing prayer [cf. F. Runge, ^Die Sanges- 
weisen der Colmarer Liederhandschrijty 
p. 173]. See also *Alborada; *Aubade. 

Alberti bass. Stereotyped figures of 
accompaniment for the left hand of the 
piano player, consisting of broken chords 
[see also *Murky bass] . They are named 
after Domenico Alberti (1710-40?) who 
used them extensively in his harpsichord 



sonatas. An early example occurs in the 
fourth variation of the G minor aria in 
Pachelbel’s Hexachordum Apollinis of 
1698 [cf. DTB 2.i; TaAM ix, 64]. They 
are still frequent in the works of Haydn, 
Mozart, and the early Beethoven. 

Albisiphone. See *Flute I (d). 

Alborada [Sp., dawn song]. A type 
of Spanish (particularly, Galician) music, 
played on the dulzaina (rustic oboe) and 
tamboril (small drum), originally a 
morning serenade [cf. G. Chase, The 
Music of Spain (1941), p. 237]. Ravel’s 
Alborada del Gracioso (1912) derives cer- 
tain features from the Spanish alborada. 
See also ♦Alba; *Aubade. 

Albumblatt [G.], album leaf. A 
fancy name for short pieces of 19th-cen- 
tury salon music such as might have 
served as a contribution to an autograph 
album. 

Alcuna licenza, Con [It.]. With a 
little license, specifically regarding the 
tempo. 

A 1 fine [It.]. To the end (for repeti- 
tion of a piece from the beginning). 




ALIQUOT STRINGS 

Aliquot Strings, aliquot scaling. 
•Sympath^itic strings added by some 
pianofortcf makers (Bliithncr) a^ve the 
strings of the upper register in order to 
produce a fuller sound by resonance. 

Alla br^eve [It.]. A tempo mark (cf) 
indicating ’ quick duple time, i.e., with 
the half-note rather than the quarter-note 
as the beat; in other words,. 2/ 2 instead 
of 4/4. Both the name and the sign are 
a. vestige of ^mensural notation and of 
the *proportions (tempus imperfectum 
diminutum). Originally and properly 
alia breve means that the unit of musical 
time (*tactus) is represented by the 
^brevis (corresponding to our double 
whole note), not as normally by the 
semibrevis (corresponding to our whole 
note). Today it means that the half-note 
should be, regarded as the unit of time, 
not as norrhally the quarter-note. See also 
*Time signatures. 

Allargando [It.]. Slowing down, usu- 
ally accompanied by a crescendo; used 
chiefly towards the end of a piece. 

Allegramente [It.]. Brighdy, gaily. 

Allegretto [It,], (i) A tempo between 
allegro and andante; see *Tempo marks. 
— (2) A small allegro movement. 

Allegro [It., cheerful]. Originally a 
designation for the joyful character of a 
piece; today employed to indicate quick 
tempo, regardless of the character and 
expression [see *Tempo marks]. Also 
used as a title for pieces in quick tempo, 
especially the first and last movements 
of a sonata. 

Alleluia [Latinization of Hebrew 
* hallelujah, praise yc the Lord]. An ex- 
pression of joy and praise of God which 
occurs frequently in Gregorian chant. 
During Eastertide, the word alleluia is 
added to all antiphons, and to various 
other chants. It also occurs at the end of 
chants for Christmas, Corpus Christi, 
and other festivals. Alleluiatic antiphons 
are antiphons which consist of the word 
alleluia repeated three times [see, e.g., 
LU, 19]. More specifically, the term al- 


ALLEMANDE 

leluia denotes the third item of the 
Proper of the *Mass. It was introduced 
by Pope Damasus (368-384), first for 
Easter only. Pope Gregory (590-604) 
extended its use over the entire year ex- 
cept for Lent, for which season the orig- 
inal *tract was preserved. The alleluia 
of the Mass consists of the word Alleluia 
followed by a brief sentence referring to 
the occasion, the so-called vers {versus 
alleluiaticus, abbr. y), e.g.: Alleluia, 
y. Surrexit Dominus de sepulcro [cf. 
GRy 228; LJJy 790; also HAMy no. 13; 
EiBMy no. 4; ReMMAy 180]. The music 
for the word alleluia closes with a long 
vocalization to the final vowel: {Al- 

lelui)a , the so-called *neuma or 

*jubilus. See also "“Gregorian chant III; 
"“Psalmody II; "“Sequence. 

Allemande [F., German, sc, a dance]. 
A dance in moderate duple time which 
first appeared around 1550. Early ex- 
amples occur in T. Susato’s Musyc\ 
Boex\en (1551); in P. Attaingnant's 
Troisihme livre de danseries (1556); in 
B. Schmid, Zwey Bucher einer neuen 
\unstlichen Tabulatur (1577) [cf. W. 
Merian, Der Tanz in den deutschen Ta- 
bulaturbuchern (1927), p. iii]; in the 
Fitz william Virginal BooJ{^ (c, 1620), 
where the name Alman, Almayne is 
used. Arbeau, in his *Orchesographie 
(1588), considers the dance already out- 
moded. The music of the 16th-century 
allemande in no way differs from that of 
the "“passamezzo; the dance steps were 
simple, as appears from the following 
description by Th. Morley [A Plaine and 
Basie Introduction . , . (1597), p. 181]: 
“The Alman is a more heavie daunce 
then this [i.e., the galliarde] (fitlie rep- 
resenting the nature of the people, whose 
name it carieth) so that no extraordinaxie 
motions arc used in dauncing of it.” 
Like the pavane and passamezzo, the al- 
Icmande was frequently followed by a 
jumping dance in triple meter, called 
"“tripla, "“proportz, or, in the 17th cen- 
tury, by the courantc. In the 17th cen- 
tury the allemande ceased to be actually 
danced and became a stylized dance type 
which was regularly used as the first 


[22] 



ALLENTANDO 


ALT 


movement of the *suite. These allc- 
mandes are in very moderate 4/4-time, 
with a short upbeat, and frequently make 



use of short running figures which are 
passed through the various voices of a 
pseudo-contrapuntal fabric. Our three 
examples (i. Ammerbach, 1571; 2, Pur- 
cell, c. 1660; 3. J. K. F. Fischer, c, 1690) 
illustrate the stylistic development of the 
dance. 

In the late i8th century the name al- 
lemande was used in South Germany as 
an equivalent for Deutscher Tanz, a 
quick waltz-like dance in 3/4- or 3/8- 
time. Cf. Beethoven’s “A rallemande” 
in his Bagatelleriy op. 119, and his 12 
Deutsche Tanze fur Orchester ( 1795 ). 
See *Dance music III. 

Lit.: E. Mohr, Die Allemande in der 
deutschen Klaviersuite (1932). 

Allentando [It.]. Slowing. 

Alliteration. A characteristic feature 
of ancient Germanic poetry (c.g., Beo- 
wulf, Edda), consisting of the use of 


words with the same initial letter. This 
principle was adopted by R. Wagner in 
his Ring des NibelungSy e.g., “Nach WtV 
ten-IFonne mein IFunsch mlangtc aus 
w'M w^ebendem i 5 angen.” 

Allmahlich [G.]. Gradually. 

Allonger [F.]. To slacken in speed* 

All’ottava [It.]. See *Ottava. 

AU’unisono [It.]. In orchestral scores 
this term indicates that two instruments 
for which the same staff is employed 
(e.g., two flutes) play in unison, i.e., the 
same notes. See *A due. 

Alman, almayne. Sixteenth-century 
English corruption of *allemande. 

Alpensinfonie, Eine (An Alpine 
Symphony). See ^Symphonic poem III. 

Alphabet (in music). See ♦Pitch 
names; ^Letter notation; *Tablature. 

Alphorn, alpine horn. A primitive 
wind instrument, still used by the herds- 
men in the Alps for signaling over great 
distance and for simple melodies. It is 
made of wooden staves bound with strips 
of birch bark, is 5 to 10 feet long, and 
appears in various shapes, straight or 
bent. The tones produced are the har- 
monics [see *Acoustics IV], somewhat 
modified by the material and by the ir- 
regular width of the inner tube. In par- 
ticular, the fourth (nth harmonic) is 
halfway between F and F-sharp (Alp- 
horn-fa) [see ♦Ranz de vaches]. Similar 
instruments are to be found in Scandi- 
navia, Poland, and Rumania, and among 
the South American Indians. Cf. SaRM, 
7; Szandrowsky, in fahrbuch des Schweu 
zer Alpenclubs iv; K. Nef, in De Mu- 
zie\ V. 

A 1 solito [It.]. As usual. 

Alt. (i) In English usage the term is 
sometimes applied to the tones of the 
octave above the treble staff (g" to F"), 
which arc said to be “in alt.” The tones 
of the next higher octave arc called “in 
altissimo.” — (2) In German, the lower 
of the two female voices, i.c., the con- 




ALTERATION 

tralto [see ♦Ako]. In connection with 
instruments (Altf^larinettCy Altsaxo- 
phon)y the term denotes the second high- 
est member of the family (alto clarinet, 
alto saxophone). See the various instru- 
ments. Ahgetge is the viola alta [see 
•Violin family (d)], rarely the ordinary 
viola. 

Alteration, (i) See ♦Mensural nota- 
tion. — (2) The raising or lowering of 
a note by means of a sharp or flat; also 
called chromatic alteration. See •Acci- 
dentals; ♦Chromaticism; •Altered chord. 

Altered chord. See *Harmonic analy- 
sis V. 

Alternative [It.], alternativement 
[F.j. In the suites of the Bach period, 
an indication found with a pair of dances 
(e.g., Bourree I, alternativement — Bour- 
ree II), calling for repetition of the 
first dance after the second, thus leading 
to the ternary arrangement A B A [cf. 
Bach’s English Suite no. 2]. This struc- 
ture persists in the Minuet (Scherzo) 
with Trio of the classical sonata [see 
♦Trio]. 

Altgeige [G.]. See under •Alt (2). 

Althorn. See *Brass instruments III (f). 

Altistin [G.]. A contralto singer. 

Alto [It., high], (i) A female voice of 
low range, also called contralto. See 
•Voices, Range of. — (2) Originally the 
alto was a high male voice (hence the 
name) which by use of the •falsetto 
nearly reached the height of the female 
voice (contralto). This type of voice, 
also known as *counter-tenor, was espe- 
cially cultivated in England, where the 
church music of the i6th and 17th cen- 
turies definitely implies its use. For the 
explanation of the term, see •Contra- 
tenor. — (3) The second-highest part of 
the normal four-part chorus; L. altus . — 
(4) In French and Italian, the second- 
highest instrument of the violin family, 
i.e., the viola. — (5) In connection with 
clarinet, flute, saxophone, etc., the term 
refers to the third- or fourth-highest 
member of the family. 


‘AMBROSIAN CHANT 

Lit.: G. E. Stubbs, The Adult }dale 
Alto or Countertenor (1908); A. H. D. 
Prendergast, “The Man’s Alto in Eng- 
lish Music” (Z/M i); J. Hough, “The 
Historical Significance of the Counter- 
tenor” {PM A Ixiv). 

Alto clef. See •Clefs. 

Altra volta [It.]. Encore. 

Altschliissel [G.]. Alto»clef. 

Altus [L.]. See *Alto (3). 

Alzati [It.]. “Raised,” indication to 
take off the mutes. 

Amabile [It.]. Lovable. 

Amarevole [It.] . With bitterness, sadly. 

Ambitus [L., compass, range]. The 
range of the melodies of Gregorian chant. 
It varies from a fourth (in the psalm 
tones) to an octave or ninth in the more 
melismatic chants (graduals, alleluias) 
[see also •Gregorian chant V (b)]. In 
the theory of the church modes, the am- 
bitus is the chief mark of distinction 
between an authentic and a plagal mode. 
See •Church modes. Cf. Krasucki, 
“Ueber den Ambitus der gregorianischen 
Messgesange” ( Veroffentlichungen der 
Gregorianischen Akademie zu Freiburgy 
Schweiz y i. Heft). 

Ambo. In early Christian churches a 
special platform on the steps of which 
the gradual was sung. 

Amboss [G.]. •Anvil. 

Ambrosian chant. The liturgical 
chant, established by St. Ambrose, bishop 
of Milan (333-397), and still in use today 
in the cathedral of that city; therefore 
also called Milanese chant. It is one of 
the four “dialects” of Christian chant 
[see •Chant], and probably is closer to 
its original form than •Gregorian (Ro- 
man) chant. The Ambrosian melodics 
arc usually more ornamented than the 
corresponding Gregorian melodies [cf. 
the comparative examples in HAM, no. 
10; SchGMBy no. 2; BeMMRy 58; LavE 
i.i, 561; O. Ursprung, Katholische Kir- 


[24] 



AMBROSIAN HYMNS 


chenmusi\y 20; H. Gastoue, Cours du 
chant gregorieny 67, 128, 149]. Vocaliza- 
tions including up to 200 notes are not 
rare. On the other hand, the Ambrosian 
psalm tones are simpler and lack the 
methodical arrangement to be found with 
the Gregorian psalm tones [cf. GD v, 
267]. The Ambrosian rite occasionally 
differs from the Gregorian, for instance, 
in the names given to the chants: /«- 
gressa for introitus, psalmellus for grad- 
ual, transitorium for communion, etc. 
The use of the term “Ambrosian modes” 
for the four authentic church modes (in 
distinction from the “Gregorian,” i.e., 
plagal, modes) is without any historical 
justification. For more details see 
’•^Church modes II. The earliest sources 
of Ambrosian chant (nth century) con- 
tain chants in the plagal as well as in the 
authentic modes. 

Lit.: P. Wagner, Einfiihrung in die 
Gregorianischen Melodien ( 1 9 1 1-21 ) , 
vols, i and iii; G. Bas, Manuale di canto 
Ambrosiano (Torino, 1929; bibl.); '^An- 
tiphonale Atnhrosianum [see ^Editions, 
XXIII, A, 5/6]; K. Ott, “Le Ingresse (II 
Psalmellus) della liturgia ambrosiana” 
(Rassegna Gregoriana viii). 

Ambrosian hymns. The hymns of 
the Roman and Ambrosian rites writ- 
ten and possibly composed by St. Am- 
brose. 

I. Text, Formerly all the hymns (c, 
120) of the Antiphonarium were ascribed 
to Ambrose, under the generic name of 
hymni Ambrosiani, Actually the number 
of true Ambrosian hymns is much small- 
er, about 20 [see Lit., Dreves]. With 
four of them Ambrose’s authorship is 
placed beyond doubt by the testimony of 
St. Augustine (De Musica); these are: 
Aeterne rerum conditor\ Deus creator 
omnium\ Jam surgit hora tertia; Veni 
redemptor gentium. All the Ambrosian 
hymns are written in the simple scheme 
of eight stanzas; each consisting of four 
lines in iambic tetrameters, e.g.: 

Ven{ redemptor g^cntium 

Ostende partum virginis 

Miretur 6mnc stolum 

Tails dcc^t partiis dcum. 


AME 

Regarding the early history, see ♦Hymn 
I, II. 

II. Music. About a dozen melodies of 
Ambrosian hymns are preserved in 
sources none of which is earlier than the 
1 2th century (an exception is the melody 
for the Aeterne Christi muneruy given in 
♦Dascian notation in the *Musica en- 
chiriadiSy c. 850; cf. GS i, 154 and RiHM 
i.2, 17). Under these circumstances the 
question as to whether these melodies are 
compositions of Ambrose or — as has 
been surmised — “early Christian folk 
songs,” or products of a later period, re- 
mains entirely open, the more so since in 
a number of cases different melodies are 
given for the same hymn. The melodies 
are syllabic, with occasional groups of two 
or three notes; the latter are usually 
omitted in modern transcriptions which 
try to give the melodies in what is believed 
to be their “original form.” No less prob- 
lematic is the question as to the true 
rhythm of these hymns, i.e., whether they 
are to be interpreted in duple or in triple 
time. The answer probably depends upon 
whether they are considered as melodies 
of the Ambrosian era or of the late Middle 
Ages (nth, 1 2th centuries). According 
to St. Augustine, the iambic feet of the 
Ambrosian hymns were “tria temporum” 
(in three beats). The accompanying ex- 
ample shows a hymn (a) in its 9th-cen- 
tury form and (b) in its hypothetical 
original state [cf. also HAMy no. 9]. 



A«-t«r-ne(ha^ murtcra €t roaT4ym«vic*to-K*aS 


The term “Ambrosian hymn” [G. 
Ambrosianischer Lobgesang\ is errone- 
ously used for the ♦Te Deum. 

Lit.: Biraghi, Inni sinceri di S. Am- 
brogio (1862); G. M. Dreves, “Aurelius 
Ambrosius . . (Stimmen aus Maria 
Laachy Ergdnzungsheft 58, 1893); G. Bas, 
in Musica Divina xvii; J. Jeannin, in TG 
xxvi, 1 15. 

Ame [F., soul]. Sound post. 





AMEN 

Amen. A Hebrew word, meaning “so 
be it,” which is widely used in the Chris- 
tian rites. It is usually spoken by the con- 
gregation (or recited by the choir) as a 
confirming answer to the lection or the 
prayer of the priest [cf. ARy 35*]. Espe- 
cially important is its occurrence at the 
end of the minor *doxology, in the con- 
nection . . seculorum. Amen” [see 
•Evovae] and, in the Mass, at the end of 
the Gloria (“. . , in gloria dei patris. 
Amen”) as well as of the Credo (“. . . et 
vitam venturi saeculi. Amen”). In the 
polyphonic Masses of the 17th and i8th 
centuries the confirming character of the 
Amen led to the writing of extensive 
finales in fugal style, called Amen-fugue 
or Amen<horus, in which the word is re- 
peated over and over again. This prac- 
tice occurred first with Antonio Bertali 
(1605-69; cf. AdHM i, 516), and contin- 
ued throughout the periods of Handel 
(famous Amcn-chorus), Bach, Mozart, 
Beethoven, etc. In Cherubini’s D minor 
Mass at the end of the Credo, the soprano 
alone repeats the word 107 times. For 
Amen-cadence see ^Plagal cadence. 

Amener [F.]. A 17th-century dance in 
moderate triple time with phrases of six 
measures (three plus three or four plus 
two) as a characteristic feature. It occurs 
in the suites of Heinrich Biber, J. K. F. 
Fischer, Alessandro Poglietti, in the in- 
strumental suites edited by ficorcheville 
( 1906), etc. The derivation of the amener 
from the •basse dance, given in most ref- 
erence books, is very questionable. More 
likely, it is one of the numerous species of 
the *branlc, a branle d menety i.e., a branle 
in which one pair was leading while the 
others followed. See also *Minuet. 

American Guild of Organists. See 
•Societies, Musical I, i. 

American Indian music. Although 
the collection and scientific study of tribal 
songs of the American Indians did not 
commence until the latter 19th century, 
there arc numerous references to the music 
of the Indians from the early 17th cen- 
tury, shortly after the coming of English 
colonists. In William Wood’s account of 


AMERICAN INDIAN MUSIC 

his visit to Plymouth and Massachusetts 
Bay (London, 1634), he wrote of the In- 
dians’ singing: “To hear one of these 
Indian’s unseene, a good eare might easily 
mistake their untaught voyce for the war- 
bling of a well tuned instrument. Such 
command have they of their voices.” 
Travelers and explorers occasionally re- 
ported that the Indians were musical, 
among them the Frenchman F. G. Sagard 
in his Le grand Voyage du Pays des Hu- 
rons (1632). 

In the 1 8th century F. W. Marpurg, 
the German music historian, published 
Remar\s on Three Songs of the Iroquois 
(Berlin, 1760), and William Beresford 
printed an Indian melody in his A Voy- 
age around the world; but more particu- 
larly to the northwest coast of America 
(London, 1789). One of the early at- 
tempts at adaptation of an actual Indian 
melody was first published in London in 
1784, and was called Alf^nomool^ {Al\- 
moonol()y “The death song of the Chero- 
kee Indians, an Original Air, brought 
from America by a gentleman long con- 
versant with the Indian tribes, and par- 
ticularly with the Nation of the Chero- 
kees. The Words adapted to the Air by 
a Lady.” The identity of the “Gentle- 
man” is unknown, but the “Lady” was 
identified by Frank Kidson as Anne Hone 
Hunter, who was Haydn’s hostess during 
his London visit. In America, James 
Hewitt included Alkmoonol{ in the score 
he arranged and composed for the ballad- 
opera Tammany (1794), and in 1800 Gil- 
fert in New York and von Hagen in 
Boston published sheet-music editions of 
the song. Both American and English 
editions presented the melody in thor- 
oughly conventional form. 

The first serious study of Indian music 
by a musician was undertaken by Theo- 
dore Baker, a German-American who in 
1880 was a student at the University of 
Leipzig. As a subject for his doctor’s thesis 
he chose the music of the North Ameri- 
can Indians, and visited the Seneca Reser- 
vation in New York State and the Indian 
school at Carlisle, Pennsylvania. In 1882 
the thesis was published at Leipzig: Vber 
die Musi\ der Nordameril^anischen Wil- 

] 



AMERICAN INDIAN MUSIC 

den. It analyzed some sixty melodics ac- 
cording to their poetry, vocalization, 
scales, melodic progressions, rhythm, no- 
tations, and instruments for performance. 

Baker’s studies were soon followed by 
those of Alice C. Fletcher, who visited the 
Omaha tribe, where she was assisted by 
John C. Fillmore of Harvard, who pro- 
vided piano accompaniments for the mel- 
odies Miss Fletcher transcribed. Her find- 
ings were published at intervals from 
1883 to 1911 by the Peabody Museum of 
American Archaeology and Ethnology 
and by the Bureau of American Ethnol- 
ogy in Washington. 

B. J. Gilman and J. W. Fewkes were 
pioneers in applying scientific methods to 
analysis of Indian melodies. Gilman ac- 
companied the Hemenway Southwestern 
Expedition among the Zuni, Pueblo, and 
Hopi Indians, and measured the interval 
structure of their melodies by a mechani- 
cal device. Fewkes was one of the first to 
use the phonograph to record Indian sing- 
ing (1890), and in 1891 Gilman published 
a study based on these records of Zuni 
songs. Further studies of Zuni, Pueblo, 
and Hopi songs were made by Natalie C. 
Burlin, while music of the Ojibways in 
Minnesota and Wisconsin was taken down 
and annotated by Frederick R. Burton. 

The United States Government first 
undertook the perpetuation of Indian 
tribal melodies in 1911, by appointing 
trained investigators to collect the melo- 
dies with the aid of the phonograph and 
place them on record, with annotations, 
in the Smithsonian Institution. Reports 
on the research have been issued by the 
Bureau of American Ethnology. The 
most prominent worker under these aus- 
pices has been Frances Densmore, who 
has studied the music and customs of the 
Chippewas, Teton Sioux, Northern Ute, 
Mandan, Hidatsa, and others. 

The question as to whether the music 
of the Indians is to be considered Ameri- 
can folk music is open to debate. Cer- 
tainly, if Western culture is considered 
predominant among the inhabitants of 
the nation, American Indian music is ex- 
otic and far different in conception from 
that which has been influenced by the 


AMERICAN INDIAN MUSIC 

parent nations of the white settlers and 
their descendants. When Indian melodics 
are reduced to the diatonic scale, and har- 
monized according to Western practice, 
the character of most of them is lost in the 
process. It is also inaccurate to refer to 
American Indian music as a unified body 
of folk-material. Originally there were 
more than fifty basic linguistic stocks, 
each of them divided into separate tribes. 
The government Office of Indian Affairs, 
even at the present time when the Indians 
seem to be approaching tribal extinction, 
deals with three hundred and forty-two 
tribes, a number which does not include 
the sub-tribal divisions. Each of these 
tribes had its own customs, religion, and 
characteristic music. 

There are, however, a number of traits 
which arc common to the music of vari- 
ous tribes. Music is rarely performed by 
the Indians for its own sake; generally 
songs belong to some tribal custom, and 
are sung only for the performance of that 
custom. A visitor to one of the tribes 
could not persuade the Indians to sing a 
hunting song for him because they were 
not actually hunting at the time. There 
are songs for treating the sick, war songs 
designed to bring success in battle, re- 
ligious ceremonial songs, game songs, 
many of them for gambling, dream and 
vision songs, children’s songs, and love 
songs for courtship. Among most of the 
tribes, three classes of songs exist. First, 
the old, traditional songs, which have 
been handed down from generation to 
generation. Second, the old ceremonial 
and medicine songs which are rarely per- 
formed because they belonged to men now 
dead, but which can still be sung by those 
who remember their owners’ singing of 
them. Third, there arc the comparatively 
modern songs, which show the influence 
of civilization. The property idea regard- 
ing songs is common to many tribes, and 
the individual owner of a song was often 
known to sell it to another member of the 
tribe. It could then be sung only by the 
purchaser. 

Many of the Indian songs, like those of 
primitive races generally, are character- 
ized by a descending melodic line. The 


[37] 



AMERICAN INDIAN MUSIC 


AMERICAN MUSIC 


descent may be interrupted, but it con- 
tinues to the end. According to a tabu- 
lation of 820 songs by Frances Densmore, 
67 per cent begin with a downward pro- 
gression, and in 87 per cent the last tone 
is the lowest of the entire melody. Al- 
though many of the melodies cannot be 
accurately represented in diatonic nota- 
tion, many of them approximate the pen- 
tatonic major or minor modes. Densmore 
found also that 67 per cent of 340 Chip- 
pewa songs end on tones which provide 
the’ ear with satisfactory keynotes. Rhyth- 
mically, Indian music is complex and ir- 
regular. The Indian is capable of per- 
forming involved polyrhythms, although 
Burton believed that the performers are 
unaware that their songs and the accom- 
panying drum beats are cast in conflicting 
rhythms. See the examples under *Primi- 
tive music. 

The musical instruments of the various 
tribes are flutes, whistles, rattles, and 
drums. Although flutes are commonly 
pictured as aiding in courtship, they arc 
as frequently used for warning against the 
approach of an enemy. Whistles are part 
of the medicine man’s equipment for 
treating the sick. Rattles are often re- 
garded as sacred articles, for use in wor- 
ship. Some of them are merely notched 
sticks, rubbed over a second stick, while 
others are receptacles holding loose ob- 
jects. The drums are essential to Indian 
music, some tribes cannot sing without 
them. They are made in various sizes, 
from hand drums to immense kegs partly 
filled with water. 

The effect of Indian music on the art 
music of the United States has been ex- 
tensive, but limited. Edward MacDowcll 
used Indian melodies in his Second Or- 
chestral (“Indian”) Suite of 1890; C. S. 
Skilton in his Indian Dances and Suite 
Primeval^ C. W. Cadman in Thunderbird 
Suite and other works; Frederick Jacobi 
in his Indian Dances] C. T. Griffes in 
Two Sketches for String Quartet] Victor 
Herbert in the opera, Natoma] while 
H. W. Loomis, Arthur Farwcll, Thurlow 
Licurance, Carlos Troyer, Henry F. Gil- 
bert, and others have made many settings 
of tribal material. Among non-American 

[ 


composers, Dvofdk, with his symphony 
“From the New World,” and Busoni, 
with his Indianisches Tagebuch^ may be 
mentioned. 

Lit.: F. R. Burton, American Primitive 
Music (1909); Natalie Curtis, The Indi- 
an's Boo\ (1907); Frances Densmore, 
Chippewa Music, Nos. i and 2 (1910 and 
1913), Mandan and Hidatsa Music 
(1923), Northern Ute Music (1922), 
Teton Sioux Music ( 1918) ; A. C. Fletcher, 
Indian Story and Song from North Amer- 
ica (1900); F. Densmore, “The Study of 
Indian Music” (MQ i); id., in MQ xvii, 
xx; F. W. Galpin, “Aztec Influence on 
American Indian Instruments” (SIM iv); 
M. Barbeau, “Asiatic Survivals in Indian 
Songs” (MQ xx); J. Tiersot, “La musique 
chez les peoples indigenes de I’Amerique 
du nord. . . .” (SIM xi; bibl.). An ex- 
tensive bibliography is found in G. Her- 
zog, Research in Primitive and Foll{ 
Music in the United States (1936). 

J. T.H. 

American music. This term is gener- 
ally accepted as applying to music which 
is composed or has its origin in the United 
States. Similarly, an American composer 
is one who is either a native of the United 
States or has adopted the nation prior to 
his or her mature production. For other 
musical cultures of the American hemi- 
sphere see * American Indian music; 
*Latin American music; *Negro music; 
^Canadian music. 

I. lyth and i 8 th Centuries. The his- 
tory of American music begins in the 
early 17th century, with the arrival of the 
first white settlers and colonists: James- 
town, Virginia, in 1607, and Plymouth, 
Massachusetts, in 1620. Little is known 
about the musical habits of the Virginia 
settlers, but a number of records exist to 
show the part music played in the lives 
of the New England colonists: the Pil- 
grims at Plymouth and the English Puri- 
tans who came to Massachusetts Bay 
(Boston), starting in 1630. Until the close 
of the century, musical activity was con- 
fined almost exclusively to psalm-singing. 
The only printed music used was con- 
tained in the psalters the Puritans brought 

t] 



AMERICAN MUSIC 

with them (Sternhold & Hopkins, Ains- 
worth, Raven scroft, etc.), for the *Bay 
Psalm Boo\ (Cambridge, 1640) contained 
no music until a few tunes were added to 
a later edition at the end of the century. 

Two factors were chiefly responsible for 
the small amount of music before 1700: 
one of them was the lack of opportunity 
in pioneer surroundings, and the other, 
the Puritan attitude towards music. The 
latter phase of early New England life has 
been the subject of considerable contro- 
versy in recent years. Percy Scholes, in 
his book The Puritans and Music (i934)> 
claims that the Puritans in England, and 
those who came to America, were not hos- 
tile to music and that the tradition that 
they did not tolerate musical activity in 
the American colonies is fallacious. How- 
ever, the available evidence shows that 
while musical activity did become more 
general at the beginning of the i8th cen- 
tury, it was almost negligible in the 17th; 
and that while there are references in con- 
temporary records to a few musical instru- 
ments, the Puritan colonists viewed with 
suspicion and distrust secular amusements 
and pleasures, which they considered un- 
godly and sinful. 

At the beginning of the i8th century, 
psalm-singing in the churches had become 
a haphazard practice. The lack of printed 
tunes had forced the worshipers to sing 
from memory, led by a deacon or elder. 
There was so little standardization of the 
few tunes in use that when several con- 
gregations met together the musical re- 
sults were bedlam. This condition led to 
reforms as well as to controversy. Several 
instruction books for singing appeared: 
John Tufts’s A very plain and easy intro- 
duction to the whole Art of Singing Psalm 
Tunes, in 1720, and Thomas Walter’s 
Grounds and Rules of Music Explained, 
in 1721, which at first met strong opposi- 
tion. Gradually the opposition was over- 
come, and singing schools were estab- 
lished to teach the rudiments of singing 
from note. Toward the latter part of the 
century there was considerable publication 
of tune and instruction books. Among 
the early ones were an American edition 
of William Tans’ur’s A Complete Melody 


AMERICAN MUSIC 

in Three Parts ( 1755 ); James Lyon’s 
Urania (1761, containing six original 
works by Lyon); and Josiah Flagg’s 
A Collection of the Best Psalm Tunes 
(1764). In 1770 appeared the first of six 
books by William Billings (1746-1800), 
entitled The New England Psalm Singer, 
Billings is important in American music 
history because he was something of a 
radical. A number of his anthems, which 
he called “fuguing pieces” [see ^Fugue- 
tune], were attempts at imitative coun- 
terpoint, and while he was largely un- 
tutored musically, his work had a rugged 
vitality which reflected vividly the back- 
ground of pioneer surroundings. 

The controversies over music that 
troubled the Puritan denominations did 
not disturb the Anglican churches. Or- 
gans were used in the Episcopal services 
from an early date (the first was installed 
in King’s Chapel, Boston, shortly after 
1713), and such men as William Selby, 
who came to Boston from London about 
1771 and became organist of King’s 
Chapel, and William Tuckey, who came 
to New York from Bristol Cathedral in 
1753 to become organist and choirmaster 
at Trinity Church, not only devoted their 
skill and energies to their church duties 
but were also active as composers and pro- 
moters and conductors of choral concerts. 
Tuckey directed the first American per- 
formance of excerpts from Handel’s Mes- 
siah in 1770. 

Some of the settlements to the south of 
New England were from their beginnings 
more musically inclined. In 1694 a group 
of German pietists founded a colony be- 
side the Wissahickon River, near Phila- 
delphia. These people had musical in- 
struments, and acquired a reputation for 
their singing. The Swedish Gloria Dei 
church, also near Philadelphia, had an 
organ as early as 1703, possibly earlier, 
and its pastor, Julius Falckner, was the 
author of several hymns. 

The first known composer on American 
soil, according to present knowledge, was 
Conrad Beissel (1690-1768), a German 
mystic and founder of the “Seventh Day 
Dunkers.” He was successively a baker, 
a violinist, and a theologian, and in 1720 


[29] 



AMERICAN MUSIC 

he was banished for holding pietistic 
views. He emigrated to America and 
settled first in Germantown, Pennsyl- 
vania, where he founded the Dunker sect, 
and in 1735 established the “Order of the 
Solitary” and a communistic setdement at 
Ephrata, Pennsylvania, which became 
known as the Ephrata Cloister. Here the 
worshipers sang hymns and chorals in 4, 
5, 6, and 7 parts, and it is said that Beissel 
composed over 1000 of them. Benjamin 
Franklin published an Ephrata Hymn 
Collection in 1730. 

At Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, a Mo- 
ravian colony was established in 1741. 
These people were intense music lovers. 
They brought instruments with them, and 
their orchestra, chamber music groups, 
and choruses performed the best music 
from Europe — works by Haydn, Mozart, 
etc. A number of composers among the 
Moravians wrote for various chamber 
music combinations. When George 
Washington visited Bethlehem in 1782 
he was serenaded by the trombone 
choir. 

Concert life in the American colonial 
cities commenced in the i8th century. 
According to newspaper announcements, 
the first concert of record was held in Bos- 
ton in 1731; the second in Charleston, 
South Carolina, in 1732; the third in New 
York, 1736; and the fourth in Philadel- 
phia, 1757. From these dates on, each of 
these cities enjoyed an increasing number 
of concerts, at which the programs were 
similar in content to those abroad, par- 
ticularly in London, from which city the 
latest published music was sent regularly 
to America [see ^Concert]. 

Philadelphia has the credit for produc- 
ing the first native-born American com- 
poser of music, according to known rec- 
ords, in the person of Francis Hopkinson 
( 1737-1791 )> a signer of the Declaration 
of Independence, Judge of the Admiralty 
from Pennsylvania, and a talented ama- 
teur musician. Hopkinson composed a 
number of songs in the current English 
style of Arnold, Shield, Storace, and 
others. The manuscript of the first of 
them, “My Days Have Been So Won- 
drous Free,” bears the date 1759. Hop- 

[1 


AMERICAN MUSIC 

kinson’s songs, and his musical activities, 
were characteristic of the taste and the 
customs of the period. He was one of a 
group of musical amateurs who met regu- 
larly in each other’s homes to play to- 
gether, and who joined with the profes- 
sional musicians who were beginning to 
emigrate from abroad in giving public 
concerts. 

The War of the Revolution interrupted 
musical activities for a number of years, 
but at its conclusion they began again, 
and more intensively. In the last fifteen 
years of the century the nation experi- 
enced a wholesale immigration from 
Europe, bringing musicians from Eng- 
land, and, after the French Revolution, 
from France. These men were generally 
well trained, and they accordingly took 
over the musical life of the new nation 
and became its principal concert-artists 
and teachers. The names of the few 
native composers who had been active up 
to this time (Hopkinson, James Lyon, 
Billings, etc.) disappeared almost com- 
pletely from the concert programs which 
were printed in the newspapers, and were 
replaced by those of the newcomers — 
Benjamin Carr, Alexander Reinagle, 
James Hewitt, Raynor Taylor, Gottlieb 
Graupner, and dozens of others. Ameri- 
can music doubtless benefited from the 
infiltration of better-trained musicians, 
but its growth as a native expression was 
arrested. 

II. igth Century, By the early years of 
the 19th century these foreigners had be- 
come Americans, and gradually native- 
born composers began once more to come 
into prominence. The most widely known 
of them was Lowell Mason (1792-1872), 
a composer of hymn-tunes and a pioneer 
in music education. Mason succeeded in 
persuading the Boston school board to 
make the study of music a regular part of 
the curriculum (1836) and he established 
“musical conventions” in various parts of 
the country where teachers could have 
training. Another native composer was 
Oliver Shaw (1779-1848), who, although 
blind from early manhood, was active as 
a teacher and organist in Providence, 
Rhode Island. He was a composer of 

] 



AMERICAN MUSIC 

anthems, songs, and a number of instru- 
mental pieces which were widely used. 

By the middle of the century another 
type of foreigner had gained a foothold 
in America, the visiting virtuoso who 
dazzled large audiences with his reputa- 
tion as well as his skill, and was rewarded 
with huge monetary returns. Ole Bull 
paid his first visit to America in 1843, and 
followed this visit with many others. 
Jenny Lind came in 1850, and under the 
management of P. T. Barnum enjoyed 
triumphs in every American city. One of 
the virtuosi, the pianist-composer Louis 
Moreau Gottschalk (1829-1869), was ac- 
tually a native of New Orleans, but his 
Parisian training and reputation lent him 
a foreign atmosphere which helped mate- 
rially towards his success. He made his 
American debut in New York in 1853, 
and from that year until he left the United 
States for the last time in 1865 (he died 
in Rio de Janeiro), his recitals in large 
cities and on tours all the way to Cali- 
fornia drew large and admiring crowds. 
As a composer he had a flair for a lightly 
sentimental type of piece which became 
enormously popular. His works were 
marked by a French elegance and a cer- 
tain American flavor which resulted from 
his use of Creole melodies. His “Banjo’' 
is based on a Negro-like tune which is 
closely akin to the spiritual, “Roll, Jordan, 
Roll.” The glamor of such virtuosi led 
to the idol- worship which has been char- 
acteristic of American musical life from 
the 19th century to the present day, and 
which has often made it difficult for resi- 
dent musicians who have not had the 
benefit of European reputations to secure 
the place to which the abilities of some 
entitled them. 

Even before 1800 musical societies were 
founded, and after 1800 several were es- 
tablished which have continued to the 
present: the Handel & Haydn Society of 
Boston (1815); the Musical Fund Society 
of Philadelphia (1820); and the Philhar- 
monic Society of New York (1842). In 
the mid-century another foreign immigra- 
tion began which had a profound effect 
on musical life in America. The Central 
Europe revolutions of 1848 sent thousands 


AMERICAN MUSIC 

of Germans, many of them musicians, to 
seek a new home in the United States. 
As in the closing years of the i8th century, 
these newcomers were better trained than 
the native musicians, for they had enjoyed 
wider advantages in Continental Europe. 
They settled not only in the seaboard 
cities, but went inland to settle also in 
Milwaukee, St. Louis, Cincinnati, and 
other interior towns, and hundreds of 
them became the principal orchestral mu- 
sicians, teachers, and composers of the 
nation. Thus, for a full half-century, if 
not longer, the roster of the principal 
American organizations, orchestras, cham- 
ber music groups, and often choral socie- 
ties, contained a high percentage of names 
of German origin. Carl Bergmann, Otto 
Dresel, Carl Zerrahn, the Mollenhauer 
brothers, and others of like origin were 
the leaders of American musical life. 
Even Theodore Thomas, who became the 
leading musical missionary of the nation 
by taking his orchestra all over the coun- 
try, was born in Germany. 

This influx of Germans saturated the 
entire American viewpoint with German 
ideas and idioms, so that the German com- 
posers became the principal models upon 
which music was composed in the United 
States. Native students studied at home 
with teachers of German origin, and to 
complete their studies, journeyed to 
Europe to work with German masters. 
The result was the stultifying of native 
character and spirit, and the postpone- 
ment of anything approaching an Ameri- 
can expression. The prevalence of the 
German influence did, however, result in 
the awakening of a national consciousness 
on the part of a few Americans who felt 
keenly that they and their works were 
neglected. 

One of the first of these was a Bohemian 
by birth, Anthony (Anton) Philip Hein- 
rich (i78i-”i86i), who first came to 
America shortly before 1820, and after a 
few months in Philadelphia migrated to 
Kentucky, where he lived for a while in 
the comparative wilderness of Bardstown. 
It was there that he composed his collec- 
tion of instrumental pieces and works, 
“The Dawning of Music in Kentucky,” 


[31I 



AMERICAN MUSIC 

to which he appended a statement that he 
would be proud indeed to be called an 
“American musician.’’ He died leaving 
a whole trunkful of manuscripts — gran- 
diose orchestral works — dealing pro- 
grammatically with American subjects, 
including the American Indian and such 
scenic marvels as Niagara Falls. A num- 
ber of his smaller pieces were published, 
but he and his admirers felt that he was 
never accorded the place to which he was 
entided. 

’ Another to protest violently against al- 
leged discrimination in favor of foreigners 
was William Henry Fry (1813-64), a 
music critic and composer who lived first 
in Philadelphia and later in New York. 
Fry composed the first American grand 
opera to be produced, Leonora (Phila- 
delphia, 1845, and New York, 1858), and 
a second opera, Notre Dame de Paris 
(1864), as well as a Santa Claus sym- 
phony and numerous other works. He 
was militant in his struggle for recogni- 
tion of American talent and declared that 
“until the American public shall learn to 
support American artists. Art will not be- 
come indigenous to this country” (1852). 
One of Fry’s companions in arms was 
George F. Bristow (1825-98), also the 
composer of an opera {Rip van Winkle^ 
1855 revived in 1870), and a number 
of orchestral works. He was also a vio- 
linist and a member of the New York 
Philharmonic, who resigned temporarily 
from that organization in protest against 
its neglect of American works. 

Concurrent with this early and some- 
what premature awakening of a national 
consciousness in the realm of art music 
was another movement which was largely 
overlooked by serious musicians. This 
was the development of a lighter type of 
entertainment which was typically Ameri- 
can: the minstrel show which caricatured 
the humor and sentiment of the American 
Negro. The songs which the minstrel 
shows produced were not Negro songs 
nor were they connected primarily with 
the Negro’s own folk music, but they did 
embody a carefree attitude, and a nostalgic 
sentiment which had their basis in the 
Negro character. The most lasting prod- 


AMERICAN MUSIC 

ucts of this field were the songs of Stephen 
Foster (1826-64), whose “Old Folks at 
Home,” “Oh! Susanna,” and dozens of 
others have become literally American 
folk songs. In Foster’s time, however, 
these songs were regarded as nothing 
more than popular songs of the day, even 
though they embodied a far more typically 
American expression than the ambitious 
efforts of other composers to write sym- 
phonies in the manner of the German 
Romanticists. 

In the latter 19th century an increasing 
number of native-born composers of art 
music appeared, and their works began 
to be included on the programs of major 
concert organizations. The first to come 
into lasting prominence was John 
Knowles Paine (1839-1906) whose first 
symphony was performed by the Theo- 
dore Thomas Orchestra in 1876, and who 
by 1899 had seen eighteen performances 
of his compositions by the Boston Sym- 
phony Orchestra alone. Paine studied at 
home, and in Germany with Haupt, and 
his works bear the German stamp and a 
solid, academic workmanship which may 
have lacked individuality, but which ren- 
dered them technically far in advance of 
anything that had been composed in 
America earlier. His major published 
works included two symphonies, two 
symphonic poems, and an opera. Of equal 
importance to his work as a composer, 
was Paine’s influence as a teacher. In 
1862 he was appointed instructor of music 
at Harvard and in 1873 was made a full 
professor, a chair he held for thirty years. 
His pupils included men who took their 
place among America’s leading compos- 
ers: Arthur Foote (1853-1937), Freder- 
ick S. Converse (1871-1940), John Alden 
Carpenter (b. 1876), Daniel Gregory 
Mason (b. 1873), and many others. In 
addition to launching his own pupils 
on successful careers, Paine was the artis- 
tic parent of a coterie of composers which 
became known as the “Boston,” or “New 
England Group,” so called because its 
members either derived from New Eng- 
land by birth or residence, or because they 
had the same ideals in common. They 
were academic in the German tradition. 


13 =^] 



AMERICAN MUSIC 

but ^11 of them had solid training and 
something definite to say musically. Be- 
sides Foote, the group included George 
W. Chadwick (1854-1931), Horatio 
Parker (1863-1919), Arthur Whiting 
(1861-1936), Mrs. H. H. A. Beach 
(1867-1944), Edgar Stillman Kelley 
(1857-1944), and others. Chadwick and 
Parker were perhaps the most distin- 
guished of the set. Chadwick’s work was 
marked by expert craftsmanship and had 
also a Yankee humor which gave it some- 
thing of an American flavor. Musically, 
Parker’s opera Mona, produced at the 
Metropolitan in New York in 1912, was 
the most effective of any American opera 
to date, and his oratorio, Hora Novissima, 
became standard in the repertoire of 
choral societies in America and in Eng- 
land. 

Contemporary with the Boston group, 
but set apart from them because of his 
striking individuality, was Edward Mac- 
Dowell (1861-1908), who, with the pos- 
sible exception of Gottschalk, was the first 
American composer to achieve a foreign 
reputation. In spite of his Germanic 
training under Raff, MacDowell had a 
style that was distinctly his own, a Celtic 
boldness which derived, perhaps, from 
his Scotch ancestry. Like Grieg, he had 
his individual melodic and harmonic 
idiom, which imposed its own limitations 
when it became a mannerism. Although 
he is heard today chiefly through his piano 
pieces, his larger works are still per- 
formed, particularly the second Piano 
Concerto and the Second, “Indian,” Suite 
for orchestra. MacDowell is still regarded 
by many as the outstanding American 
composer, because of his marked individ- 
uality and because of the vogue his music 
has enjoyed. The national consciousness, 
which had its origin in the middle of the 
last century, received an added impetus 
from the extended visit of the Bohemian 
Antonin Dvorak, who taught at the Na- 
tional Conservatory in New York from 
1892 to 1895. Dvorak was deeply im- 
pressed by the native folk-material he 
heard in America, and urged his pupils 
to make use of it. He incorporated the 
spirit of Negro and Indian songs, if not 


AMERICAN MUSIC 

actual melodies, into several works of his 
own, notably the “New World” Sym- 
phony and the American Quartet. It is 
true that Dvorak did not achieve an 
American expression in these works, he 
was too much of a Bohemian for that, 
but he did succeed in firing the imagina- 
tion of American composers, and by his 
example persuaded many of them to look 
to their own soil for a national expres- 
sion. 

III. 20th Century, The 20th century 
has witnessed a marked change in Ameri- 
can music. Where there were dozens of 
composers in the latter 19th century, there 
are hundreds now. American composers 
have also had increasing opportunity for 
performance and publication of their 
major works, owing to considerable prop- 
aganda urging program-makers to pro- 
mote native music and the public to de- 
mand it. It is, of course, not only the 
propaganda that has led to this change; 
it is also the tremendously increasing 
quantity and vastly improved quality of 
American compositions. Not only arc 
there thousands of available compositions 
where a half, or even a quarter, of a cen- 
tury ago there were merely hundreds; the 
music itself is composed with craftsman- 
ship and polished technique, and in count- 
less cases it has something to say which 
has not already been said by older com- 
posers from abroad. 

It is difficult to classify American com- 
posers into groups, for many of them 
have attempted work in a number of 
fields, and their styles and idioms have 
changed as they themselves have devel- 
oped and progressed. There are compos- 
ers who have remained conservative, and 
some who are looked upon by the radicals 
as conservative but who have nevertheless 
shown contemporary tendencies and 
seem modernistic to the layman who is 
accustomed only to traditional music. 
Among those who have never departed 
appreciably from 19th-century idioms are 
the late Henry Hadley (1871-1937), who 
composed prolifically and successfully in 
all forms and whose works were marked 
by a facility that was felicitous and stimu- 
lating; Deems Taylor (b, 1885), prob- 


[33] 



AMERICAN MUSIC 

ably the best known of all American com* 
posers to the layman, whose operas, The 
Kings Henchman and Peter Ibbetson^ en- 
joyed a large number of performances for 
several seasons at the Metropolitan in 
New York; Charles Wakefield Cadman 
(b. i88i) who has written ballad-songs 
which have ranked with Broadway hits 
in popularity, and has also been active 
in the larger forms: several operas (in- 
cluding Shanewis), and a considerable 
list of orchestral works; the late Rubin 
Goldmark (1872-1936), a teacher of com- 
posers as well as a composer himself; and 
Walter Damrosch (b. 1862), who is more 
important as a conductor and musical 
missionary. 

A number of composers have adopted 
contemporary methods in part, but have 
not departed far enough from accepted 
idioms to encounter resistance from the 
public. Among them are Carpenter, D. G. 
Mason, and Converse (already men- 
tioned as pupils of J. K. Paine), Edward 
Burlingame Hill (b. 1872), Howard Han- 
son (b. 1896), director of the Eastman 
School of Music at Rochester, David 
Stanley Smith (b. 1877), Douglas Moore 
(b. 1893), Randall Thompson (b. 
1899). 

Slightly further to the left, in that they 
have written in styles which have been a 
little more advanced than the average 
audience was ready to accept, are the late 
Charles Martin LoefHer (1861-1935), an 
Alsatian-born violinist-composer whose 
“Pagan Poem” is one of the most striking 
works composed in this country; Charles 
T. Grilles (1884-1920); Roy Harris (b. 
1898), an Oklahoman by birth whose 
works represent an altogether national 
expression in seeming to derive from the 
vast spaces of the Southwest; Aaron Cop- 
land (b. 1900), more sophisticated and 
practical than Harris but inherently a 
valid American product; Roger Sessions 
(b. 1896) and Walter Piston (b. 1894), 
both champions of the “international” 
school of thought [see *Nationalism]; 
Quincy Porter (b, 1897); the Holland- 
born Bernard Wagenaar (b. 1894) and 
the German-born Werner Josten (b. 
1888); Arthur Shepherd (b. 1880); Otto 

[ 


AMERICAN MUSIC 

Luening (b. 1900); and Ernst Bacon 
(b. 1898). 

America has also its share of experi- 
mentalists. Among them are Charles Ives 
(b. 1876), for many years unrecognized 
by all but a few, and recently come into 
prominence through the performance of 
his Concord Sonata for piano. Ives de- 
lights in polytonal combinations and in 
complex rhythms, and has also experi- 
mented in quarter-tones. Henry Cowell 
(b. 1897) has sought a scientific basis in 
overtones for “tone-clusters.” Adolph 
Weiss (b. 1891) and Wallingford Riegger 
(b. 1885) are avowed atonalists. Less 
radical, perhaps, than the others is Carl 
Ruggles (b. 1876), but the quality in his 
music that Lawrence Gilman character- 
ized as “torrential and disturbing” places 
him in the experimental group. 

Recent additions to the list of American 
composers include younger men of con- 
siderable talent and individuality, notably 
Samuel Barber (b. 1910), Leonard Bern- 
stein (b. 1918), Paul Bowles (b. 1911), 
Paul Creston (b. 1906), David Diamond 
(b. 1915), Bernard Herrmann (b. 1911), 
Gail T. Kubik (b. 1914), Gian-Carlo 
Menotti (b. 1911), Paul Nordoff (b. 
1909), Gardner Read (b. 1913), and Wil- 
liam Schumann (b. 1910). 

IV. National Elements, The move- 
ment toward using folk music which 
Dvofdk instigated at the turn of the cen- 
tury had its inevitable reaction. Compos- 
ers, and the public, found that a conscious 
and wholesale adoption of folk material 
did not in itself bring a national expres- 
sion, particularly when the composers 
themselves were not of the same race as 
those who produced the folk songs orig- 
inally. There have, however, been many 
excellent works based on native material, 
and a number of composers have been 
closely identified with its use. Charles 
Sanford Skilton (1868-1941) composed 
some strikingly effective Indian dances 
based on tribal melodics; John Powell’s 
(b. 1882) Rhapsodic N^gre not only uses 
actual Negro melodies but reflects certain 
phases of the Negro’s temperament. Pow- 
ell has also used Anglo-Saxon material 
from the Appalachians. Percy Grainger 



AMERICAN MUSIC 

(Australia, b. 1882) has not only made 
exquisite settings of British folk songs, 
but has turned to American material since 
making his home in this country. Lamar 
Stringfield (b. 1897), a native of North 
Carolina, has made distinctive use of 
Southern material, from the Negroes and 
from the white mountaineers. 

There are also many Negro composers 
who have been eloquent interpreters of 
their race. Among the older ones are 
Harry T. Burleigh (b. 1866) who was one 
of the first to make effective concert-set- 
tings of Negro spirituals, R. Nathaniel 
Dett (1882-1943), and Clarence C. White 
(b. 1880). Somewhat younger than these 
men are William Levi Dawson (b. 1895), 
and William Grant Still (b. 1895). See 
*Negro music. 

Americans are now coming to realize 
that their less pretentious music, the so- 
called popular songs and dance music, has 
distinctive qualities which have given it 
a vogue throughout the world; in its best 
phases this music represents a typically 
national expression. From an earlier cen- 
tury the songs of Stephen Foster typified 
several features of American life — its 
humor, its sentiment, and the flavor of its 
Southern plantations. The marches of 
John Philip Sousa (1854-1932) had a 
verve and sparkle which set them apart 
from the common run of such pieces, 
while the quasi-Viennese melodies of the 
Victor Herbert (1859-1924) operettas 
possessed at least a cosmopolitanism 
which was characteristic of American 
urban life. 

More important than these is the body 
of popular music which has for its basis 
the peculiar type of syncopation that has 
been borrowed from the Negro — the 
early ragtime of the i89o*s and the later 
“jazz” and the still more recent impro- 
vised “swing” music. These have not only 
developed highly ingenious and complex 
rhythmic patterns, but have also evolved 
instrumentations which are often used by 
concert orchestras as well as by dance 
bands. The effect of this jazz vogue has 
been twofold. First, it has offered serious 
composers of art music a field for experi- 
mentation which has often been produc- 


AMERICAN MUSIC 

tive of excellent results. Carpenter, Cop- 
land, Louis Gruenberg (b. 1884), 
dozens of others have found it a reward- 
ing field, even though they have come to 
turn away from it because of its rather 
rigid limitations. In Europe, too, a num- 
ber of composers have tried their hand at 
American jazz: Stravinsky, Kfenek, Mil- 
haud, Hindemith, Honegger, and many 
others [see *Jazz VI]. 

The other result of jazz has been that a 
numbei of composers who started their 
careers as composers of dance music and 
musical comedy scores have extended 
their efforts to the concert and grand- 
opera field. The outstanding member of 
this group is the late George Gershwin 
(1898-1937), who first became a most 
successful composer for Broadway shows 
and then drew the attention of critics and 
the music public with his Rhapsody in 
Blue, for piano and orchestra. This was 
followed by a Piano Concerto and a tone- 
poem, An American in Paris, and finally 
by the opera, Porgy and Bess. A number 
of our serious composers have derived 
from the popular field by acting as orches- 
trators of musical comedy and motion pic- 
ture scores — Robert Russell Bennett (b. 
1894), William Grant Still, and Otto 
Cesana (b. 1899). Morton Gould (b. 
1913) has been associated with Broadway 
and the radio as a conductor, and has pro- 
duced a long list of major works, which, 
like his Chorale and Fugue in Jazz, apply 
musical training to popular materials. 

The result of this union of music-hall 
and dance music with art music has been 
extremely healthy. It has done much to 
rid the concert field of its self-conscious 
complacency and intolerance, and it has 
without doubt raised the standards of 
popular music, even though it has made 
some of it over-sophisticated and a bit 
self-conscious. It has, moreover, done 
much to make American music a native 
product, independent of Europe, and it 
provides American composers with a 
vehicle which represents a number of the 
highly intricate and varied phases of the 
American temperament. It is not, of 
course, the only type of music which is 
inherently American, nor does it cover all 


[35] 



AMERICAN MUSICOLOGICAL SOCIETY 

of the manifold facets of American life. 
Nevertheless, the adoption of popular ele- 
ments which are in some ways a folk- 
spirit which characterizes Americans 
everywhere, rather than a single race or 
group, is a highly significant step in the 
evolution of a distinctively American 
music. 

Lit.: J. T. Howard, Our American 
Music (1931); id.f Our Contemporary 
Composers (1941); Henry Cowell, Amer- 
ican Composers on American Music 
0933)5 Clare Reis, Composers in Amer- 
ica (1938); W. T. Upton, Art-Song in 
America (193^^93^)5 W. Saunders, 
“The American Opera” (ML xiii, no. 2); 
O. G. Sonneck, “Early American Operas” 
{SIM vi); C. Lindstrom, “Wm. Billings 
and His Time” (MQ xxv); O. G. Son- 
neck, “Francis Hopkinson” (SIM v). See 
also under *Jazz, *Negro music. 

J.T. H. 

American Musicological Society. 
See ^Societies, I, 2. 

American organ. See ^Harmonium. 

Amorevole, amoroso [It.]. Loving. 

Amorschall. See *Horn II. 

Amphibrach [Gr.]. See *Poetic me- 
ter I. 

Amplitude. See * Acoustics I. 

Anabole [Gr., beginning]. ^Humanis- 
tic (16th-century) name for ^prelude. 

Anacrusis. Upbeat. 

Analysis. With reference to music, the 
study of a composition with regard to 
form, structure, thematic material, har- 
mony, melody, phrasing, orchestration, 
style, technique, etc. Analysis of composi- 
tion plays a predominant part in musical 
instruction (as a practical application of 
technical studies in harmony, counter- 
point, orchestration) and in writings on 
music. Analysis is of little value if it is 
mere enumeration of statistics; such meth- 
ods, frequently encountered in modern 
writings, overlook the synthetic element 
and the functional significance of the 
musical detail. Another drawback of cur- 


ANDANTE 

rent methods is the one-sided application 
of only one point of view, for instance, 
that of form (D. F. Tovey, Beethoven s 
Pianoforte Sonatas) or of phrasing (H. 
Riemann, Analyse von Beethoven s Kla- 
viersonaten). In present-day education 
special emphasis is placed on analysis of 
harmony [see ^Harmonic analysis] and 
of form [see *Form]; melodic analysis, 
however, perhaps the most important and 
most informative of all, is usually neg- 
lected [see ♦Melody]. 

Lit.: A. J. Goodrich, Complete Musical 
Analysis (1887); K. Westphal, in DM 
xxiv, 5. 

Anapaest. See ♦Poetic meter I. 

Anche [F.], Ancia [It.]. ♦Reed. 
Anche battante^ beating reed; anche 
double^ double reed; anche libre^ free reed. 

Ancora [It.]. Once more (repeat). 
Ancora piu forte, still more forte. 

Ancus. See ♦Neumes I. 

Andamento [It., from andare, to go] 
means, in 18th-century writings: (i) 
♦Sequence. — (2) A special type of fugal 
subject [see ♦Soggetto]. — (3) In more 
recent writings the term is used preferably 
to denote fugal episodes. 

Andante [It., from andare, to go]. 
Tempo mark indicating very moderate 
speed, between allegretto and adagio [see 
♦Tempo marks]. To the present day 
there is no agreement among musicians 
as to whether andante belongs to the 
quick or to the slow tempo. While this 
question as such would seem to be rather 
irrelevant, it becomes important in the 
case of terms such as piu andante, meno 
andante, molto andante, andantino. Ac- 
cording to the former interpretation, 
which is supported by the literal meaning 
of the word, piu andante and molto an- 
dante indicate a tempo quicker than the 
normal andante, while meno andante in- 
dicates a slower speed. Brahms was un- 
doubtedly aware of this meaning of the 
term when, at the end of his andante from 
the pianoforte sonata op. 5, he wrote “an- 
dante molto”; the tempo of this closing 


[36] 



ANDANTINO 

section is, of course, quicker, not slower, 
than that of the preceding andante cspres- 
sivo. Other composers however (perhaps 
the majority) use mol to andante to mean 
a tempo still slower than andante. See 
^Andantino. 

Andantino. Diminutive of andante, 
used mainly to characterize a short piece 
of andante tempo or character. If used 
as a tempo mark, it means a slight modi- 
fication of andante the direction of which 
is, unfortunately, a matter of divergent 
opinion [see ^Andante]. Beethoven was 
puzzled by the question whether andan- 
tino was to be understood as meaning 
faster or slower than andante, as appears 
from a letter he wrote to George Thomson 
[cf. A. W. Thayer, The Life of Bee- 
thoveuy ed. by Krehbiel, 1921, ii, 246]. 
Most modern musicians apparently use 
the term as indicating quicker tempo than 
andante. 

Andauernd [G.]. ‘Tasting,” continu- 
ously. 

Anemochord. See under *Acolian 
harp; *Sostenente pianoforte. 

Anenaiki. The term refers to an abu- 
sive treatment of Russian (*Znamenny) 
chant, practiced chiefly in the i6th and 
17th centuries, in which long coloraturas 
in bad taste were sung to meaningless 
syllables such as a-ne-na. This method 
was known as chomonie, A similar 
method used in the Byzantine chant of 
the same period is known as teretisniy ow- 
ing to the use of such syllables as te-re-rem 
for the same purpose. The Russian syl- 
lables are probably related to the early 
Byzantine enechamata [see *Echos]. 
They appear in a manuscript as early as 
the 1 2th century [cf. the reference in 
ReMMAy 99] . See also *Noeane. 

Anfang [G.]. Beginning; Vom An- 
fangy da capo. 

Angelica. See *Lute III. 

Angklung. See ^Javanese music I. 

Anglaise [Fr., English dance]. One of 
the numerous dance types used in the 

[ 


ANGLICAN CHANT 

French ballets of the late 17th century, 
whence it was introduced into the op- 
tional group of the suite [cf. J. K. F. 
Fischer, Musi]{alischer Parnassus (e. 
1690); J. S. Bach, French Suite no. 3]. 
It is in quick duple time, without upbeat. 
The name was also used for other dances 
of English origin or character, e.g., for the 
(syncopated) *hornpipe and, around 
1800, for the ^country dance and the 
*ecossaisc. See *Dance music III. 

Anglican chant. The method em- 
ployed in the Anglican Church for the 
singing of the psalms, canticles, and other 
unmetrical texts. It is based on the recita- 
tion principle of the *psalm tones of the 
Roman Catholic Church but differs from 
these — aside from the English text — in 
the use of four-part harmony and of a 
more strictly metrical rhythm. 

The practice of using harmonized ver- 
sions of the psalm tones, known as *falso- 
bordoney was quite common in the i6th 
century (Josquin des Pres, Vittoria, and 
many others). The first English com- 
posers to harmonize the psalm tones were 
Tallis, Byrd, Morley, and Gibbons, who 
were followed by many others. Naturally, 
within the course of its 400 years of living 
existence, the chant has undergone many 
changes which, generally speaking, have 
not improved its quality. The earliest set- 
tings, although sacrificing the primal sim- 
plicity of the monophonic chant, did not 
impair its validity as a rhythmically free 
agent for the conveyance of the text be- 
cause they did not alter the free oratoric 
rhythm of the plainsong. 

It was in the late 17th century that 
rhythm, in the categorical sense, began to 
condition the free and expressive delivery 
of the words in chanting. Bar-lines em- 
phasized the metrical quality of the rendi- 
tion and the generally mechanical nature 
of the practice was not helped in later 
times by the adoption of specially com- 
posed chants often accompanied by har- 
monizations of mediocre quality. It is 
these metrical chants which are called 
Anglican and which supply the needs of 
many modern Protestant congregations. 
Ideally treated, Anglican chanting may 

i\ 



ANGLICAN CHANT 


be impressive to a certain degree, but it 
contains four defects which render it defi- 
nitely inferior to its plainsong analogue. 
First, it is written with bar-lines enclosing 
measures of theoretically equal length; 
thus one measure may suffice for the sing- 
ing of four or five words and the next 
may have to accommodate twelve or fif- 
teen, so that the inevitable tendency is to 
rush the verbally crowded measures to 
make their length conform to the others. 
However much this tendency may be re- 
sisted, the tyranny of the bar-line cannot 
be wholly ignored. Secondly it has been 
customary to employ a system of “point- 
ing” in the text whereby certain syllables 
or words over which appeared the sign 
( ' ) served as a momentary point of stress 
or rest. While this device may have ful- 
filled the practical purpose of producing 
occasional unity amid verbal confusion, it 
tended to make the congregation hurry 
over the preceding words to dwell to an 
unnatural degree on the pointed word or 
syllabic. Later hymnals have abandoned 
pointing in an effort to restore as nearly 
as possible the flexibility of the Plainsong 
Chant. Third, many Anglican chants 
contain equal notes of smaller value, and 
these, sung in strict time, further distort 
the flow of the text. And fourth, the in- 
variable ending of the chant on a strong 
beat often leads to downright misaccentu- 
ation. 

Anglican chant represents a relatively 
unsuccessful effort to carry over into a 
workable congregational method the ideal 
conditions belonging to plainsong; and 
in spite of devoted and skillful efforts at 
improvement, the two systems remain 
fundamentally irreconcilable because the 
Anglican represents a practice in which 
the accents of the prose are dictated by 
an arbitrary metrical scheme, while in 
plainsong the rhythmic sweep of the 
music is governed by the normal speech 
delivery of the text. At its best, Anglican 
chanting is a compromise; at its worst, it 
suggests the recitativo secco of 18th-cen- 
tury opera which provided for the dis- 
posal of large quantities of words in as 
short a space of time as possible. Con- 
trasting examples of Anglican (i) and 

[ 


ANONYMOUS 

Plainchant (2) drawn from The New 
Hyinnal appear below. 



Lord, now UHcoI* tWou Moy scivaNt deport* in peocEj ac- 


cording wofd : for mine ey?s V)awe Sttrt SolvolKon. 

Lit.: W. Douglas, Church Music in 
History and Practice (1937); P. Scholes, 
The Oxford Companion to Music (1938), 
article “Anglican Chant”; A. Rams- 
botham, in ML i, no. 3; R. Bridges, in 
MA ii, iii; W. Barclay-Squirc, in SIM viii; 
Ch. W. Pearce, “The Futility of Anglican 
Chant” (M£>vi). A.T.D. 

Anglican church music. See Angli- 
can chant; Anthem; Cathedral music; 
Hymn IV; Litany; Psalter; Response; 
Service. Cf. The Church Service Book,, 
ed. by G. Edward Stubbs (1906). 

Angosciamente ; con angore [It.]. 
With anxiety. 

Anhalten [G.j. To hold on. 

Anhang [G.j. *Coda. 

Anhemitonic [Gr., without semi- 
tones]. An anhemitonic scale (also called 
tonal scale) is one which possesses no 
semitones, e.g., the ^pentatonic scale c-d- 
f-g-a-c', or the *whole-tone scale. 

Animate [It.],anime [F.]. Animated. 

Anmutig [G.]. Gracefully. 

Anonymous [Gr., without name]. Of 
unknown authorship. The Latin word 

n 




ANREISSEN 

Anonymus (abbreviated Anon.) is ap- 
plied to unknown writers of medieval 
treatises in the collections of Gerbert and 
Coussemaker [see *Scriptores], in which 
they are referred to as Anon. I, Anon. II, 
etc. It should be noticed, however, that 
the same numbering occurs in several 
volumes of Coussemaker and Gerbert. 
Therefore, the famous treatise known as 
Coussemaker’s Anon. IV should more ac- 
curately be referred to as Anon. IV of 
Coussemaker i {CS i). 

Anreissen [G.]. Forceful pizzicato. 

Ansatz [G.]. (i) In singing, the proper 
adjustment of the vocal apparatus. — (2) 
In the playing of wind instruments, the 
proper adjustment of the lips [see ’"‘Em- 
bouchure (2)]. — (3) *Crook or shank 
of brass instruments. — (4) In violin play- 
ing, ^attack. 

Anschlag [G.]. (i) In piano playing, 
touch. — (2) Of a pianoforte, action 
(heavy or light). — (3) An ornament ex- 
plained by K. P. E. Bach [see *Appoggia- 
tura. Double III]. 

Anschwellend [G.]. Crescendo. 

Anstrich [G.j. Up-bow. 

Answer. In fugal writing the answer is 
the second (and fourth) statement of the 
subject, so called because of its relation- 
ship to the first (and third) statement. 
Therefore, the succession of statements 
is subject - answer - subject - answer. See 
*Fugue; ’"‘Tonal and real; ^Antecedent 
and consequent. 

Antecedent and consequent. The 
terms are usually applied to melodic 
phrases which stand in the relationship 
of question and answer or statement and 
confirmation, as in the accompanying ex- 
ample (Beethoven, String Quartet op. 18, 



no. 2). Here, as in other examples, the 
dialogue character of the melody is em- 
phasized by its distribution between two 
instruments [see *Durchbrochcne Ar- 


ANTHEM 

b€it[ . The terms arc also used as synony- 
mous with subject and answer in fugues 
[see * Answer]. 

Anthem [from Gr. *antiphona\ Ro- 
manic antefena; Old English antefn, an- 
tempne]. An English choral composition 
written to English words from the Scrip- 
tures or to another sacred text and per- 
formed in the worship of the Anglican 
Church, where it holds a position similar 
to that of the ’"’motet in the Roman rites. 
An anthem usually is with accompani- 
ment, preferably by the organ. If it in- 
cludes parts for solo singers it is called 
verse anthem; otherwise, full anthem. 

The history of the anthem begins with 
the Reformation and the consequent es- 
tablishment of English as the liturgical 
language. Although the anthem devel- 
oped from the Latin motet, the first an- 
thems, written by Tye and Tallis (c. 
1560), show a marked difference in style 
from the previous and contemporary 
motets. They are rhythmically square, 
more harmonically conceived, more syl- 
labic and in shorter phrases, features all 
of which result from the greater consider- 
ation given to matters of text and pronun- 
ciation. Towards the end of the i6th 
century a new form, the verse anthem^ 
was introduced by Byrd (regarding an 
isolated earlier example, by Richard Far- 
rant, cf. G. E. P. Arkwright, in MA i, 
p. 65 note) and developed by Orlando 
Gibbons [cf. HAM, nos. 151, 169, 171]. 
This form, in which sections for full 
chorus alternate with sections for one or 
more solo voices, was preferred through- 
out the 17th century, with the full anthem 
coming into prominence again in the sub- 
sequent period. While in the Elizabethan 
anthem the vocal part (or parts) of the 
verse-sections are contrapuntally conceived 
(i.e., as parts of a contrapuntal fabric the 
other voices of which are played on the 
organ), a new declamatory arioso-style of 
Italian origin [see *Monody] was intro- 
duced for the verse-sections around 1630, 
in the anthems of Monteverdi’s pupil 
Walter Porter {c. 1595-1659; cf. Ark- 
wright, in MA iv, 247) and, particularly, 
of William Child (1606-97; cf. the list of 


[39] 



ANTICIPATION 

his anthems in GD i, 623; example in OH 
iii, 206). The Restoration anthem is rep- 
resented by Henry Aldrich (1647-1710), 
Pelham Humphrey (1647-74), Michael 
Wise (1648—87), John Blow (164^1708; 
cf. GD i, 396), Henry Purcell (1659-95), 
and Jeremiah Clarke (1659-1707). Blow 
and Purcell introduced instruments into 
the anthem, an innovation by which the 
multi-sectional anthem came to resemble 
a cantata. Another characteristic feature 
of the Restoration anthem, adopted in 
numerous later works, is a concluding 
hallelujah chorus in fugal style. The use 
of two choruses, called Dec(ani) and 
Can(toris) prevails in the anthem as well 
as in the Service music [see *Polychoral]. 

The Baroque anthem reached its high- 
point in the grandiose anthems of Handel, 
nearly all of which were written for special 
festive occasions where an unusual dis- 
play of means was possible and proper 
(Chandos Anthems, 1716-18; Coronation 
Anthems, 1727; Dettingen Anthem, 
1743). Other composers of this period 
are William Croft (1678-1727), John 
Weldon (1676-1736), and Maurice 
Greene (1^5-1755). Their anthems, as 
well as those of William Boyce (1710-79; 
cf. GD i, 441), are modeled after the 
somewhat simpler style of Purcell. The 
outstanding figure of the 19th century 
was S. S. Wesley (1810-76) whose two 
volumes of anthems, published in 1853, 
contain such standard works as “Blessed 
be the God and Father” and “The Wil- 
derness.” Among the more recent com- 
posers Ch. V. Stanford (1852—1924), B. 
Harwood (b. 1859), and Martin Shaw 
(b. 1875) must be mentioned. 

Lit.: W. Davies, '\The Church Anthem 
Boo\ (1933); M. B, Foster, Anthem and 
Anthem Composers H. W. Shaw, 

“John Blow’s Anthems” (ML xix. no. 4). 

Anticipation. See *Nonharmonic tones 
I; also *Nachschlag. 

Antienne [F.]. (i) ♦Antiphon. — (2) 
♦Anthem. 

Antiphon. A term denoting various cat- 
egories of Gregorian chant, all of which 
arc remnants of the early method of an- 

[ 


ANTIPHON 

tiphonal psalmody [see below, History\, 

(1) Short texts from the Scriptures or 
elsewhere, set to music in a simple, syllabic 
style, and sung before and after a psalm or 
canticle. On greater feasts the antiphon 
is sung entire both before and after the 
psalm; at other times the first word or two 
only (♦Incipit) are sung before, and the 
whole after. For more details, see under 
♦Psalm tones. The present repertory of 
Gregorian chant includes more than 1000 
such antiphons. The melodies are not all 
different, and can be classified in about 40 
groups of closely allied chants [cf. F. A. 
Gevaert, La Melopee antique dans le chant 
de Veglise latine (1895) ] . Aside from the 
antiphons for the psalms, there are similar 
enframing melodies for the ♦canticles, par- 
ticularly the ♦Magnificat and the Bene- 
dictus Deus Dominus. These are some- 
what more elaborate textually as well as 
musically [cf., e.g., AR^ 54iff]. 

(2) The name antiphon is also used for 
two other types of chants which are not 
strictly antiphons, since they do not, as a 
rule, embrace a psalm or canticle but arc 
independent songs of considerable length 
and elaboration. The first of these types 
includes the antiphons which at certain 
feasts (e.g.. Palm Sunday) are sung pre- 
paratory to the Mass (Mass antiphon)^ 
They are usually of a narrative character, 
containing reports from the New Testa- 
ment referring to the occasion, e.g.: “Cum 
appropinquaret Dominus Jerosolymam...” 
for Palm Sunday [cf. GR, I59ff]. The 
second class of pseudo-antiphons is the 
four antiphons B.M.V. (Beatae Mariac 
Virginis) or B.V.M. (Blessed Virgin 
Mary), namely: Alma redemptoris mater; 
Ave regina coelorum\ Regina coeli lae- 
tare; * Salve regina [cf. ARy 65-69] . These 
are more in the style of early hymns in 
free meter. They are sung during four 
different seasons of the year, at the offices 
of Lauds and Compline, by alternating 
choirs [see ♦Salve regina]. In the 15th 
and 1 6th centuries they were frequently 
composed polyphonically, for voices or 
for organ [cf. HAMy nos. 65, 100, 139]. 

(3) While the chants mentioned above 
arc the only ones called antiphons in the 
liturgical books of the present day, the 

5] 



ANTIPHONAL SINGING 

name is also applied in historical studies 
to certain chants of the Mass itself, namely, 
the *Introit (introit antiphon, antiphona 
ad introitum)^ the ^Offertory {antiphona 
ad offerendum), and the *Communion 
(communion antiphon, antiphona ad com- 
munionem). The justification for this 
terminolo^ lies in the fact that these 
chants originally sprang from the same 
method of antiphonal psalmody which 
also survives, in a different form, in the 
antiphons embracing a psalm or a canticle 
[see *Psalmody]. 

History, In Greek theory, antiphonia 
(literally counter-sound) means ^e oc- 
tave, in contradistinction to ^symphonia^ 
the unison, and *paraphonia^ the fifth. In 
the early Christian rites, antiphonia came 
to denote the singing of the successive 
verses of a psalm by alternating choruses. 
This meaning of the term probably origi- 
nated in the fact that the second chorus 
originally consisted of women or boys who 
repeated the melody at the higher octave. 
Very early antiphonal psalm-singing was 
enriched by the addition of a short sen- 
tence sung by the whole choir and re- 
peated after each verse or pair of verses as 
a refrain. It was this additional text and 
melody which finally came to adopt and 
retain the name antiphon. For a survey of 
the various forms which sprang from the 
antiphonal psalmody, see *Psalmody III; 
also *Gregorian chant IV(c). 

Antiphonal singing. Singing (or play- 
ing) in alternating choruses. The term, 
which originally belongs to the parlance 
of plainsong [see * Antiphon, history], is 
also used with reference to polyphonic 
music composed in two choruses. Sec 
*polychoral style. Regarding the use of 
antiphonal singing in Gregorian chant 
see ♦Responsorial. 

Antiphonal, antiphoner, antipho- 
nary [L. Antiphonaie, Antiphonarium], 
See ♦Liturgical books. The name Anti- 
phonarium Mediceum is erroneously ap- 
plied to the MS Florence, Bibl. Laur. plut. 
29, / which actually is not a book of plain- 
song, but the most extensive collection of 
the polyphonic repertory of the School of 


APPOGGIATURA 

♦Notre Dame {c. 1200). See *Magnus 
liber organi, 

Antiphonia. In Greek theory, the oc- 
tave. Sec ♦Antiphon, history, 

Antwort [G.]. Answer, in fugues. 

Anvil. Small steel bars, struck with a 
hard wooden or metal beater, which have 
sometimes been used as a percussion in- 
strument in operas, usually as a stage 
property (Auber, Le Ma^on, 1825; Verdi, 
ll Trovatore\ Wagner, Rhein gold), 

Anwachsend [G.]. Crescendo. 

A piacere [It.] . Same as ♦a bene placito. 

Apollo Club. A name given to Ameri- 
can male singing organizations, generally 
amateur, corresponding to the French 
♦Orpheon and the German *Mannerge- 
sangverein. Remarkable for their higher 
ambitions are the Apollo Clubs of Boston 
(founded in 1871), of Brooklyn (1878), 
of Chicago (1872), of Cincinnati (1882), 
and of St. Louis (1893). Some of the clubs 
were expanded into a mixed chorus. 

Apollonicon. See *Mechanical instru- 
ments III. 

Apostropha. See *Neumes I. 

Apotome. See ♦Pythagorean scale. 

Appassionata, or Sonata appassio- 
nata [It., impassioned]. The name cus- 
tomarily given to Beethoven’s Piano So- 
nata op. 57, in F minor. The title was not 
his, but was added by some publisher. 
The original tide is “Grande Sonate pour 
Piano” (1806). 

Appena [It.]. Hardly, scarcely. 

Applicatur. Eighteenth-century Ger- 
man term for fingering. 

Appoggiando [It.]. “Leaning,” i.e., 
emphasized, also full legato. 

Appoggiatura [from It, appoggiarcy to 
lean on J . ( i ) In modern parlance, an im- 
portant type of nonharmonic tones [see 
♦Nonharmonic tones II]. 



APPOGGIATURA 


APPOGGIATURA 


(2) Originally, appoggiatura [F. port 
de voix\ E. forefall, backfall, half-fall; G. 
Vorschlag] is an ornamental note, usually 
a second, that is melodically connected 
with the main note that follows it (i.c., the 
appoggiatura is sung in the same breath 
or played with the same stroke of the bow 
or articulation of the tongue or, in the case 
of keyboard instruments, slurred to that 
following note). It is indicated by means 
of a small note or special sign, but was also 
frequendy introduced extemporaneously 
in performance. The interpretation of the 
appoggiatura has varied considerably since 
the 17th century, when it first became a 
conventionalized ornament. 

L In the Baroque period the appoggia- 
tura was exceedingly flexible as regards 
both notation and rhythmic execution. In 
Ex, I, A shows the various ways of indi- 


music by J. S. Bach, Handel, Purcell, D. 
Scarlatti, etc. Ex. 2 illustrates the appli- 
cation of these principles to the music of 
J. S. Bach (a: Kleine zweistimmige Fuge 
c-moll; b: Goldberg Variations, aria; c: St. 
Matthew Passion, Bass aria no. 66; d: Sin- 
fonia no. 3). See also *Appuy; *Port de 
voix. 

II. After 1750 the performance of the 
appoggiatura was systematized by the Ger- 
man teachers and writers, K. P. E. Bach, 
Leopold Mozart, Marpurg, and Tiirk. The 
ornament is now divided into two types: 
the long, or variable appoggiatura {ver- 
dnderlicher V or schlag)^ and the short ap- 
poggiatura {\urtzer Vorschlag)^ both of 
which are to be performed upon the beat. 
The duration of the long appoggiatura is 
proportionate to that of the main note with 
which it is connected, according to the fol- 
lowing rules: (a) If the main note can be 
divided into two equal parts the appoggia- 
tura takes half its value; (b) an appoggia- 
tura to a dotted note takes two thirds of its 
value; (c) in % or % -meter an appoggia- 
tura to a dotted note that is tied to another 
note takes the whole value of the dotted 


eating the appoggiatura, and B the meth- 
ods of performance that were prevalent 
around 1700. The choice between these 
interpretations was left to the discretion 
of the performer — a “discretion,” how- 
ever, which was not haphazard but was 
governed by rules (based upon the conduct 
of the melody and other parts, the tempo 
and phrasing of the passage in question, 
and the expression of the accompanying 
text) that were formulated in textbooks 
(e.g., Bacilly: Remarque s curieuses sur 
Part de bien chanter^ 1668) and taught to 
every student of performance. With the 
exception of (a) and (b), which are exclu- 
sively French, these interpretations were 
taken over by musicians of all nationalities. 
They arc valid for the performance of 




note; (d) if the main note is followed by 
a rest, the appoggiatura takes the whole 
value of the main note, the latter is played 
in the time of the rest, and the rest ceases 
to exist. In Ex. 3 these four rules are illus- 
trated by quotations from the works of 

[4^] 





APPOGGIATURA 

Mozart and Beethoven (a: Mozart, Piano 
Sonata K.V. 31 1; Beethoven, Piano So- 
nata op. 2, no. I, Menuetto; b: Mozart, 
Piano Sonata K.V. 332; c: Mozart, Piano 
Sonata K.V. 332; d: Beethoven, Ade- 
laide). 

The short appoggiatura should be per- 
formed as a short note, regardless of the 
duration of the main note. It is to be used 
only in the following circumstances: (a) 
when the main note is itself an appoggia- 
tura (i.e., a non-harmonic note occurring 
on the beat); (b) wdicn the main note ac- 
companies a suspension or syncopation; 
(c) when the appoggiatura fills up the in- 
tervals in a series of descending thirds; (d) 
when the main note is a short note that is 
followed by more notes of the same value; 
(e) when the main note is one of a series 
of reiterated notes [see Ex. 4 (a: C. P. E. 
Bach; Beethoven, Piano Sonata op, 2, no. 
3; b: C. P. E. Bach; c: Mozart, Piano So- 
nata K.V. 279; d: Beethoven, Piano Sonata 
op. 22, Menuetto; e: Mozart, Piano Sonata 
K.V. 627)]. 

The notation of the appoggiatura, in 
this period, has no definite relationship to 
its performance. A few composers wrote 
the long appoggiatura as a small note of 
the exact value in which it should be per- 
formed, and distinguished the short ap- 
poggiatura from it by means of a single 
stroke across the stem (for a i6th-note) or 
a double stroke (for a 32nd-note), but this 
practice was by no means consistendy car- 
ried out. In music by C. P. E. Bach, Gluck, 
Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, the rules giv- 
en above constitute a far surer guide to 
performance than does the physical ap- 
pearance of the ornament, even in the most 
reliable editions. For an 18th-century 
practice of improvised appoggiatura, see 
•Ornamentation I. 

III. The 19th century brings still fur- 
ther changes in the treatment of the appog- 
giatura. The long appoggiatura becomes 
absorbed in the ordinary notation. The 
short appoggiatura is now invariably in- 
dicated by a small note with a single stroke 
across its stem, called a grace note or (er- 
roneously) an *acciaccatura. The question 
now arises whether this grace note should 
be performed on the beat or in anticipation 

[ 


APPOGGIATURA, DOUBLE 

of the beat. The latter possibility had al- 
ready been admitted by some of the late 
18th-century authorities (who referred to 
it as a durchgehender V or schlag^ distinct 
from both the langer and the \urtzer V or - 
schlag) for certain exceptional circum- 
stances. After 1800 this execution becomes 
decidedly more popular; it seems to be 
indicated for most of the grace notes in 
the works of Chopin, Schumann, Brahms, 
etc. (Schumann often prescribes it, by 
placing the grace note before the bar-line), 
but lack of material evidence leaves the 
matter open to controversy in many cases. 
In modern music it is customary to snap 
the grace note sharply onto the following 
note, so that it slightly anticipates the beat 
and imparts a decided accent to the main 
note. See •Ornamentation; *Ornaments. 

P. A. 

Appoggiatura, Double. The term 
double appoggiatura has been applied to 
each of the three distinct ways in which 
two appoggiaturas can be used: I. two ap- 
poggiaturas performed simultaneously, at 
the interval of a third or sixth; II. two con- 



cj»c_£rc/n' CL/lI/'Lf 



junct appoggiaturas approaching the main 
note from the interval of a third above or 
below it; III. two disjunct appoggiaturas, 
one being placed below the main note, the 
other above it. 

1 . Little need be said of the simultane- 
ous double appoggiatura save that each of 

;] 




APPOGGIATURA, DOUBLE 

its components is performed as though the 
other were not present, as in Ex. i (Bach, 
French Suite in Eb, Sarabande). 

II. The conjunct double appoggiatura, 
or slidcy was a common *agrement in the 
17th and 1 8th centuries. The 17th-century 
English lutenists and viol players referred 
to the ascending slide as an elevation or 
whole fall and called the descending slide 
a double bacl{jall. The signs and execu- 
tion of these ornaments are illustrated in 
Examples 2 and 3. Their German equiva- 
lent is the Schleifery which is indicated, in 



6 7 



the music of the Baroque period, cither by 
a custos (•direct) or two grace notes [Ex. 
4] . It should always be played on the beat. 

The punctierter Schleifer^ or dotted 
slide, is a complicated ornament very 

[ 


APPRECIATION OF MUSIC 

popular with the Rococo composers, be- 
tween 1750 and 1780. Its performance is 
shown in Ex. 5 (by C. P. E. Bach). An- 
other special form of slide, peculiar to 
keyboard music, is that in which the first 
note is held throughout. Introduced by 
the French clavecinistes, who called it 
coule sur une tierce^ this agrement is indi- 
cated and performed as shown in Ex. 6. It 
was adopted by Purcell and other English 
composers, who used the same notation 
but called it a slur. In Romantic and mod- 
ern music this execution of the slide is in- 
dicated with a tie, as in Ex. 7 (Schubert, 
Moments musicaux op. 94, no. 3). The 
performance of the slide, in general, has 
changed very little since the i8th century; 
it is still begun on the beat, as in Ex. 8 
(Beethoven, Bagatellen op. 119, no. 5). 

III. The disjunct double appoggiatura 
was written in ordinary notes until the last 
half of the i8th century, when C. P. E. 
Bach gave it the name Anschlag and in- 
troduced the two tiny grace notes which 
have since been used to represent it [Ex. 
9] . The first of the two notes which make 
up the Anschlag may be at any distance 
from the main note, but the second is only 
one degree removed from it. The orna- 
ment should always begin on the beat, as 
in Ex. 10 (Chopin, Rondo op. 16) and Ex. 
II (Chopin, Polonaise op. 44). P. A. 

Appreciation of music. This term 
has come to be accepted as a name for a 
type of musical training designed to de- 
velop in the seriously interested amateur 
an ability to listen intelligently to the mu- 
sic which he is likely to encounter in con- 
cert performances and in broadcast repro- 
ductions and thus to enhance the pleasure 
and satisfaction he may derive from listen- 
ing to music. This type of musical educa- 
tion, which is very common in the United 
States and in Britain (but practically un- 
known in Germany), has frequently been 
criticized as leading to superficiality and 
presumption, without providing that thor- 
ough training which the professional con- 
siders indispensable. Such criticism is not 
justified, however, except in special cases 
of incapacity and abuse which, one must 
admit, have not been rare. As a principle, 

4] 





APPUY 


ARABIAN MUSIC 


the idea of providing a special type of 
training for the average music lover is 
sound and more deserving of constructive 
cooperation than of adverse criticism on 
the part of professional musicians. 

Lit.: M. Bernstein, An Introduction to 
Music (1937); M. D. Calvocoressi, Musu 
cal Taste and How to Form It (1925); A. 
Copland, What to Listen for in Music 
( 1938) ; E. Dickinson, The Spirit of Music 
(1925); D. S. Moore, Listening to Music 
(1932); D. Welch, The Appreciation of 
Music (1927); A. H. Fox-Strangways, in 
ML viii, 395. 

Appuy [F.]. French 18th-century term 
for a note having the quality of an *appog- 
giatura. Usually refers to the appoggiatura 
which constitutes the first note of the 
tremblement or cadence [see *Trill]. 

P. A. 

Appuye [F.]. See ^Appoggiando. 

Apres-midi d’un faune, L’ {The 
Afternoon of a Faun). See ^Symphonic 
poem IV. 

Apsidenchore [G., from L.apsisy apse] . 
Same as *cori spezzati. 

Apt, Codex. See ^Sources, no. 19. 

Arabesque [F., properly an ornamenta- 
tion in Arabic architecture]. A fanciful 
title used by R. Schumann and others for 
^characteristic pieces of a more or less 
casual type. The term is also used in the 
sense of figuration, ornamentation of a 
melody. 

Arabian music. The music of the Is- 
lamic nations and tribes in Arabia, North 
Africa, and Persia. 

I. History. As is the case with all the 
Oriental nations, our knowledge of the 
history of Arabian music is restricted 
largely to the theoretical field. A consid- 
erable number of early treatises exist, e.g., 
Al-Kindi (9th century); Al-Farabi {c. 
900--950); Avicenna (nth century); Safi- 
ud Din (13th century) ; Abd-el Kadr ( 15th 
century). The most important informa- 
tion to be gained from these manuscripts 
concerns the scale, as given by the frets of 
the two main instruments of Arabian mu- 


sic, the *ud (a short lute), and the *tanhur 
(a long lute; see below). Prior to Al- 
Farabi’s time, the strings of the tanbur 
were divided into forty equal parts the 
first five of which were indicated by frets 
and used in playing. The result of this 
procedure is a small series of (unequal) 
quarter-tones. Al-Farabi, influenced by 
ancient Greek theory, introduced a new 
scale based on the interval of the fourth. 
The ’ud as well as the tanbur were tuned 
in fourths (e.g., a-d'-g'-c") and were pro- 
vided with frets which gave a number of 
middle tones between the open string and 
its upper fourth’s. Al-Farabi himself in- 
terpolated three such tones, namely, two 
successive (Pythagorean) whole-tones 
( % = 204 *cents) above the fundamental 
(open string) and one whole-tone below 
the fourth. Thus the tetrachord c-f in- 
cluded five tones which are almost identi- 
cal with the tones c-d-eb-e-f of the modern 
scale (0-204-294--408-498, instead of 
0-20(>-300-400~500 cents). Later on, the 
second whole-tone below the fourth was 
added, a tone which is very near to the 
modern db (294-204 = 90 cents; see ’’^Lim- 
ma). The addition of a similar tetrachord 
f-bb and of an extra tone b above it re- 
sulted in a scale of twelve tones which dif- 
fers very little from the modern well- 
tempered scale, except for the slighdy low 
db and gb. In the 13th century this scale 
was extended by the addition of five tones, 
each a quarter-tone (24 cents) below each 
diatonic whole-tone, i.e., below d,e,g,a,c', 
so that a 17-tone scale resulted. This scale 


90 90 90 2* 90 90 99 0/1- 99 90 14 90 90 90 Z-%- 

Arabian 17-tone Scale 


has been wrongly interpreted by Villoteau 
{c. 1820) and by Kiesewetter [Die Musi\ 
der Araber (1842)] as a scale of equal 
third-tones. Besides this division of the 
tetrachord, many others were in use, e.g., 
one named after the Bagdad lutenist Zal- 
zal (8th century) which used the tones 
0-168-355-408-498 cents. 

A special point of Arabic theory which 
has attracted much attention is that of 
consonance and dissonance. It has been 


[45] 



ARABIAN MUSIC 


ARABIAN MUSIC 


claimed that, as early as the loth century 
(Al-Farabi), the Arabs considered the 
third a consonance while in Western Eu- 
rope it was not recognized as such until 
about 1300. The fact is that Arabian the- 
ory does not make any distinction between 
consonance and dissonance, but knows 
only decreasing degrees of consonance, 
namely those which are expressed by the 
following series of fractions: 

%>%>%• Here the major and minor third 
(%f%) range after the octave, the fifth, 
and the fourth, but are followed in turn 
by the intervals, % (fifth below the sev- 
enth harmonic) and % (inversion of the 
seventh harmonic), neither of which exists 
in Western theory, so that they must cer- 
tainly be regarded as strong dissonances 
[see *Messel]. 

Much attention has also been given to 
the question of the influence of Arabian 
music, as practiced on the Spanish penin- 
sula, on Western music (troubadours). 
The sweeping claims which have been 
made by various scholars (particularly by 
H. G. Farmer) have been gready reduced 
by more recent investigations [see Lit., 
Ursprung]. It would appear that Euro- 
pean music is indebted to the Arabs in the 
field of instruments (lute, drum), of the- 
oretical acoustics (measuring of consonant 
lengths of a string — a study which, how- 
ever, in turn goes back to the ancient 
Greeks), and of certain poetic forms [see 
•Zajal], but not for such phenomena as 
troubadour music, modal rhythm, or- 
ganum, etc. 

II. Present-Day Status, It goes without 
saying that the above-described scales with 
twelve or more tones represent what the 
chromatic scale represents in, say, the 
classical period of our music, i.e., the the- 
oretical tonal material from which selec- 
tions were made for the purpose of prac- 
tical performance. In musical practice, 
Arabian music uses a seven-tone scale 
which includes four fixed tones, c,f,g,c', 
and two more or less variable tones within 
each fourth. Especially frequent is the 
tetrachord c-db-e-f; however, the interval 
db-e of this progression is smaller than it 
is in our scale, the intervals of the tetra- 
chord being approximately %, i^, and 


% of a whole-tone [cf. Zalzal’s tuning] 
as against i and % of a whole-tone 
in our system. 

An important concept of Arabian mu- 
sic is the maqam. These were formerly 
(Kicsewetter) considered the Oriental 
counterpart of the Western '•^church 
modes. Actually, a maqam is character- 
ized not only by features such as center 
tone and range, but especially by the pref- 
erence of characteristic progressions, me- 
lodic formulae, rhythmic patterns, orna- 
mentations, etc. A maqam, therefore, is 
a •melody-type, and a composition in a 
given maqam is written not only “in a 
given key,” but also “in a given style or 
tradition.” Some of these maqam go back 
to local traditions and may be compared 
to what we would call, for example, a 
Vhongroise, Others were originally melo- 
dies of famous composers which were 
imitated by other composers. For the 
Arabian musician such a maqam estab- 
lishes a tradition similar to what we ex- 
press by the term “Beethoven-style.” 
Even today each piece of Arabian music 
is written in one of the maqam [see the 
ragas of •Hindu music]. However, the 
relationship of a composition to its maqam 
is difficult for the non-Oriental listener to 
discover. In many cases it appears to exist 
chiefly in the instrumental prelude which 
usually opens an Arabian composition. 
Evidently, by referring to the maqam in 
the prelude, the musician pays tribute to 
tradition and subsequently feels free to 
play as he pleases*. 

The more elaborate examples of Ara- 
bian music (chiefly instrumental) consist 
of a prelude in free rhapsodic style which 
serves to establish the maqam in the mind 

Voice 


lib! 

Ill 

\UU 

SrSSS^SSrSS 

mSss^sssssssajm* 


IVRI 

ivHSn 


wr.wmmm SS^SS 


SSISsSsk! 


Arabian Music 


of the listener and which is followed by a 
scries of pieces in strict rhythm but of 
freer invention in the same maqam. Thus 
the form is strongly reminiscent of that of 


[46] 



ARCATA 


ARCICEMBALO 


a suite, with all the dances being in the 
same key. 

The rhythm of Arabic melodies is sim- 
ilar to that of Hindu music. Typical is an 
% meter with the rhythm of the measure 
alternating between the “European” ar- 
rangement 2+2+2-I-2 and the “Orien- 
tal” arrangement 2 +3 +3* The drums 
frequently provide a rhythmical counter- 
point [see Ex. on p. 46] . 

The main instruments of Arabian mu- 
sic arc the short-necked lute with four or 
five strings, tuned in fourths and called 
*ud, from which the European lute de- 
rived both its form and its name (al *ud^ 
lud, lute), and the long-necked lute called 
tanbur (originally pan-tur^ Sumerian 
“bow-small,” Greek *pandura), usually 
with two strings, tuned in minor seconds 
[see *Lute II]. The family of the bowed 
instruments is represented by the *rebab 
and the kemantchey consisting of a long 
stick extending through a coconut [sec 
♦Violin II]. A frequently used wind in- 
strument is the arghooly a double shawm 
with two pipes, one for the melody, the 
other for bourdon accompaniment. For 
an example cf. HAMy no. 3. 

Lit.: F. S. Daniel, The Music and the 
Musical Instruments of the Arabs (1915; 
bibl.); H. G. Farmer, A History of Ara- 
bian Music to the xiiith Century (1929; 
bibl.); Ph. Thornton, The Voice of Atlas 
(1936); D. Salvador, The Music of the 
Arabs (1915); R. von Erlanger, La Mu- 
sique arabe (1930); LavT. i.5, 2676; A. 
Berner, Studien zur Arabischen Musi\ . . . 
(1937); E. A. Beichert, Die Wissenschaft 
der Musi\ bei Al Farabi (Diss. Berlin 
1936); Hefny, Ibn Sinas Musiklehre 
(Diss. Berlin 1931); English translation 
of Al Farabi (Farmer); D. Stoll, “Music 
in Mediaeval Bagdad” (MR i); A. Z. Idel- 
sohn, “Die Maqamen der arabischen Mu- 
sik” (SIM xv); R. Lachmann, in Wolf 
Festschrift (1929) and in AMW v; H. G. 
Farmer, in PM A lii; O. Ursprung, in 
ZMW xvi; B. Bartok, in ZMW ii; J. Roua- 
net, in RM v, viii; R. P. Thibault, in 
BSIM vii (1911). 

Areata [It.]. See ♦Bowing (a); arcatOy 
bowed. 


Archet [F.], archetto [It.]. *Bow(of 
the violin). 

Architectural acoustics. The study 
of the acoustic properties of a room (par- 
ticularly, of concert halls, radio-studios) 
as to ♦resonance, reflection, echo, etc. Re- 
cent investigations have raised this field of 
study from the former stage of experi- 
mentation to an important branch of 
science. 

Lit.: H. Bagenal, Planning for Good 
Acoustics (i^2n)-y H. Davis, The Acou- 
stics of Buildings (1927); P. R. Heyl, 
Architectural Acoustics (1930); V. O. 
Knudsen, Architectural Acoustics (1932); 
P. E. Sabine, Acoustics and Architecture y 
(1932); F. R. Watson, Acoustics of Build- 
ings (1930); H. H. Statham, in PM A 
xxxviii; A. Elson, in MQ vii. 

Archives des Maitres de POrgue. 
Sec ♦Editions, Historical, I. 

Archlute, arciliuto [It.]. A lute with 
two pegboxes, one for the fingered strings, 
the other for the bass courses (theorboe, 
chitarrone). See ♦Lute III. 

Arcicembalo, arciorgano. A quar- 
ter-tone harpsichord of the i6th century, 
described by N. Vicentino in his Uantica 
musica (1555) and Descrizione delV arci- 
organo (1561). Each octave had 31 keys 
which were arranged in 6 manuals and 
which gave all the tones of the diatonic, 
chromatic, and enharmonic genera of an- 
cient Greek theory. A simplified instru- 
ment of greater practical importance was 
built by the Belgian Charles Luython 
(1556-1620); it had 18 keys in each oc- 
tave, namely — in addition to the diatonic 
tones — c% and db. At and eb, it and gb, 
g# and ab, bb, et, and ht. This instru- 
ment, called U niversal-clavicymbel (M. 
Practorius, in his Syntagma musicum, 
1624, praises it as “instrumentum perfec- 
tum si non perfectissimum”), permitted 
enharmonic change and modulation in all 
the keys, without the compromise of equal 
temperament. Compositions such as John 
Bull’s Fantasia on fhe Hexachord (Fitz- 
william Virginal Boo\ 1 , 183) [see ♦Hexa- 
chord IV] are evidently written for this 
instrument. 


1 47] 



ARCO 


ARGENTINA 


Lit.: A. Koczirz, in SIM ix; ShoW 
Tanaka, in VMW vi; W. Dupont, 
schichte der musi\alischen Temper atur 
(1935), 5ifl. 

Arco [It.]. Bow (of violins, etc.). See 
*Coir arco. 

Arditamente [It.]. Boldly. 

A re. Are. See ^Hexachord III. 

Argentina. The beginnings of musical 
life in Argentina, as in other parts of 
Latin America, are associated with the 
efforts of the early missionaries to teach 
the arts and crafts of Europe to the native 
population. In the La Plata region, espe- 
cially, important missions were estab- 
lished, with music playing a prominent 
role in their organization. The most 
gifted and zealous of these missionaries 
as regards the teaching of music was the 
Jesuit Father Luis Berger (1588-1641), 
under whose guidance the Indians be- 
came adept at playing many kinds of 
European musical instruments. His ac- 
tivities extended throughout the prov- 
inces, and even into Chile. 

It is not until the period of Independ- 
ence that we find other names which need 
claim our attention. First of all may be 
mentioned the composer of the Argentine 
National Hymn (1813), Bias Parera, a 
rather obscure teacher of piano and violin, 
of whose life little is known. In 1817 he 
was in Spain, where he died. His Hymn, 
officially adopted by government decree, 
has firmly entrenched itself in the affec- 
tion of the Argentine people. The out- 
standing composers of the 19th century 
were amateurs who cultivated music in 
the midst of various kinds of public activ- 
ity. They were Amancio Alcorta (1805- 
62), Juan Pedro Esnaola (1808-78), and 
Juan Bautista Alberdi (1810-84). All 
three were of Basque descent. Their mu- 
sic shows scarcely any local influence, be- 
ing largely dominated by Italian tenden- 
cies. All die works composed by Alcorta 
from 1822 to 1830 — his most prolific 
period — have been lost. From 1832 he 
lived in Buenos Aires and continued to 
compose while holding various official 


positions. The works dating from this 
period were published by his family at 
Paris in two volumes (1869, ’83), com- 
prising chamber music, piano pieces, and 
songs. 

Esnaola, a native of Buenos Aires, stud- 
ied at the conservatories of Paris and Ma- 
drid and became an accomplished pianist. 
Upon returning to Buenos Aires in 1822 
he founded there the Academia dc Musica. 
He composed orchestral works, church 
music, songs, and piano pieces, mostly 
unpublished. Alberti, born in Tucuman, 
had a distinguished career as a man of 
letters and composed music simply as a 
pastime. Most of his compositions have 
been lost, but some were published in a 
periodical called La Moda^ founded by 
Alberdi himself (1837-38). His works 
are mostly for piano, and in 1 832 he pub- 
lished a piano method for amateurs. 

The dean of contemporary Argentine 
composers is Alberto Williams (b. Buenos 
Aires, 1862), grandson of Amancio Al- 
corta, of English descent on his father’s 
side. After initial studies in Buenos Aires 
he attended the Paris Conservatory, study- 
ing piano and composition. In 1893 he 
founded the Conservatory of Buenos 
Aires, which now has many branches 
throughout the country, and of which he 
was still director in 1940. A prolific com- 
poser, he has written nine symphonies and 
several symphonic poems, concert over- 
tures and suites for orchestra, many piano 
pieces, songs (to his own texts), choral 
works, chamber music, and technical trea- 
tises. Although his technique is entirely 
European and academic, he has essayed 
a national style in his Argentine Suites for 
strings, his Aires de la Pampa for piano, 
etc. 

The contemporary Argentine school is 
vigorous and varied. Juan Jose Castro (b. 
1895), pupil of d’Indy at the Schola Can- 
torum in Paris, is active as conductor and 
as composer {Sinfonta Argentina^ Sinfo- 
nia Biblica, etc.). In 1941 he appeared as 
guest conductor of the NBC Orchestra in 
New York. His brother, Josd Maria Cas- 
tro (b. 1892), is a member of the “Grupo 
Renovacion,” which includes also Hono- 
rio Siccardi (b. 1897), Luis Gianneo (b. 


[48] 



ARGENTINA 


ARIA 


1897), and Jacobo Ficher (b. Odessa, 

1896) . The radical Juan Carlos Paz (b. 

1897) is an exponent of the twelve-tone 
system. Among the younger composers 
are Carlos Suffern, Isabel Aretz-Thiele, 
Roberto Garcia Morillo, Julio Perceval, 
and Alberto Ginastera (who is exception- 
ally talented). 

In Latin American countries native 
opera is rather rare, but the Argentine 
composers have been very active in this 
field. Their activity has no doubt been 
stimulated by the presence of the famous 
Teatro Colon in Buenos Aires, where both 
native and foreign operas are produced 
under excellent conditions. Prominent as 
opera composers are Pascual de Rogatis 
{La Novia del Hereje), Raul Espoile {La 
Ciudad Roja), Enrique Casella {La T a- 
pera), and especially Felipe Boero, who 
scored a marked success with his folk 
opera El Matrero, dealing with life on the 
Argentine pampas. On the whole, Italian 
influence predominates in Argentine op- 
era. 

Other contemporary composers are 
Juan A. Garcia Estrada (b. 1895), Gilardo 
Gilardi (b. 1889), Athos Palma (b. 1891), 
Arturo Luzzati (b. Turin, 1875), and 
Carlos Lopez Buchardo. Musicians who 
have devoted themselves primarily to col- 
lecting, arranging, and performing folk 
music are Andres Beltrame, Andres Cha- 
zarreta, Vicente Forte, and Carlos Vega, 
The composer and pedagogue Josue T. 
Wilkes has also done interesting work in 
this field, notably with his arrangement 
of Doce Canciones Coloniales. 

The folk songs and dances of Argen- 
tina are largely of Spanish (or at least 
European) origin, with only a slight In- 
dian influence in certain songs such as the 
vidala (or vidalita) and the ^triste, which, 
as its name implies, is a rather sad love 
song. See also ^Milonga; *Tango. 

Lit.: J. Alvarez, Ori genes de la mdsica 
argentina (1908); A. Schianca, Historia 
de la musica argentina (1933); C. Vega, 
Danzas y canciones argentinas (1933); 
A. Williams, iAntologia de compositores 
argentinos, Cuaderno I: Los precur sores 
(1941); C. Vega, La musica popular ar- 
gentina (i94i)» 


Arghool, arghul. See *Arabian 
music II. 

Aria. I. An elaborate solo song (occa- 
sionally for two solo voices; see *Duet) 
with instrumental accompaniment. The 
aria figures prominently in the cantatas 
and oratorios of the 17th and i8th cen- 
turies and in opera of all periods except 
the Wagnerian type. It is distinguished 
from the air, song, or Lied by (a) gener- 
ally greater length; (b) non-strophic form 
(♦through-corn posed); and (c) an accent 
on purely musical design and expression, 
often at the expense of the text. In fact 
the small regard which many aria com- 
posers have shown for the text has evoked 
serious criticism of the form and, in some 
instances, it has led writers of operas to 
banish the aria from the stage; Gluck, for 
instance, replaced it by the simpler Lied, 
and Wagner substituted his dramatic 
recitative. By and large such criticism 
cannot be justified. Although at certain 
periods (especially c, 1750 with Piccinni 
and c. 1850 with Meyerbeer) the aria style 
has been characterized by conventional- 
ism and exaggeration, the great majority 
of arias represent a treasure of great musi- 
cal value. Moreover, in opera the aria has 
a definite and important function, in rep- 
resenting lyric episodes which temporar- 
ily relieve the dramatic tension of the 
action. 

II. The term aria occurs first as a title 
of wordless canzones (“Arie di canzon 
francese”) in the second book of madri- 
gals by Ingegneri (1579). Its first use to 
indicate a monodic song occurs in Cac- 
cini's Nuove Musiche ( 1602). Here, how- 
ever, contrary to its later meaning, it is 
used to denote shorter, strophic songs 
[cf. HAMy no. 183; SchGMBy no. 191], 
while the longer, through-composed 
pieces which are more allied to the later 
aria are still called madrigals. The Cac- 
cini sense of the word aria was adopted 
by German composers such as Johann 
Staden (1581-1634; cf. DTB y.i and 8.i); 
Heinrich Albert (1604-51; cf. DdT 
12/13; HAMy no. 205; SchGMBy no. 
193), Adam Krieger (1634-66; cf. DdT 
19; HAMy no. 228; SchGMBy no, 209), 


G. C. 

1 49 ] 



ARIA 


ARIA 


and Joh. Philipp Kricger (1649-1725; 
c£. DdT 53/54). Those of Adam Krieger 
[see *Ritornell (2)] especially are impor- 
tant forerunners of the German strophic 
Lied of the i8th and 19th centuries [cf. 
RiHM ii.2, 33 iff]. 

III. The early development of the aria 
proper took place in Italy during the 17th 
century. The first stage of this develop- 

A B 

/ * ^ ^ 

.a' a" a b ---- 

T T D T R Dp 


to the ternary scheme ABA. Early ex- 
amples of this form occur in Monteverdi’s 
Orjeo and Poppea [cf. RiHM ii.2, 197, 
205, 238]. The form is more fully devel- 
oped with Luigi Rossi (1598-1653; cf. 
RiHM ii.2, 374), Giacomo Carissimi 
(1605-74), Francesco Gavalli (1602-76), 
Marcantonio Cesti (1623-69), and others 
[cf. the operas of Cavalli and Cesti; also 


A 



R T T D T 


Scheme of the Da-capo Aria 
T = tonic; D = dominant; R = relative key 


ment {c, 1600-50) is characterized by the 
emergence of various formal schemes, in- 
cluding (a) an amorphous, continuous 
type of *monodic melody, midway be- 
tween recitative and song, sometimes 
called *arioso; (b) a canzona-like type, 
consisting of contrasting sections, alternat- 
ing in tempo, meter, etc.; (c) the basso- 
ostinato aria in which the melody is 
formed above a repeated ground. Arias 
of these types occur in: J. Peri, Varie 
musichc (1609); Alessandro Grandi, 
Cantade et arie a voce sola (1620; cf. 
RiHM ii.2, 38); Steflano Landi, Arie a 
una voce (1620; cf. RiHM ii.2, 50); Bene- 
detto Ferrari, Music he varie (1633-41; 
cf. RiHM ii.2, 55). While in the ostinato- 
aria of Peri, Grande, and Landi the re- 
peated bass is a well-rounded musical 
sentence of considerable length, so that 
the resulting form might well be consid- 
ered a strophic aria with a varied melody 
[see *Strophic bass], Ferrari was one of 
the first to use short, characteristic mo- 
tives of the ostinato-type proper. This 
form, actually a “vocal passacaglia” [see 
*Chaconne and passacaglia], was fre- 
quently used by Italian, English, and 
French composers of the second half of 
the 17th century (Carissimi, Purcell, 
Couperin; cf. the Crucifixus of Bach’s 
B minor Mass), 

IV. The second stage {c, 1650-1750) 
is characterized by the establishment of 
the da<apo aria as the typical form. In 
this form the first section (A) is repeated 
in toto after the second (B), thus leading 


Lit., LandshofI, Riemann]. It attained 
great artistic perfection in the hands of 
such men as A. Scarlatti, J. S. Bach, and 
Handel. A special feature, introduced by 
Scarlatti and largely adopted by Bach, 
was the opening announcement of the 
initial theme twice, first by the instru- 
ments (a'), then by the voice (a"), before 
the main statement in the voice (a). Ger- 
man writers call this announcement Z)e- 
vise (device), hence the name *Devisen- 
arie (Riemann). Each of the three sec- 
tions employs a three-part modulating 
scheme, B usually in the relative key (R). 
The material of B is generally different 
from that of A, but not of a highly con- 
trasting character. 

V. During the i8th century the da-capo 
aria became the vehicle of great virtuoso 
display and of a conventionalism which 
led to a codification and classification in 
various types prescribed by typical oper- 
atic situations, such as aria cantabile^ di 
bravura^ parlante^ di car alter e (air de cha- 
racter e), di mezzo car alter e^ etc. [cf. GD 
i, 1 10] . The desire on the part of the great 
singers to show their ability in various 
musical styles led, about 1750, to a form 
consisting of two separate arias of con- 
trasting character, usually the first dra- 
matic, the second lyrical. Most of the op- 
eratic arias by Mozart arc of this type, 
c.g., the famous “Register”-aria of Lepo- 
rcllo in Don Giovanni (ist Act). In the 
operas of the later Neapolitan School 
(Leo, Porpora, Vinci, Jommelli) the use 
of the aria was so extended that the whole 


1 50] 



ARIETTA 

opera consisted of nothing but arias. This 
abuse was the main point of attack of 
Gluck’s reform. 

The aria remained in the favor of oper- 
atic composers throughout the first half 
of the 19th century (Beethoven, Auber, 
Rossini). While Wagner discarded it 
more or less completely in his first operas 
(Rienzi, 1840; Der fliegende HoHander^ 
1841), Verdi continued to use it except in 
his last two operas {Otello^ 1886; Falstaff, 

1893)- 

Lit.: B. Flogel, Die Arientechni\ in den 
Opern Handels (Diss. Halle 1929); H. 
Riemann, '^Kantatenfruhling, 4 vols.; L. 
Landshoff, ^Alte Meister des Belcanto^ 5 
vols.; J. Godefroy, “Some Aspects of the 
Aria” (ML xvii); H. Goldschmidt, in 
MfM xxxiii. See also under *Opera; 
^Cantata. 

Arietta [It.], ariette [F.]. (i) A 
small aria, usually in binary form and 
lacking the musical elaboration of the 
*aria; thus rather, a song or a ^cavatina. 
— (2) In French operas before 1750, an 
aria to Italian words, usually in brilliant 
coloratura style. — (3) In the op^ra- 
comique of the second half of the i8th 
century, a solo song (aria) in French, pre- 
ceded and followed by spoken dialogue, 
the work being known as a “comedie 
melee d’ariettes.” 

Lit.: P. M. Mason, UOpSra de Rameau 
(1930); G. Cucuel, Les CrSateurs de 
V opera-comique frangais (1914). D. J. G. 

Arioso [It., like an aria]. A style which 
is midway between that of an aria and a 
recitativo. A good example showing the 
difference between these three styles is a 
cantata by Cesti {c. 1650), reproduced in 
AdHMy 439ff. Bach uses the arioso re- 
peatedly for the concluding section of a 
recitative when he wishes to bestow upon 
it a particular expression of assurance or 
confidence [see ^Cavata]. Two examples, 
in the style of the *recitativo accompa- 
gnato, occur in the cantata Ein feste Burg 
illustrated. Beethoven, in the final move- 
ment of his Piano Sonata op. no, uses the 
term for an accompanied recitative played 
on the pianoforte. 

t 


ARLfiSIENNE, L’ 



reiue dei ne $d)ul(l mtt 5d|mef2 G^risil 



Arioso from Ein feste Burg 


Arithmetic division. In 16th-century 
musical theory, the division of a string 
into sections of equal length, e.g., those 
indicated by the fractions 
%,% as opposed to the harmonic (or 
geometric) division in which the denomi- 
nator changes: The 

theoretical interest of these two divisions 
(if applied to the string of a monochord) 
lies in the fact that, while the latter leads 
to the harmonics and, in particular, to the 
major triad, the former gives the tones of 
a minor triad: 


ARITHMETIC DIVISION 



C E b 6 c ^ 


HARMONIC DIVISION 



C C f c' t' f’ 


The right end of the string, A, is fixed, the other 
is altered by means of a fret. 

These two divisions form the basis of 
Zarlino’s “dual theory” [see *Dualism] 
in which minor mode is called divisio 
arithmetica\ major, divisio harmonica [/r- 
tituzioni harmoniche (1558)]. 

Arl6sienne, L*. Incidental music by 
Georges Bizet (1838—75) to Alphonse 

t] 


ARMENIAN MUSIC 

Daudet’s play VArlesienne (“The 
Woman of Arles”). It is usually played 
in the form of two orchestral suites [see 
♦Suite V], arranged by Bizet in 1872. 

Armenian music. Since Armenia was 
the first country officially to adopt the 
Christian faith (A.D. 303), the history of 
Armenian sacred literature and music has 
attracted much attention. The Armenian 
liturgy, like that of Byzantium, consists 
chiefly of hymns. The most ancient of 
these hymns were in prose. Later versi- 
fied hymns became prominent, especially 
through the activity of the great poet 
Nerses Schnorhali (nth century). The 
official book of hymns, called sharaJ{an, 
contains 1166 songs. The earliest pre- 
served liturgical manuscripts containing 
musical signs date from the 14th century. 
The notation is a highly developed system 
of neumes (Armenian neumes) which 
certainly was the result of a long evolution 
[examples in LavE i.i, 552; Thibaut, 
Notation neumatique de Veglise latine 
(1907), plate 4], but the lack of treatises 
explaining this notation renders the Ar- 
menian neumes undecipherable. In the 
early 19th century a new system of musi- 
cal notation, similar to that of the present- 
day Greek church music, was introduced 
and is still in use. Whether the present- 
day melodies are identical with or similar 
to those of the early books cannot be ascer- 
tained, but the fact that the modern chants 
are grouped according to an ♦oktoechos 
based on melodic formulae suggests an 
ancient origin of the melodies. The con- 
tinuity of tradition is more doubtful so 
far as the rhythmic interpretation of Ar- 
menian chant is concerned. The melo- 
dies of the present liturgy are based upon 
strict time, with the temporal unit (^^/, 
i.e., beat) divided into an elaborate sys- 
tem of rhythmic formations of smaller 
values, including 32d and 64th notes. 
Whereas scholars such as R. P. Dechev- 
rens and J. C. Jeannin have considered 
this rhythm of great antiquity and have 
used it as an argument in favor of striedy 
rhythmical interpretation of Gregorian 
chant, P. Aubry considers it as a fairly 
recent innovation due to Turkish influ- 

[: 


ARPEGGIO 

ence (15th century). The purest source 
of Armenian church music is undoubt- 
edly the music in use at Edjmiadzin, 
which is also used at Tiflis and Eriwan. 
The collections issued by European and 
American communities differ widely from 
the traditional forms, chiefly owing to the 
use of cheap modern harmonizations. 

Lit.: P. Bianchini, Les Chants litur- 
giques de ISglise armSnienne (1877); 
M. Ekmalian, Les Chants de la sainte li- 
turgie (1896); A. Abgar, Melodies of the 
Holy Apostolic Church of Armenia (Cal- 
cutta, 1897); Nerses Ter-Mikaelian, Das 
armenische Hymnarium (1905); P. Au- 
bry, Le Rhythme tonique ( 1903); A. Gas- 
toue, in LavE i.i, 541; P. Aubry, in TG 
vii, viii, ix; E. Wellesz, in AdHM i, 139 
and in JPM xxvii; K. Keworkian, in SIM 
i; A. Gastoue, in RdM, no. 31; GD, Suppl. 
Vol., 176. 

Secular music: K. Keworkian, Musique 
populaire arminienne (1931); R. P. 
Komitas, Musique populaire armtnienne 
(1925 and later); F. Macler, La Musique 
en Arminie (1917); F. H. Paelian, The 
Music of Armenia (1939; bibl.); R. Pesce, 
La Musica armena (1935); S. Poladian, 
Armenian Foll(^ Songs (1942). 

Armonioso [It.]. Harmoniously. 

Armure [F.]. Key-signature. 

Arpa [It.]. Harp. See also under ♦Psal- 
tery. 

Arpeggio [It., from arpeggiare, to play 
upon a harp; F. arpegement or harpbge- 
ment; E. battery; G. Brechung\. A term 
applied to the notes of a chord when they 
are played one after another instead of 
simultaneously. In modern music the 
arpeggio is indicated by one of the signs 
given in Ex. i. Its execution always starts 
with the lowest note, and as a rule it 
should begin at the moment when the 
chord is due (i.e., on the beat) whether 
indicated by sign or by tiny notes [Ex. 2, 
Mozart, Sonata E major; Ex. 3, Chopin, 
Nocturne op. 62, no. i ] . There are cases, 
however, in which the melody carried by 
the top note of the arpeggio will not bear 
the delay caused by this execution, so that 

1 



ARPEGGIO 

the last note of the arpeggio must then be 
made to coincide with the beat [Ex. 4, 
Mendelssohn]. The latter performance is 



generally to be recommended, in piano- 
forte music, whenever the arpeggio occurs 
in the left hand alone, as in Ex. 5 (Chopin, 
Mazurka op. 7, no. 3). A distinction 
should be made between an arpeggio 
played simultaneously with both hands 
[Ex. 6] and a long arpeggio in which the 
right hand succeeds the left [Ex, 7]. The 
latter is (or should be) indicated by a long 
arpeggio sign, joining the two staves. For 
the violin arpeggio, see ^Bowing (i). 

In the music of the 17th and i8th cen- 
turies the execution of the arpeggio varied 
considerably (often at the discretion of 
the individual performer) in respect to 
direction and number of notes. The 
French clavecinistes used the signs shown 
in Ex. 8 to indicate the arpegement en 
montant (ascending arpeggio) and those 
in Ex. 9 for the arpegement en descendant 
(descending arpeggio). Other special 
signs were used to indicate various kinds 


ARPEGGIO 

of arpegements figureSy or arpeggios in 
which unwritten notes are introduced 
[see Ex. 10, ii and 12]. It will be ob- 
served that in performance of these arpe- 
gements figures all the notes are held ex- 
cept those that are foreign to the chord. 



which are immediately released [see *ac- 
ciaccaturaj. An appoggiatura to an ar- 
peggio chord is incorporated in the arpeg- 
gio, occasioning a delay of the particular 
note to which it belongs, as in Ex. 13. A 
combination of arpegements figures and 
an appoggiatura is shown in Ex. 14, from 
Bach’s Partita in E minor. 

In music of the time of Bach and 
Handel the word “arpeggio” is sometimes 
found written at the beginning of a se- 
quence of chords. The player, in this 
case, is at liberty to break the chords up 
and down several times, to extend them, 
and to interpolate foreign notes as he sees 
fit [cf. Handel’s own notation of the last 
four bars of the Prelude to his keyboard 
Suite in D minor] . The note-values, and 
even the tempo of such passages, are en- 
tirely at the player’s discretion. These 
chords (e.g., Aose in Bach’s Chromatic 
Fantasia) are written in measured time 
only to facilitate reading, the style of per- 
formance being derived from the unmeas- 

1 






ARPEGGIONE 

ured preludes of the lutcnists and early 
French clavecinistes (Louis Couperin, 
d’Anglcbert, etc.; see *Prelude II). P. A. 

Arpeggione, also called guitar violon- 
cello, guitarre d’amour. A stringed in- 
strument of the size of a violoncello, but 
with a guitar-like body, and with six 
strings tuned in E, A, d, g, b, e', invented 
in 1823 by G. Staufer. It is played with a 
bow. Franz Schubert wrote the only ex- 
isting composition for it, a sonata for the 
arpeggione and piano (1824; see the col- 
lected edition [B. and H.], Series viii). 

Arpicordo. Italian 16th-century name 
for a harpsichord which differed in some 
unknown detail from the clavicembalo 
[see ^Harpsichord II]. Cf. the title of a 
publication from 1551: Intabulatura nova 
di vari'e sorte di balli da sonare per Arpi- 
chordi^ Clavicembali^ Spinette c Mona- 
chordi\ also G. Picchi, Intabolatura di 
balli d* arpicordo (1620) [see ^Editions 
III, 2]. Cf. the article in SaRM. 

Arrache [F.j. Forceful pizzicato. 

Arrangement. The adaptation of a 
composition for instruments other than 
those for which it was originally written 
(thus, in a way, the musical counterpart 
of a literary translation). One may distin- 
guish between arrangements which are 
made chiefly for study purposes and others 
which arc for public performance. In the 
former class we find all the customary 
piano arrangements of operas, sympho- 
nies, quartets, etc. Here, strict adherence 
to the original text is rightly considered 
the foremost duty of the editor, who is 
permitted only to detract from, not to add 
to, the original. In the second category, 
which involves the creative participation 
of the arranger, various procedures have 
been followed at different periods, rang- 
ing from simple transcriptions in which 
the musical substance remains the same 
but is transferred to a new medium, to the 
complete reworking of a piece with addi- 
tions and modifications. Noteworthy ex- 
amples of this category are: the *lntabu- 
lierung of the 15th and i6th centuries; 
Bach’s arrangements of violin-concertos 


ARS ANTIQUA 

by Vivaldi and others for the harpsichord 
and the organ, or of the fugue from his 
solo-violin sonata in G minor (no. i) for 
the organ (D minor; B.-G. xv, 148); 
Haydn’s Die Sieben Worte am Kreuz 
which appeared as an orchestral composi- 
tion, as a string quartet, and as choral 
music [cf. A. Sandberger, in JMP xj; 
Liszt’s concert arrangements of Schubert’s 
songs and of scenes from Wagnerian 
operas; Brahms’s arrangement for two 
pianofortes of his orchestral variations on 
a theme by Haydn (op. 56), etc. 

In the last score of years there has been 
an extraordinary activity in transcribing 
Bach’s organ works for the piano and the 
orchestra. Although this must be wel- 
comed as a token of the ever growing in- 
terest in the work of the great master, yet 
the development has taken on forms 
which have recently led to a sharp reaction 
against the “business of arrangement.” 
This opposition, however, is justifiable 
only with regard to certain methods of 
transcription. Several transcribers (e.g., 
Respighi), instigated by the display of 
modern orchestration or pianoforte-tech- 
nique, have tried — and certainly with 
success — to bestow upon Bach’s organ 
pieces an impressionistic lushness or a Ro- 
mantic emotionalism which is inconsistent 
with the intrinsic clarity of his style. 

Lt.: K. Grunsky, Die Techni\ des 
Klavierauszugs (1911); E. Friedlander, 
Wagner-Liszt und die Kunst der Klavier- 
bearbeitung (1922); E. Howard-Jones in 
ML, xvi, no. 4. 

Arrescu [Sp.]. See *Aurrescu. 

Ars antiqua [L., the ancient art]. 
I. The term Ars antiqua (Ars veterum) 
was used by writers of the early 14th cen- 
tury (e.g.. Speculum Musicae, c, 1325; cf. 
CS ii, 429) to distinguish the late 13th- 
century school (Franco, c. 1260; Petrus 
de Cruce, c. 1290) from that of their own 
day which was called *Ars nova (or Ars 
modernorum). Today, both terms are 
usually employed in a wider sense, denot- 
ing music of the 13th and 14th centuries 
respectively. The Ars antiqua, then, in- 
cludes the School of Notre Dame with its 
two masters, Leoninus (second half of the 


[54] 



ARS ANITIQUA 

i2th century) and Perotinus (c. ii6o- 
1220), and the ensuing period, which, for 
want of other names, may be divided into 
the school of Franco (middle 13th cen- 
tury) and that of Petrus de Cruce (late 
13th century). The School of Notre 
Dame was preceded by the School of *St. 
Martial (c, 1100-50). 

Leoninus, called “optimus organista” 
by the English Anon. IV [CS i, 342] 
(i.e., greatest composer of *organa, not — 
as some modern writers believe — “very 
able organist’*), was the creator of the 
Magnus liber organi de gradali et de an- 
tiphonario (great book of organa for the 
Mass and for the Office), which represents 
a complete cycle of two-part organa (or- 
gana dupla) for the ecclesiastical year, 
about 90 in all [see *Magnus liber]. 

Perotinus, “optimus discantor” (i.e., 
greatest composer of *discantus), pardy 
rewrote this repertory in a more “crystal- 
lized” style which is characterized by the 
consistent use of modal meter [see 
♦Modes, rhythmic] and by the increase of 
the number of parts from two to three 
and, occasionally, four (organum triplum 
and organum quadruplum; cf. AdHM i, 
226, 228-232). He and his collaborators 
also added a large number of short com- 
positions, mosdy in two parts, the so- 
called ♦clausulae, which were designed to 
be used as substitutes for corresponding 
sections in Leonin’s organa. These clausu- 
lae constitute the link with the following 
period, as they were frequendy trans- 
formed into *motets. The motet is the 
representative form of the middle and 
second half of the 13th century, during 
which it was cultivated almost to the ex- 
clusion of any other type of music. The 
propensity of the 13th-century musicians 
(practically all anonymous) for this form 
would be difficult to understand were it 
not for the fact that the motet, which orig- 
inally was a striedy liturgical form (a 
clausula provided with a full text in the 
upper part), soon underwent secular in- 
fluence, partly from the tradition of the 
trouv^res, which brought with it fresh im- 
pulses and even many heterogeneous ele- 
ments (mixture of Latin and French, of 
liturgical tenors and love lyrics). TTie 

[ 


ARS ANTIQUA 

repertory of the School of Notre Dame 
also includes a large number of ♦con- 
ductus, i.e., Latin songs in one to four 
parts, mosdy to devotional texts, but with- 
out plainsong cantus lirmus, such as oc- 
curs with all the organa, clausulae, and 
motets. 

II. The 13th-century technique of com- 
position may be described as “successive 
counterpoint.” The composer starts out 
with one complete voice, the tenor, which 
is either a pre-existent plainsong melody 
(this is the case with organa, clausulae, 
and practically all motets) or written by 
the composer himself (this is the case 
with conductus). To this fundamental 
part the others are added successively, first 
the duplum (called motetus in a motet), 
then the triplum. Regarding the prin- 
ciples of consonance and dissonance, see 
♦Harmony. 

The most important contribution of the 
Ars antiqua lies in the field of rhythm. 
While the organa of the School of St. 
Martial employ for their upper part me- 
lismas in free, unmeasured rhythm, the 
period around 1150 marks the establish- 
ment of strict rhythm, based on the rhyth- 
mic modes [see ♦Rhythm III (b) (c)]. 
This new rhythm presents itself clearly in 
the clausula-sections of Leonin’s organa, 
while the organal sections are written in 
a transitional style the rhythmic interpre- 
tation of which is still a matter of contro- 
versy [see ♦Organum]. With Perotinus, 
modal rhythm (usually corresponding to 
our % -meter) was universally adopted 
for the entire organa and their derivatives. 

The most important sources of 13th- 
century music are, aside from those men- 
tioned under *Magnus liber organic the 
codices Montpellier, Bamberg, and Huel- 
gas [see ♦Sources]. For complete lists cf. 
F. Ludwig, in AMW v (also ApNPM, 
20if, Sections II, III). 

Related articles: Cantigas; Clausula; 
Conductus; Discant; Estampie; Hocket; 
Lauda; Minnesinger; Modes, Rhythmic; 
Motet I; Square notation; Sumer is icu- 
men in; Theory II; Troubadours; Trou- 
v^res. 

Lit.: OH i (preferably the edition of 
1901; the transcriptions of organa arc 

>] 



ARSIS AND THESIS 

based on wrong principles); ReMMA, 
272-330 (bibl. pp. 445-456); AdHM 
i, 214-265 (bibl. p. 294); BeMMRy 113- 
135 (bibl. p. 180); ApNPMy 215-337; 
’\HAMy nos. 28-42; 1 [SchGMBy nos. 

20; H. Gleason, '^Examples of Music be- 
fore 1400 (1942), pp. 36-75; R. Picker, 
ifPerotinuSy Sederunt prinetpes (1930); 
H. Schmidt, ^Drei Benedicamus Domino 
Organa (1933); R. Picker, “Polyphonic 
Music of the Gothic Period” {MQ xv). 
See also under *Motet and other related 
articles. 

Arsis and thesis [Gr.]. Arsis means 
“lifting” [G. Hebung], thesis means 
“lowering” [G. Sen]{ung], In Greek 
poetry, these terms were used in a sense 
derived from bodily movement, such as 
the lifting and lowering of the foot (as in 
dancing) or of the hand (as in conduct- 
ing). Consequently, arsis meant weak ac- 
cent or lack of accent or weak beat, while 
thesis meant strong accent, strong beat: 

a t a t a t 

I • I .• I 

Unfortunately, Roman and medieval 
writers reversed the meaning of the terms, 
by interpreting them as referring to the 
raising and lowering not of the foot, but 
of the voice. Since with a pair of tones 
the higher one is usually accented more 
than the lower one, the term arsis (high) 
was identified with accent, and thesis 
(low), with lack of accent: 

a t a t a t 

I • I • I • 

It is in this sense that the terms are usually 
applied in Prench writings on meter and 
metrical music. The usage also persists in 
German terminology, in which Hebung 
(arsis) means strong beat, Sen\ung (the- 
sis), weak beat [see ^Vierhebigkeit]. 
Recent English writers have returned to 
the original and proper meaning of arsis 
and thesis [see Webster, Collegiate Dic- 
tionary^, This usage is observed in the 
present book. See *Poetic meter. 

A fugue “per arsin et thesin” is one in 
which the answer of the subject is made 
by contrary motion (e.g., Bach, The Art 
of Fugue, no. 5). 


ARS NOVA 

Ars nova. [L., the new art]. I. Gen- 
eral, Generic name for the music of the 
14th century, in contradistinction to *Ars 
antiqua, i.e., music of the 13th century. 
Properly, the name should be restricted, 
as it originally was, to the music of the 
first half of the 14th century (represented 
in Prance by Philippe de Vitry, in Italy 
by Giovanni da Cascia, Jacopo da Bo- 
logna). Indeed, compositions of the late 
14th century, especially the Prench, show 
features of intellectual refinement, of 
formalism, and even decadence which are 
scarcely compatible with the term “New 
Art.” In the early 14th century, however, 
the Ars nova began as a novel movement 
the chief champion of which was Philippe 
de Vitry {c. 1290-1361). About 1325, he 
introduced the term Ars nova as the title 
of a treatise which, unfortunately, deals 
primarily with the notational rather than 
the musical innovations of the period 
[C 5 iii, 13; transl. by P. Bohn, in MfM 
XX ]. More illuminating from a general 
point of view are the discussions in the 
Speculum musicae, whose author (Jaco- 
bus of Liege; see ^Theory II) gives ex- 
tremely interesting information regarding 
the stylistic contrast between the Ars an- 
tiqua and the Ars nova, although he 
speaks from a decidedly anti-modern 
point of view [book vii, chapters 43—46: 
“Collatio veteris artis ad novam”; cf. CS 
ii, 384; 427-433]. On the other hand, 
Johannes de Muris, who was formerly 
thought to have written the Speculum 
musicae, actually was another leader of 
the new movement, as was the contempo- 
rary Italian writer Marchettus de Padua 
who, in his Pomerium de music a men- 
surata (c. 1320), contrasts the Italian and 
the Prench notation of the 14th century, 
and decides in favor of the latter. In the 
field of musical composition the 14th cen- 
tury saw continued activity in Prance and 
the rise of a new school of polyphonic 
music in Italy. There also are a limited 
number of English compositions of the 
14th century; their main interest lies in 
their early use of sixth-chord style [cf. 
ReMMAy 399; see *Pauxbourdon]. 

II. French Ars Nova, Prom the point 
of view of the Ars antiqua, the achieve- 


[56] 



ARS NOVA 

merits of the early French Ars nova lie in 
the direction of secularization, refinement, 
expressiveness, and, one might even say, 
Romanticism. In striking contrast to the 
rigidity of the Ars antiqua, the music of 
G. de Machaut ( 1300-77) shows free con- 
trapuntal texture, supple rhythm, curved 
lines, and generally bears the stamp of 
high refinement, delicacy, individuality, 
and creative imagination. Whereas in his 
motets Machaut continued the tradition 
of the past [see ^Isorhythmic], he estab- 
lished a completely new style in his secu- 
lar works, the polyphonic ^ballades, ♦ron- 
deaux, and ♦virelais, by abandoning 
cantus-firmus treatment as well as ‘‘suc- 
cessive counterpoint” [see ♦Ars antiqua], 
and by creating the musical style known 
as “melody with accompaniment.” Ma- 
chaut is practically the only French com- 
poser of his time known to us, although a 
few motets of Philippe de Vitry survive 
[cf. H. Besseler in AMW viii, 2451!] . The 
ensuing period of French music, that is, 
the period between Machaut and Dufay, 
is, at present, the least explored period in 
the entire history of polyphonic music. 
This is chiefly due to the great difficulties 
presented by the notation of composi- 
tions from the end of the 14th century 
[cf. the chapter “Mannered Notation” in 
ApNPMy 403^]. Very few compositions 
of this period have as yet been transcribed. 
A general judgment on the merits and 
demerits of composers such as Johannes 
Cesaris, Baude Cordier, Cunelier, Gri- 
mace, Solage, Suzoy, must be postponed 
until further studies are available [see 
Lit., Dannemannj. To some extent the 
gap between Machaut and Dufay is filled 
in by the recent publication of the Manu- 
script d* Apt [see ♦Sources, no. 19] and 
of some pieces in Ch. van den Borren, 
Polyphonia sacra [♦Sources, no. 24]. 

The harmonic style of the Ars nova 
shows some advance over that of the Ars 
antiqua, in so far as thirds are admitted 
more frequently. More interesting is the 
extremely bold treatment of dissonances, 
which frequently reminds one of the dis- 
sonant counterpoint of modern composers 
(c.g., Hindemith). The polyphonic tex- 
ture stands, as it were, under the influ- 


ARS NOVA 

cncc of “points of magnetic attraction” 
at which the parts start and converge 
in perfect consonances, mainly octaves, 
fourths, and fifths, while in between the 
lines move with a remarkable degree of 
individuality and independence from 
harmonic considerations. 

The rhythmic treatment also is remark- 
ably advanced and “modern,” owing par- 
ticularly to the introduction and bold use 
of ♦syncopation which results in frequent 
displacements of the beat or, in other 
words, in a free change of measures 
(mixture of %, %, etc.). In 

the late 14th century, especially, the 
rhythmic structure adopts a complexity 
which is unparalleled in the entire his- 
tory of European music [cf. ApNPMy 
403(1]. 

III. Italian Ars Nova. In the tradition 
of Italian 14th-century music two schools 
can be distinguished, the earlier of which 
is represented chiefly by Jacopo da Bo- 
logna and Giovanni da Cascia {c. 1300- 
50), the later by Francesco Landini 
(1325-97), Paolo Tenorista, Ghirardello 
da Firenze, and others. Musical as well 
as notational features indicate that Italian 
polyphonic music branched off from the 
French tradition of the late 13th century, 
particularly from the style of Petrus de 
Cruce. However, in the half-century from 
1275 till 1325 it developed special traits 
which led to a style of a decidedly na- 
tional character. The forms of the earlier 
school are the ♦madrigal and the ♦caccia, 
while in the later school the ♦ballata (the 
French *virelai) prevails. The style of 
the earlier compositions may best be de- 
scribed as an “ornamented conductus 
style.” The voices, usually two, move 
simultaneously from measure to measure, 
but the upper part makes ample use of 
quick figures (frequendy in sequential 
patterns) leading from one main note to 
the next. With Landini, a good deal of 
the elaborate polyrhythmic style of the 
French (Machaut) appears in Italian 
music. He adds to the French polyphonic 
texture an Italian charm of melody which 
makes him the outstanding master of the 
Trecento and one who foreshadows the 
transparent beauty of Dunstable and 



ART BALLAD 


ART OF FUGUE, THE 


Dufay. For lists of 14th-century sources 
see under *Sources. 

Related articles: Ballata; Ballade; Cac- 
cia; Estampie; Isorhythmic; Madrigal 
(i); Rondeau (i); Syncopation; Virelai. 

Lit.: ReMMA (bibl.); AdHM i, 265- 
294 (bibl.); BeMMRy 136-180 (bibl. p. 
180); ApNPM, 337-435; M. Schneider, 
Die Ars Nova in Franl(reich und Italien 
(1930); E. Dannemann, Die Spdtgotische 
Musi\tradition in FranJ^reich und Bur- 
gund vor dem Aujtreten Dufays (1936); 
W. Korte, Studie zur Geschichte der 
Musi\ in Italien (1933); F. Ellin wood, 
’\The Worlds of Francesco Landini 
(1939); F. Ludwig, ^Guillaume de Ma- 
chaut, Musil(alische Wer/^e, 3 vols. 
(1926-29); G. de Van, fLes Monuments 
de Pars nova i (1939); IfHAMj nos. 43- 
55; fSchGMB, nos. 22-28; fWoGM iii, 
nos. 13—62; F. Ludwig, “Die mehrstim- 
mige Musik des 14. Jahrhunderts’* (SIM 
iv); H. Besseler, “Studien zur Musik des 
Mittelalters” (AMJV vii, viii); J. Wolf, 
“Italian Trecento Music” (PM A Iviii); 
L. Ellinwood, “Origins of the Italian Ars 
Nova” (PAMS, 1937). See also under 
’•^Ballade, *Caccia, etc. 

Art ballad. Stc*Ballade [G.]. 

Arte Musicale in Italia, L’. See 
^Editions II. 

Articulation. In singing, the clear and 
distinct rendering of the tones, especially 
in coloraturas without full text. See also 
^Phrasing. 

Art of Fugue, The. Die Kunst der 
Fuge, the last work of J. S. Bach, written 
in 1749 and published posthumously, in 
a rather careless manner, by his sons in 
1752. It contains some 20 fugues and 
canons, called “contrapuncti,” all based 
on the same theme [Ex. i], in which the 
various devices of imitative counterpoint 
such as inversion, stretto, augmentation, 
diminution, canon, double fugue, triple 
fugue, etc., are exploited in the most 
elaborate and ingenious manner. The 
number of pieces varies in the different 
editions, some of which combine two re- 
lated pieces under one number. Until re- 


cently the Art of Fugue was considered 
chiefly a magnificent manual of advanced 
counterpoint, but during the last two dec- 
ades it has become universally recognized 
as one of the greatest creations of musical 



Art of Fugue 


art. The turning point was the first pub- 
lic performance, promoted by W. Graeser 
(1906-28), in Leipzig in 1927. This 
event was the beginning of a sensational 
revival which has since spread over the 
entire musical world. 

The inaccuracy of the first printed edi- 
tion has given rise to a controversy of 
nearly one hundred years concerning the 
proper order of the contrapuncti, a con- 
troversy in which historical, paleographic, 
and artistic arguments as well as meta- 
physical speculations and mathematical 
abstractions have been advanced without 
leading to a final answer [see Lit., Haupt- 
mann, Rust, Graeser, David, Tovey, 
Apel]. A special problem is presented by 
the last (unfinished) fugue, which has 
frequently been considered extraneous to 
the work, since none of its three subjects 
(the last of which is *B-A-C-H) is the 
principal subject of the Art of Fugue [cf. 
A. Schweitzer, Bach, I, 424]. H. Notte- 
bohm (1817-82), however, showed that 
this subject can be contrapuntally com- 
bined with those of the last fugue [Ex. 2; 
cf. W. Apel, in DM xxii.4, 274]. This is 
sufficient reason for assuming that the 
unfinished “triple fugue” was planned 
as a gigantic quadruple fugue, a fitting 


[58] 




ART OF FUGUE, THE 

climax of the whole work. The chorale 
Wenn wir in hochsten Noten sein which 
was added by the editors “as a recom- 
pense for the incomplete fugue’* docs not 
belong to the work; yet, if played after 
the abrupt breaking off of the preceding 
fugue, it takes on a symbolic significance 
which may outweigh historical scruples. 
According to Mizler (1754), Bach 
planned to write still another quadruple 
fugue which could be reversed (crab mo- 
tion) in all its parts [cf. GD, Suppl. VoL, 
p. 10]. 

Another problem of the Art of Fugue 
is that of medium and performance — 
the question as to whether it is keyboard, 
orchestral, or chamber music. The lack 
of any instrumental specifications in 
either the autograph or the first edition, 
together with the use of the scholarly 
name “Contrapunctus” as a designation 
for the various pieces, characterizes the 
Art of Fugue as a work which is not de- 
pendent upon specified medium or sound, 
a work which is rooted in the contrapuntal 
tradition of the Flemish School rather 
than in the ideas of the Baroque period. 
Therefore any kind of performance must 
be considered justifiable which is in con- 
formity with the austere spirit of the com- 
position. On the other hand, the fact 
should not be overlooked that all the 
pieces, with the exception of the mirror- 
fugues (nos. XII and XIII of the Peters 
ed.), are within the reach of the hands of 
a keyboard player. Evidently, in compos- 
ing the work, Bach was thinking con- 
stantly of keyboard performance, if only 
for instructive purposes. F. Busoni, in his 
Fantasia contrappuntistica (1910), has 
offered a congenial modern version, 
fantastically expanded, of Bach’s last 
fugue. 

Lit.: fB.-G. XXV ; other editions by 
Czerny, W. Graeser, H. Th. David, D. F. 
Tovey (with completion of the unfinished 
fugue); Roy Harris (for string quartet); 
E. Schwebsch (for 2 pianos); M. Haupt- 
mann, Erlduterungen zu BacKs Kunst 
der Fuge (1841, *61); D. F. Tovey, A 
Companion to the Art of Fugue (1931); 
Roy Harris, in MQ xxi; C. S. Terry, in 
MQ xix; H. David, in ]MP xxxiv; W. 


ATONALITY 

Apcl, in DM xxii.4; H. Husmann, in BJ 

XXXV. 

As, asas [G.]. See •Notes. 

Aspiratamente [It.]. Aspiringly. 

Aspiration [F.j. See under *Nach- 
schlag. 

Aspramente [It.]. Harshly. 

Assai [It.]. Very; e.g., allegro assai, 
very quick. 

Assez [F.]. Fairly; e.g., assez vite^ 
fairly quick. 

Assieme [It.]. Together. 

Assyrian music. See *Babylonian 
music. 

Atem [G.]. Breath. Atempause (breath- 
ing pause) is a very short rest used in 
instrumental perforniance for the sake of 
articulation or phrasing. It is sometimes 
indicated by an apostrophe: *. 

A tempo [I.]. Indicates return to nor- 
mal tempo after deviations such as rite- 
nuto, piu lento, ad libitum, etc. 

Atonality, atonal music. Atonality, 
literally “absence of tonality,” is a term 
which is frequently but loosely and con- 
fusingly applied to compositions of the 
20th century [see *New music], and one 
upon which writers and composers have 
voiced the most contradictory opinions. 
Obviously, it is impossible to clarify the 
meaning of atonality without a previous 
agreement regarding the term ^tonality. 
In fact, the chief trouble seems to lie with 
the latter term rather than with its op- 
posite. If, as is frequently the case, the 
word tonality is interpreted in its more 
orthodox sense, as indicating the regular 
vocabulary of 19th-century harmony, then 
any music which deliberately discards the 
fundamental principles of this system 
must be considered atonal, more or less 
(e.g., Busoni, and, still more so, Stravin- 
sky, or Hindemith). It is in this sense 
that the word atonality is frequently used, 
especially by amateurs who upon hearing 
a composition of Hindemith or Stravin- 
sky describe it as atonal because the fa- 
miliar features of traditional harmony are 


[59] 



ATONALITY 

lacking. However, these composers as 
well as many others of the same progres- 
sive group have repeatedly resented being 
referred to as atonal and have emphasized 
the existence of tonal centers in their 
style. If, in accordance with these views, 
the word tonality is understood in its 
widest sense, that is, as including any 
music in which tonal centers are still rec- 
ognizable, then atonality would indicate 
— as it actually should — a still more 
radical break with the orthodox system, 
that is, the complete rejection of any 
tonal relationships. Taking this defini- 
tion as a point of departure, the question 
arises as to the very existence of atonal 
music. In fact, it has been repeatedly 
maintained that atonal music is a contra- 
diction in terms; in other words, that 
music, consisting of tones, necessarily 
must show relationship between these 
tones and hence cannot be completely 
“atonal.” Such an argument is, perhaps, 
too mathematically correct to be artisti- 
cally true. Tonal relationships, in the mu- 
sical sense, are not a matter of demon- 
strable facts, but are a matter of inten- 
tions on the part of the composer. It is 
entirely possible to write music with a 
complete disregard of tonal relationships, 
although it is not possible to avoid all 
tonal relationship in writing music. No 
doubt, the music of Schonberg and of 
some of his followers is written with a 
conscious rejection of tonal relationships 
and hence must be considered atonal 
music. The protests launched repeatedly 
by “atonal” composers against their being 
labeled thus should not be taken too seri- 
ously (Schonberg also “hates to be called 
a revolutionist” — cf. his letter in N. Slo- 
mmsky^ Music Since igoo (1937), p. 575), 
as they seem to originate largely in the 
understandable desire to avoid a denomi- 
nation which, unfortunately but wholly 
without justification, has frequently been 
identified with “amusical.” 

To vindicate atonality from any such 
stigma and to accept the term as a proper 
denomination for an important current 
in New Music, does not, of course, imply 
any statement regarding the artistic 
merits and possibilities of this idiom. The 


AUBADE 

answer to this question still lies in the 
future. Certainly, the first ventures in 
atonality, Schonberg’s Drei Klavier- 
op. II (1908) [see Ex.] and 



](leine Klavierstuc\e op. 19 (1911), were 
radical negations rather than constructive 
contributions. Around 1915, Schonberg 
began to feel that atonality needed a posi- 
tive principle and a technique of its own. 
Obviously this had to be of a non-har- 
monic, hence, of a contrapuntal charac- 
ter. His *Twelve-tone technique was the 
answer to this problem. To the present 
day, it remains the only one that has been 
given. 

Lit.: D. Milhaud, “Polytonalite et 
atonalite” {RM iv); A. Machabey, “Dis- 
sonance, polytonalite, atonalite” {RM 
xxi). See also *Twelve-tone system; 
*New Music. 

Attacca, attacca subito [It.] indi- 
cates, at the end of a movement, that the 
next movement should follow without 
break. 

Attacco. See under *Soggetto. 

Attack [F. attaque]. Promptness and 
decision in beginning a phrase, especially 
in forte passages. In orchestral parlance, 
attack means precise entry of the instru- 
ments. In French orchestras, the concert- 
master is called chej d' attaque. 

Aubade [F., Sp. alborada, from L. alba^ 
dawn]. Morning music, in contradistinc- 
tion to ^serenade, evening music. In the 
17th and 1 8th centuries aubades were 
played in honor of royal or princely per- 
sonages, at the levee. The term has been 
used by various composers (e.g., Bizet, 
Rimsky-Korsakov), to denote a sort of 
idyllic overture. The beginning of Bee- 
thoven’s Pastoral Symphony and Wag- 
ner’s Siegfried-idyll may be considered as 
idealized aubades. See *Alba. 


[60] 




AUDITION 

Audition [F.]. (i) Faculty of hearing. 
— (2) Rehearsal; performance (particu- 
larly by students). 

Auffuhrungspraxis [G., practice of 
performance] . This term has been widely 
adopted by German and non-German 
writers to refer to the manner in which 
early music was performed and should be 
performed. In particular, it refers to the 
many problems connected with the at- 
tempts at restoring, in so far as possible, 
the original sound of compositions from 
the early Middle Ages to Bach. The 
problems of Auffuhrungspraxis vary, of 
course, according to the period in ques- 
tion. In music prior to 1550, the foremost 
question is that of vocal or instrumental 
performance and participation, a question 
which arises from the fact that instru- 
ments are never specified in the sources, 
that the text is often carelessly underlaid, 
or, that long passages or even entire voices 
of an apparently vocal character are 
found without text [see * Vocalization]. 
Another serious difficulty results from the 
fact that the instruments of these periods, 
such as the psaltery, rotta, vielle, rebec of 
the 14th century, the viols, cornettos, 
theorboes of the 15th and i6th centuries, 
are all obsolete. It is only by long and 
patient experiments with modern repro- 
ductions of these instruments that one 
may hope to gain a clearer idea of the in- 
tended sound of ancient music and to 
solve some of the problems indicated 
above. Generally speaking, it must be 
borne in mind that the lack of clear and 
unequivocal indications of instruments, 
accidentals, etc., is not mere negligence 
on the part of the composer or carelessness 
on that of the scribe, but is an adequate 
expression — in fact, the necessary con- 
comitant — of the intrinsically anti-ra- 
tional viewpoint of the Middle Ages and 
the Renaissance. The idea of writing 
music for a specific instrument was just 
as foreign to the 15th-century musician 
as the idea of using one “correct” spelling 
for a word was foreign to a writer of this 
period. In both cases, the only thing that 
mattered was the idea, which remained 


AUFLOSUNG 

the same, regardless of how it was real- 
ized. 

In the 1 6th and 17th centuries the prob- 
lems are relatively simpler. Important 
points are the correct execution of *thor- 
ough-bass, the performance of ♦orna- 
mentations, cither improvised or abbrevi- 
ated, the size of the orchestra, the specifi- 
cations of tempo and dynamics. Most of 
these questions have been rather satisfac- 
torily clarified by musicologists [see, e.g., 
under ♦Dotted notes II]. The main ob- 
stacle to be overcome is the reluctance of 
modern interpreters, particularly orches- 
tral conductors, to accept the historical 
facts, many of which, to be sure, are some- 
what contrary to the aesthetic standards 
and principles of 19th-century music, par- 
ticularly of Romantic music. According 
to the principles of Auffuhrungspraxis a 
work such as Bach’s St, Matthew Passion 
should be performed by an orchestra of 
about 20 players (flutes, oboes, strings, 
organ, harpsichord) and a chorus of 
about the same number of singers; it 
should be played at a moderate speed, 
ranging from allegro to adagio, and with 
a clear distinction of forte and piano 
rather than with constant crescendos and 
decrescendos. In the period after Bach 
the problems of Auffuhrungspraxis prac- 
tically disappear, owing to the greater 
care on the part of the composer to indi- 
cate clearly his intentions. See also ♦En- 
semble (3). 

Lit.: R. Haas, Die musikjalische Auf- 
fuhrungspraxis (in BuHM)\ A. Schering, 
Auffuhrungspraxis alter Musil{ (1931); 
H. Leichtentritt, “Zur Vortragspraxis des 
17. Jahrhunderts” {KIM, 1909, p. 147); 
A. Pirro, “Remarques sur I’ex^cution 
musicale . . .” {c. 1400; KIM, 1930, 
p. 55); G. Pietzsch, in AM iv, no. 2; 
H. Mersmann, “Beitrage zur Auffuh- 
rungspraxis der vorklassischen Kammer- 
musik” {AMW ii); cf. BeMMR, 319 
(bibl.). 

Aufgeregt [G.]. Excited. 

Auflosung [G.]. Resolution (of a dis- 
sonance); cancellation (of an accidental). 
Auftdsungszeichen, the natural sign, I], 


[ 61 ] 



AUFSATZ 


AULOS 


Aufsatz [G.]. Tube of an organ reed 
pipe. 

Aufschnitt [G.]. The mouth of an 
organ pipe. 

Aufstrich [G.]. Up-bow. 

Auftakt [G.]. Up-beat. For Aujial^- 
tigXeit see under ^Phrasing. 

Auftritt [G.]. Scene of an opera. 

Aufzug [G.]. Act of an opera. 

Augmentation and diminutionj^The 
presentation of a subject in doubled (aug- 
mentation) and in halved (diminution) 
values, e.g., with the quarter-note re- 
placed by a half-note or an eighth-note 
respectively. These devices are an impor- 
tant element of variety in fugal writing. 
They are usually introduced towards the 
end of the fugue; thus used, diminution 
bestows a character of stretto; augmenta- 
tion, one of grandeur. Examples are: 
Bach, Wl. CL i, no. 8 (augmentation), 
W^. CL ii, no. 9 (diminution), *Art of 
Fugue, nos. 6 and 7 (simultaneous ap- 
pearance of the normal form, diminution, 
augmentation, and double augmenta- 
tion); Beethoven, Piano Sonata op. no, 
last movement (similar combinations; 
see Ex.). Augmentation and diminution 



are also used frequently in the develop- 
ment sections of symphonies, particularly 
those by Brahms and Bruckner. 

Diminution (or augmentation) occurs 
first in a number of two-voiced *clausu- 
lae of th^ Perotinus period [see •Ars an- 
tiqua] m which a plainsong melody is 
used twice in succession, first in duplex 
longae (dotted half-notes in modern 
transcription)^ then in plain longae 


(dotted quarter-notes) [cf. ApNPM^ 
253]. In the 14th century, diminution 
is explained in detail by theoretical writ- 
ers (Joh. de Muris, Prosdocimus de Bel- 
demandis) and is used almost regularly 
in the motets of G. de Machaut, the tenor 
having the cantus firmus twice, the sec- 
ond time in halved values [see *Iso- 
rhythmic]. With the beginning of the 
15th century, augmentation and diminu- 
tion become notational devices, since the 
change of note values is no longer indi- 
cated by longer or shorter notes, but by 
proportional signs [see ^Proportions] or 
by verbal instructions, such as per aug- 
mentationemy or often by enigmatic in- 
scriptions [see *Canon II]. A last ex- 
ample of this method appears in Bach’s 
^Musical Offering. Many of the *ricer- 
cars of the i6th century use augmentation 
or diminution, e.g., A. Gabrieli’s Ricer- 
care del primo tono [repr. in *Editions 
II, 7] in which each voice states the sub- 
ject once in quadruple augmentation — 
exactly as in the Contrapunctus 7 of 
Bach’s Art of Fugue. 

Augmented intervals. See ♦Inter- 
vals; the augmented fourth is the *tritone. 
Augmented sixth chord [see *Sixth 
chord]. Augmented triad [see *Triad]. 
See also *Harmonic analysis V. 

Aulos. The most important wind in- 
strument of the ancient Greek. It is not 
a flute (as has frequently been stated) 
but rather an oboe, with double reed and 
a number of holes varying from four in 
the oldest instruments to fifteen in the 
later specimens. The numerous pictures 
of aulos players show that the aulos al- 
ways consisted of two pipes; probably the 
larger pipe provided a few tones which 
were missing on the other. Many pictures 
show the player wearing a leather band 
which passes over the mouth and ties at 
the back of his head. This probably 
served to increase the resistance of the 
cheeks, which acted as bellows, and en- 
abled the player to build up a consider- 
able air pressure, thus producing a sound 
which occasionally must have been just 
as shrill as that of a modern bagpipe. 

The aulos originally was an Oriental 


[62] 



AURRESCU 

instrument. According to legend, it was 
introduced into Greece, about 900 B.C., 
by Olympos, who was later glorified as 
the “inventor of music.” Throughout the 
history of Greek music the aulos has re- 
tained its Asiatic character. It was adopted 
for the orgiastic music symbolized by 
Dionysos, whereas the *kithara repre- 
sented the restrained character of au- 
tochthonous Greek music, symbolized by 
Apollo. The aulos music was rapid, 
rhythmic, exciting. The slight modifica- 
tions of pitch which could be obtained by 
half-covering the holes of the aulos prob- 
ably led to the enharmonic genus of 
Greek music. See also *Chroai. 

Lit.: K. Schlesinger, The Gree}{^ Aulos 
(1939); SaHMI, 1381!; A. Howard, “The 
Aulos or Tibia,” Harvard Studies in 
Classical Philology, iv and x. 

Aurrescu, arrescu [Sp.]. An ancient 
ceremonial dance still popular in the 
Basque countries (northern Spain), exe- 
cuted with a great variety of violent steps 
and gestures symbolizing wooing cere- 
monies or other old usages. Cf. V. Alford, 
in MQ xviii; F. Gascue, in BSIM viii; 
LavE i.4, 235511. 

Ausdruck [G.]. Expression, feeling. 

Ausdrucksvoll [G.]. Expressively. 

Ausgelassen [G.]. Exuberant, boister- 
ous. 

Aushalten [G.]. To sustain a note. 

Auslosung [G.]. The repeating mech- 
anism (escapement) of the pianoforte. 

Aussprache [G.]. Diction, pronunci- 
ation. 

Australian music. See ^Primitive 
music. See also Addenda, p. 825. 

Austrian music. See ^German music. 

Ausweichung [G.]. Modulation, es- 
pecially passing modulation. 

Auszug [G.]. Arrangement. 

Authentic modes. See •Church 
modes. 


AVE REGINA COELORUM 

Auto [Sp., act]. Spanish and Portu- 
guese dramatic plays of religious or con- 
templative character, frequendy with in- 
cidental music [see *Liturgical drama]. 
Such plays were written by Juan del’En- 
cina (c. 1500), Gil Vicente (1492-1557), 
Lope de Vega (1562-1635), Calderon 
(1600-81), and others. Cf. G. Chase, in 
MQ XXV ; A. Salazar, in PAMS, 1938. 

Autoharp. A *zither on which simple 
chords such as are used in accompanying 
popular melodies are provided by special 
buttons which, upon being depressed, 
damp all the strings except those required 
for the chord. 

Automelon and idiomelon. In By- 
zantine church music a chant is called 
automelon (other melody) if it is sung 
to a standard melody provided originally 
for another chant; idiomelon (own mel- 
ody) if it has a specific melody of its own. 
The terms are also used with reference to 
other fields, e.g., the antiphons of Grego- 
rian chant, most of which are automela 
[see the classification of Gevaert, men- 
tioned under *antiphon (i)] while 
others are idiomela, e.g., the antiphons 
of the Mass or the antiphons B.M.V. 

Auxiliary tone. See *Nonharmonic 
tones I. 

Ave Maria. A prayer used in the Ro- 
man Catholic Church; see text and plain- 
song in ARy 123. The text has been re- 
peatedly set to music by 19th-century 
composers. The same title also occurs 
with a rather lachrymose piece by Schu- 
bert, and a very lamentable piece by 
Gounod in which Bach’s first prelude of 
the Well-tempered Clavier is misused as 
a harmonic background for a highly sen- 
timental melody. 

Ave maris Stella. A hymn of Grego- 
rian chant to which there exist various 
melodies in different modes (cf. AR, pp. 
[ii7]-[i27]). These have been fre- 
quendy used as tenors of motets and of 
organ-hymns, e.g., by Cabezon. 

Ave regina coelorum. One of the 
four *antiphons B.V.M., sung as a Vesper 


[631 



AYRE 


B-A-C-H 


hymn from Purification until Easter 
(text and plainsong in ARy 66). The 
melody is interesting because of its well- 
defined C major tonality (except for the 
plagal B-flat of the beginning). 

Ay re. (i) A late-i6th-century type of 
English song, similar to the Italian ♦can- 
zonet or ♦balletto. The ayre is a strophic 
song in simple homophonic style, the 
melody being supported either by voices 
or by instruments or by both. For the 
early publications and their modern re- 
prints see •Editions X, XI. Later publi- 
cations are: Select Ayres and Dialogues 
(1652) and New Ayres and Dialogues 
(1678); these include songs with the ac- 
companiment of lute, thcorboe, bass viol, 


by H. Lawes, W. Webb, John Blow, Pur- 
cell, and others. Cf. A. Dolmetsch, Eng- 
lish Songs and Dialogues of the XVI and 
XVll Centuries (1912); P. Warlock, The 
English Ayre (1926). W. A. 

(2) English writers of the 17th century 
use the term ayre (aire) in the meaning 
of key or mode, e.g., Th. Morley: “these 
aires which the antiquity termed Modr 
(Plaine and Easy Introduction, p. 147); 
or Th. Mace: “every shake is to be made 
in the Aire'* {Musicl(s Monument, p. 
104); also Butler, The Principles of Music 
(1636), pp. 72, 80, 82; Locke, Melothesia 
(1673), Rule 6; Simpson, A Compen- 
dium to Practical MusicI^ (5th ed., 1714), 
p. 36. See also under *Fancy. H. J. S. 


B 


B. See •Pitch names; •Letter notation; 
•Hexachord; also •Accidentals (history). 
In •part-books of the i6th century, B 
stands for bassus (bass). 

Baborak. A Bohemian national dance, 
including alternating sections in duple 
and in triple time. 

Babylonian (Sumerian, Assyrian) 
music. Our knowledge of the musical 
culture of the ancient inhabitants of Mes- 
opotamia is restricted chiefly to informa- 
tion about their musical instruments 
gained from pictorial and architectural 
fllustrations. This material, however, is 
full enough to permit the reconstruction 
of a fairly adequate picture of the general 
trends in the musical evolution which 
took place there from about 3500 to 500 
B.C. The chief instrument of the Sume- 
rian period (c. 3500-2000) was the harp, 
usually without fore-pillar [see •Harp 
III ] . It existed in a great variety of shapes 
and sizes. During the Babylonian rule 
(2000-ioao) we find lutes, flutes, oboes, 
and drufx^9 instruments which point to 
a greater refinement of musical culture. 
During the Assyrian rule (1000-500) 
music gradually lost its ancient cosmo- 
logical character and strictly liturgical 


position and became more and more 
hedonistic and voluptuous, particularly 
through the incorporation of elements of 
contemporary Egyptian music. The at- 
tempt made by C. Sachs [AMW vii] to 
interpret certain signs on a Babylonian 
clay tablet dating from about 800 B.C. as 
harp notation, and his consequent recon- 
struction of a Babylonian hymn, have 
been withdrawn by him in an article 
[MQ xxvi] in which he also refutes an- 
other interpretation given by F. W. Gal- 
pin. 

Lit.: F. W. Galpin, The Music of the 
Sumerians . . . , Babylonians and As- 
syrians (1937); LavE i.i, 35fl; C. Sachs, 
Musi\ des Altertums (1924); id., in 
AMW vii and MQ xxvi, xxvii; ReMMA, 
(bibl. p. 426); GD, Suppl. VoL, p. 14 
(ill.); SaHMI, 6 yS. 

Bacchetta [It.]. •Drumstick ( — di 
legno, wooden; — di spugna, sponge- 
headed). 

B-A-C-H. The letters which form 
Bach’s name have, in German, a musical 
significance, namely: bb-a-c-b [see •Pitch 
names]. This interesting musical motive 
was first used by Bach himself in the last 
(unfinished) fugue of his *Art of Fugue. 


[64] 



BACH-GESELLSCHAFT BACH-GESELLSCHAFT 

Another fugue on the same subject frc- ungcn: 13.!. (For a complete collection 
qucntly ascribed to him [see ed. Peters, of Bach’s Chorales cf. C. S. Terry, Bach* s 
XXV ] is definitely spurious. Various later Four-Part Chorals,) 
composers have used the famous motive IX. Songs, 39. 

in fugues or fantasias, e.g., Albrechts- X. Orchestral Worlds (cl. = clavier; 

berger [cf. DTOe i6.ii]; Schumann vl. = violin; cont. = continuo). Four 

(6 Fugen uber Bach, op. 60); Liszt (Fan- Overtures, i Sinfonia: 3i.i. — Ouverture 

tasia and Fugue on for piano- C moll: 45.!. — 6 Brandenburg concertos: 

forte and for organ); M. Reger (op. 46); 19. — Triple concerto for flute, cl. and vl.: 

W, Piston (Chromatic Fantasy on Bach), 17. — 7 Concertos for one cl.: 17. — 3 

It also plays an important part in Busoni’s Concertos for 2 cl.: 2i.ii. — 2 Concertos 
Fantasia contrappuntistica (1910). for 3 cl.: 3i.iii. — Concerto for 4 cl.: 43.!. 

— 2 Concertos for vl.: 2i.i (also 45.!).-^ 
Bach-Gesellschaft. See*SocietiesII,2. Sinfonia for vl.: 2i.i. — Concerto for 2 
Here follows a conspectus of the con- vl.: 2i.i. 
tents of the edition of the Bach-Gesell- XI. Chamber Music. Sonata for flute, 
schaft, arranged according to subject mat- vl. and cont.: 9. — Trio, Canon for flute, 
ter. vl. and cont. (from the Musical Ofler- 

I. Sacred Cantatas, i-io: vol. i. — ing): 3i.ii. — Instrumentalsatz fiir vl., 

1 1-20: vol. 2. — 21-30: vol. 5.i. — 31-40: Hoboe und Cont.: 29. — 7 Sonatas for cl. 

vol. 7. — 41--50: vol. 10. — 51-60: vol. and vl. (one doubtful): 9. — Suite for 

12.11. — 61-70: vol. 16. — 71-80: vol. 18. cl. and vl.: 9. — Sonata, Fugue for vl. and 

— 81-90: vol. 20.i. — 91-100: vol. 22. — cont.: 43.!. — Sonata for two vl. and 
loi-iio: vol. 23. — 111-120: vol. 24. — cont.: 9. — 4 Inventions for vl. and cl.: 
121-130: vol. 26. — 131-140: vol. 28. — 45.i. — Sonata in G for vl. and cont.: 

141-150: vol. 30. — 151-160: vol. 32. — Neue B.-G. 30, Lf. i. — 3 Sonatas, 3 Par- 
161-170: vol. 33. — 171-180: vol. 35. — titas for vl. solo: 27.!. — 6 Suites for cello 
181-190: vol. 37. — 191-193: vol. 41. — solo: 27.1. — 3 Sonatas for gamba and cl.: 
194: vol. 29. — 195-197 (Wedding Can- 9. — 3 Sonatas for cl. and flute: 9. — 3 So- 

tatas): vol. 13.!. — 198 (Trauer Ode): natas for flute and cont.: 43.!. 

vol. i3.iii. — Unnumbered (doubtful or XII. Clavier Music. Six English Suites: 
unfinished): vol. 41. [For the numbering i3.ii (new cd. in 45.i). — 6 French 
of the cantatas i9ifl cf. C. S. Terry, Suites: i3.ii (new ed. in 45.i; fragments 
Bach's Cantata Texts (1926), 642.] in 36). — 6 Partitas: 3. — French Over- 

II. Secular Cantatas, 201-205: vol. ture: 3. — Miscellaneous suites (frag- 

11.11. — 206-207: vol. 2o.ii (also 34). — ments): 36, 42, 45.!. — Overture: 36.— 

208-212: vol. 29. — 213: vol. 34. — Un- Inventions, 2- and 3-part: 3. — Well-tem- 
numbered: vols. 34, 20.ii. pered Clavier: 14 (Variants: 36; Auto- 

III. Oratorios, Weihnachts-Orato- graph: 45.i). — 7 Toccatas: 3 and 36. — 

rium: 5.ii. — Oster-Oratorium: 2i.iii. — Sonatas: 36, 42, 45.i. — Italian Concerto: 
Himmelfahrts-Oratorium: 2 (= Can- 3. — 16 Concertos (Vivaldi): 42. — Gold- 
tata 1 1). berg Variations: 3. — Aria variata: 36. — 

IV. Passion Music, Mattheus: 4 (vari- 2 Capriccios: 36. — Chromatic Fantasia: 

ant of Schluss-choral in 41). — Johannes: 36. — Preludes (Fantasia) and fugues, 
I2.i. — Lucas: 45.ii. Preludes, Fantasias, Fugues: 36. — 4 Du- 

V. Masses and Parts of Masses, ets: 3. — Clavier Uebung i,ii,iii: 3. — ^No- 

B minor: 6. — F, A, G minor, G: 8. — tenbuch der Anna Magdalena Bach 
4 Sanctus: ii.i. — Sanctus, Kyrie, and (1722, ’25): 43.!!. — Clavierbiichlcin fiir 
Christe: 41. W. F. Bach (1720): 45.!. 

VI. Magnificat, ii.i. XIII. Organ Music. Seventy Chorale 

VII. Motets, Six and two doubtful: 39. preludes (46 Orgelbiichlein; 18 Chorale; 

VIII. Chorales, 1-185 (Collection of 6 Schiibler) : 25.ii. — 21 Chorale preludes 
C. P. E. Bach) : 39. — 3 Chorale zu Trau- (from Clavicriibung iii) : 3. — 65 Chorale 

[65] 



BACH TRUMPET 


preludes (24 Kirnberger; 28 others; 13 
doubtful); 40. — [10 Chorale preludes 
not included in B.-G. are reprinted in Ed. 
Peters, vol. 9] . — 6 Sonatas: 15. — 4 Con- 
certos (after Vivaldi): 38 (variant in 
42). — [2 other Concertos in Ed. Peters, 
9]. — 18 Preludes and fugues: 15. — 3 
Preludes and fugues: 38. — 3 Toccatas: 
15. — Passacaglia: 15. — 8 IGeine Prae- 
ludien und Fugen: 38. — 6 Fantasias, 3 
Preludes, 6 Fugues, Canzona, Allabreve, 
Pastorale, 2 Trios: 38. — [2 other Trios 
in Ed. Peters, 9]. 

XIV. Art of Fugue, 2.^,1 (original 
form: 47). — Musical Offering: 3i.ii, — 
Canons: 45.!, 

Bach trumpet. See under *Clarin 
trumpet. 

Backfall. English 17th-century name 
for the *appoggiatura. See also *Appog- 
giatura. Double II. 

Badinage, badinerie [F., playfulness, 
banter]. A dance-like piece of jocose 
character which occurs as a movement in 
the optional group of the 18th-century 
suites, e.g., in Bach’s Suite in B minor. 

Bagatelle [F., a trifle]. A short piece, 
usually for the pianoforte. The name 
was used by Francois Couperin (“Les 
Bagatelles,” see his Pieces de Clavecin, 
new ed. Augener, ii, ordre 10) and, in 
particular, by Beethoven, whose Bagatel- 
len (op. 33, op. 1 19, op. 126) mark the 
beginning of the extensive literature of 
19th-century ^character pieces. 

Bagpipe [F. musette-, G. Dudelsac\, 
Sacl{pfeife; It. piva, zampogna]. Generic 
name for a number of instruments which 
have one or (usually) several reed-pipes 
attached to a windbag from which the air 
is blown into the pipes; also, specifically, 
the name for the Irish and Scottish varie- 
ties of this family. [See the illustration 
on p. 152 (Clarinets).] One or two of the 
pipes, cidl^ chanter (chaunter), are pro- 
vided wid^ soundholcs and are used for 
melodies, while the other, larger ones, 
called drones, produce one tone each and 
arc used for the accompaniment. In the 

[ 


BAGUETTE 

earlier. Eastern specimens, both chanter 
and drones are clarinets (i.e., have single 
reeds) while in the modern types cither 
they are both oboes (i.e., with double 
reeds), as in Italy and some parts of 
France, or the drones are clarinets while 
the chanter is an oboe, as in Scodand, 
Ireland, Brittany. Two categories of bag- 
pipes may be distinguished, according to 
whether the wind in the bag is provided 
from the mouth through an additional 
blowing-pipe, or by a small pair of bellows 
placed under and operated by the arm. 
To the former type belong the Old Irish 
bagpipe, the Highland bagpipe (Scot- 
land), the biniou (Bretagne), the come- 
muse (France), the Dudelsacl{ or 
pfeife (Germany), the zampogna and 
piva (Italy); to the latter: the Northum^ 
brian bagpipe (England), the modern 
Irish bagpipe, the gaita (Galicia), the 
* musette (France). A more primitive in- 
strument was the bladder pipe, a single 
or double clarinet with a bladder used as 
a bag [illustrated in GD, pi. LX]. 

The bagpipe was not known to the 
Babylonians, Jews, and Greeks, but was 
used in Rome {tibia utricularis) , Nero is 
reported to have played on it. In the 
Middle Ages it is frequently mentioned 
under different names {musa, chorus, 
symphonia, chevrette). The famous il- 
luminations of the 13th-century Spanish 
MS Escorial j b 2 [see *Cantiga] show 
players of bagpipes [cf. GD iv, 184; 
ReMMA, 222]. In the British Isles the 
bagpipes have played, for many centuries, 
a prominent role in folk music and in 
military music. Their continental history 
is less interesting, except for a late 17th- 
century movement in France which, for 
a short time, raised the instrument to a 
standing in society and in art music [see 
•Musette]. See also *Pibroch. 

Lit.: Wm. H. Grattan-Flood, The 
Story of the Bagpipe (1907); W. L. Man- 
son, The Highland Bagpipe (1901); 
G. Askew, A Bibliography of the Bagpipe 

(1932)- 

Baguette [F., stick]. Drumstick ( — 
de bois, wooden drumstick; — d* Sponge, 
sponge-headed drumstick). Also the ba- 



BAJAZZO 

ton of the conductor and the stick of the 
violin bow. 

Bajazzo, Der [G.]. See *Pagliacci, Gli. 

Balalaika. A popular Russian instru- 
ment of the guitar family, characterized 
by a triangular body, a long fretted neck, 
and (usually) three gut strings tuned in 
fourths. It is played with a plectrum and 
is made in six sizes which constitute a 
balalaika band. [Illustration on p. 314.] 
The forerunner of the balalaika was the 
*domra [cf. SaRM], Cf. A. S. Rose, in 
PM A xxvii.i; W. v. Kwetzinsky, in DM 
xxii.12. 

Balancement [F.]. Eighteenth-century 
name for the *tremolo. Sometimes used 
synonymously with *Bebung. 

Balg [G.]. Bellows of an organ. 

Balinese music. See ^Javanese music. 
Cf. C. MePhee, in BAMS vi. 

Ballabile. A name given occasionally 
to dance-like pieces (ballets) in 19th-cen- 
tury operas. 

Ballad [from L. to dance]. The 

term derives from medieval words such 
as * chanson ballade^ * ballade [F.j, *bal- 
lata^ all of which originally denoted danc- 
ing songs but lost their dance connota- 
tion as early as the 13th century and be- 
came stylized forms of solo song. In Eng- 
land this process of change went still 
farther, and eventually (i6th century) 
“ballad” came to mean a simple tale told 
in simple verse. There may have been a 
transitional period during which the reci- 
tation of the poems was still accompanied 
by some sort of dancing. Most ballads 
are narrative, and many deal with fabu- 
lous, miraculous, or gruesome deeds. 
Ballad singers made a living by singing 
their newest productions in the streets 
and at country fairs and by selling the 
printed sheets to the people. In its more 
recent (19th-century) meaning, a ballad 
is a popular song usually combining nar- 
rative and romantic elements, frequently 
with an admixture of the gruesome. 
These ballads are mostly written in com- 
mon meter (4.3.4.3). Today the term 
“ballad” is loosely applied to any kind 

[ 


BALLADE 

of cheap modern song. For art ballad, 
see *Ballade [G.j. 

The word ballad is also used as an 
Anglicized form of ballade [F.j, ballata 
[It.], or Ballade [G.]. Such usage, how- 
ever, is misleading in view of the fact that 
these terms denote entirely different 
things. 

Lit.: S. Foster Damon, ^Series of Old 
American Songs (1936); C. Sandburg, 
'\The American Songbag (1927); Cecil J. 
Sharp, English FoU{^ Songs from the 
Southern Appalachians^ 2 vols. (1932); 
John A. Lomax, Our Singing Country 
(1941); R. Smith, South Carolina Ballads 
(1928); A. K. Davis, Traditional Ballads 
of Virginia (1929); M. O. Eddy, Ballads 
and Songs from Ohio (1939); M. E. 
Henry, A Bibliography for the Study of 
American Folksongs (1937); J. W. Hen- 
dren, A Study of Ballad Rhythm (1936); 
C. A. Smith, “Ballads Surviving in the 
U. S.” {MQ ii). 

Ballade [F.]. A form of trouvJre po- 
etry and music. The poem usually has 
three stanzas, each of seven or eight lines, 
the last one or two of which are identical 
in all the stanzas, thus forming a ^refrain. 
The musical form of the stanza is: aba 
bedEorababedEF [capital letters 
indicate the refrain], a scheme which, as 
far as the music is concerned, can be sim- 
plified as follows: AAB(A = ab; B = 
the remaining lines). This form is identi- 
cal with that of the Provencal (trouba- 
dour) ♦canzo and of the German (Min- 
nesinger) Bar [see *Barform], which, 
however, lack the refrain. Sometimes the 
form is enlarged to A A B B, usually in 
connection with enlarged stanzas of 12 or 
more lines. 

The songs of the trouveres include a 
considerable number of monophonic bal- 
lades [sec Lit., Gennrich i, nos. 356, 357, 
362, 366, etc.] . In the 14th century, G. dc 
Machaut revived the ballade as a poly- 
phonic composition of great refinement 
and subtlety [cf. F. Ludwig’s edition of 
his works; also AdHM i, 270]. His ex- 
ample was followed by the French musi- 
cians of the late 14th century (Soulagc, 
Trebor, Cuvelier, etc.; sec *Ars nova) 

1] 



BALLADE 


BALLAD OPERA 


with whom the polyphonic ballade be- 
came the principal form of music, treated 
with the highest degree of elaboration 
and occasionally with affectation [exam- 
ples in WoGM ii, iii, nos. 55, 56, etc.; 
ApNPMy 419, 421, 423], The form was 
also cultivated by Dufay and, occasion- 
ally, even by Josquin [cf. Odhecaton Ay 
no. 10]. Several scholars use the term 
ballade also for the Italian 14th-century 
♦ballata — a procedure which is bound 
to lead to errors, since the ballata is an en- 
tirely different form. E.g., the piece by 
Enrique reproduced in RiMBy no. 12, is a 
ballata (or ♦villancico), not a ballade. 
Examples in HAM, nos. 19a, 45, 47; 
SchGMBy nos. 26, 40; ApNPMy 352, 355, 
etc.; RiMBy nos. 4, 8. 

Lit.: F. Gennrich, ^Rondeaux, Virelais 
und Balladefiy 2 vols. (1921); F. Brosch, 
Die Balladen im Kodex von Turin (Diss. 
Vienna 1931). 

Ballade [G.]. In German usage the 
word Ballade denotes poems derived from 
the English ballads, but of greater artistic 
elaboration and poetic refinement. They 
usually deal with medieval matters, either 
historical or fancied (c.g., Goethe’s “Bal- 
lade vom vertriebenen und zuriickkeh- 
renden Grafen”), or with romantic tales 
(e.g., Goethe’s “Erlkonig”). Such Bal- 
laden were frequently set to music, usu- 
ally as through-composed songs of great 
length. Probably the earliest examples of 
true Balladen-style are the interesting set- 
tings of Gellert’s moralizing and dry 
Fabeln by Valentin Herbing (1759; DdT 
42), written in a continuous recitative 
with a highly dramatic accompaniment. 
Later examples arc written in the form of 
cantatas, i.e., in various movements of 
contrasting character [Joh. Andre, 1741- 
99; Joh. Zumstecg, 1760-1802]. A Fan- 
tasie op. 109 by Beethoven’s pupil Ferdi- 
nand Rics (1784-1838) for piano alone, 
written to Schiller’s poem “Resignation,” 
is an interesting example of what might 
be callcdj#(**B^adc ohne Worte” [repr. 
in Ttf/ili^iv]. The classical master of 
the vocal/8alladc (sometimes referred to 
as “art Wlad”) is Carl Loewe (1796- 
1869) whose fifteen volumes of Balladen 

[ 


[complete ed. by M. Runze] include a 
number of truly great songs (“Archibald 
Douglas,” “Erlkonig,” “Der Pilgrim von 
St. Just,” etc.). Loewe’s form is a free 
combination of the strophic and the 
through-composed type. Schubert’s songs 
include a number of Balladen, e.g., “Erl- 
kdnig.” In the late 19th century Balladen 
were composed for solo or chorus with 
orchestral accompaniment, e.g., H. Wolf’s 
“Feuerreiter.” Chopin and Brahms used 
the term for piano pieces written in the 
ternary form A B A of the 19th-century 
♦character piece. Here the highly dra- 
matic character of A and the lyrical char- 
acter of B seem to portray heroic deeds 
and knightly love, thus justifying the title 
Ballade, 

Lit.: A. B. Bach, The Art Ballad 
(1891); Ph. Spitta, “Ballade” {Musi\- 
geschichtliche Aufsdtzey 1894); H. J. 
Moser, fD/c Ballade (Martens, ^Musi\a- 
lische Formen in historischen Reihen iii, 
1930); R. Batka, Martin Pluddemann 
und seine Balladen (1895); A. Konig, 
Die Ballade in der Musi\ (1904). 

Ballad opera. A popular type of 18th- 
century stage entertainment, consisting 
of spoken dialogue and musical numbers 
not newly composed, but taken from 
folk songs or from famous tunes of con- 
temporary composers. The ballad opera 
flourished in London from 1725 (A. Ram- 
say’s The Gentle Shepherd) throughout 
the end of the century [cf. the list in GD 
i, 207, also in Tufts]. The Beggars 
Opera ( 1728) by John Gay with music ar- 
ranged by Joh. Pepusch (1667-1752) was 
the most successful of all. Two plays by 
Charles Coffey, The Devil to Pay (1728) 
and The Merry Cobbler (1735), played a 
decisive role in the development of the 
German *Singspiel. The music of the bal- 
lad operas included songs and arias from 
Locke, Purcell, Handel, Geminiani, Co- 
relli, Scarlatti, and others; Playford’s 
Dancing Master (numerous editions from 
1650 to 1728) and similar collections were 
the chief source for the popular tunes em- 
ployed in these operas. The style of the 
ballad opera has been imitated in Vaughan 
Williams’ Hugh the Drover (1924) and 

>] 



BALLATA 


BALLET 


in Kurt Weill’s Dreigroschen Oper 
(1928), a highly successful imitation of 
John Gay’s Beggars Opera, 

Lit.: E. M. Gagey, Ballad Opera 
(1937); F. Kidson, The Beggar's Opera 
(1922); W. E. Schultz, Gays Beggars 
Opera (1923); W. Barclay-Squire, “An 
Index of Tunes in the Ballad-Operas’* 
{MA ii); G. Tufts, “Ballad Operas” {MA 
iv); W. J. Lawrence, “Early Irish Ballad 
Opera . . {MQ ii). 

Ballata [It.]. One of the chief forms of 
Italian 14th-century poetry and music 
[see *Ars nova III]. It is not derived 
from the French ^balladey but from the 
*virelai^ which was also called chanson 
ballads. As a poem the ballata consists of 
various (usually three) stanzas (S) of six 
lines, each of which is preceded and fol- 
lowed by a refrain (R) of two lines, so 
that the following *rondeau-like scheme 
results: R Si R S2 R S3 R. Music is com- 
posed only for the first four lines and re- 
peated for the others as follows: 

R S R 

I 234 5 . . . 

A b b a A . , . 

(the figures i to 5 represent double-lines, 
i.e., 10 single lines), i (and 5) are called 
ripresa (refrain); 2 and 3, piedi; 4, 
volta. Like the virelai, the ballata origi- 
nally was a song accompanying round 
dances, and was performed alternately by 
the whole group {ripresa) and a solo 
singer {piedi and volta). However, none 
of the surviving examples shows evidence 
of dance-like rhythm or style. Mono- 
phonic examples of the ballata structure 
are to be found in the religious *laude of 
the 13th century. In the 14th century the 
form was treated polyphonically, espe- 
cially by Francesco Landini of whom 87 
two-voiced and 49 three-voiced ballatas 
are preserved (mostly with only one 
stanza; no. 148 of Ellinwood’s collection 
has three stanzas). An example is repro- 
duced (under the erroneous title “madri- 
gal” and with incorrect underlaying of 
the text) in J. Wolf’s und Spiel- 

tnusi{ aus dlterer Zeit [ for the correct ver- 
sion see Ellin wood] , The form of the bal- 


lata (or virelai) persists in the songs of 
the *Cancionero musical [see •Villan- 
cico] and, in a simplified form, in the 
*frottolc of the early i6th century. Ex- 
amples in L. Ellinwood, ‘\Francesco Lan- 
dini (1939); H/ 4 M, nos. 51, 53; SchGMBy 
16 (text incomplete); EiBM ii; WoGM 
ii, iii, nos. 46, 51-53; ApNPMy 151, 408. 

Ballet (t). Sixteenth-century English 
version of *balletto. 

Ballet. I. Ballet is theatrical perform- 
ance of a dancing group with costumes 
and scenery, to the accompaniment of 
music, but without singing or spoken 
word. The history of the modern ballet 
goes back to the 15th century, when dance 
performances were introduced at the 
French and Burgundian courts for the 
celebration of marriages, for the reception 
of foreign sovereigns, and for similar fes- 
tive occasions. One of the most sumptu- 
ous of these entertainments was the “Bal- 
let Comique de la Royne” (marriage of 
Margaret of Lorraine to the Duke of Joy- 
euse, Versailles, 1581). It is the earliest 
for which the music is preserved, and is 
especially remarkable on account of its 
inclusion of two monodic songs (new ed., 
see ^Editions IV; cf. also AdHM ii, 642 
and L. Celler, Les Origines de VopSra et 
le ballet de la Royne, 1868). The culmi- 
nation point of the ballet was reached 
under Louis XIV (1643-1715), who him- 
self was a great dancer and who liked to 
appear in ballet performances. With the 
ballet-master Beauchamp and the musi- 
cians Cambefort (1605—61) and Lully 
(1632-87), the French ballet attained the 
highest cultural importance as well as 
great musical significance. It became the 
origin of a great number of new courtly 
dance types, such as the gavotte, the pas- 
sepied, the bourree, the rigaudon, which 
were later introduced into the optional 
group of the •suite. Of particular impor- 
tance among these was the •minuet. 
Lully’s activity in the ballet of the French 
court {ballet de cour) began in 1653 
(“Ballet de la Nuit”) and came to a 
climax in 1664 when he and Moli^re 
joined forces to produce a unification of 
play and ballet, the comSdie-ballet^ “Lc 


I69I 



BALLET 


BALLET IN OPERA 


Bourgeois Gcntilhomme” (1670) is the 
most famous example of this type [see 
•Entr’acte]. Lully also introduced the 
ballet into his operas, as did also his suc- 
cessors Campra and Rameau. Rameau’s 
ballets arc particularly interesting on ac- 
count of their exotic background, Mexi- 
can, Persian, Chinese, etc. [sec also •Bal- 
let in opera] . A special type of ballet was 
cultivated in England, under the name 
of •masque. In the second half of the 
17th century Vienna was a center of ballet 
presentations (Johann Heinrich Schmel- 
zer and others; cf. DTOe aS.ii). 

II. From 1700 till the end of the 19th 
century the history of the ballet includes 
a galaxy of famous dancers, such as Ca- 
margo (1710—70), Noverre (1727-1810), 
Vestris (1729-1808), Taglioni (1804- 
84), Fanny Elssler (1810-51), and others. 
Unfortunately, little of the music used in 
their presentations has come down to us. 
Noverre, the great reformer of the ballet, 
found musical collaborators in Stuttgart 
(Florian Deller, 1729-73; Johann J. 
Rudolph, 1730-1812; cf. DdT 43/44) as 
well as in Vienna (Ignaz Holzbauer, 
1711-83; Christoph W. Gluck, 1714-87; 
Josef Starzer, 1726-87; Gluck’s “Don 
Juan” in DTOe 30.ii). This list is com- 
pleted by Beethoven’s “Prometheus,” pro- 
duced in 1801 at the Burg Theater of 
Vienna. 

III. Ballet music took a new start with 
Delibes’ “Coppelia” (1870) and Tchai- 
kovsky’s three ballets “The Swan Lake” 
(1876), “The Sleeping Beauty” (1889), 
and “Casse-Noisette” (“The Nutcrack- 
er,” 1892). The great period of modern 
ballet music, however, did not start until 
the early 20th century, when the Russian 
ballet of Diaghileff and Fokine began its 
triumphal career and attracted the inter- 
est of many prominent composers, e.g., 
Stravinsky, with “Firebird” (1910), 
“Petrouchka” (1912), “Le Sacre du Prin- 
temps” (1913), “Lcs Noces” (completed 
1923), “Apollo Musagetes” (1927), “Card 
Party” (1936), and others; Ravel with 
“Daphnis apaChloc” (1906, 1912); Man- 
uel de Falla With “The Three-Cornered 
Hat” (1919); Darius Milhaud with “Le 
Train bleu” (1924) and “La Creation du 


monde” (1923); Francis Poulenc with 
“Les Biches” (1923); Bela Bart6k with 
“The Wooden Prince” (1922); Hinde- 
mith with “The Demon” (1924); Bax 
with “The Truth about the Russian 
Dancers” (1920), and others. In Amer- 
ica, the vogue of the ballet has produced 
such works as John A. Carpenter’s 
“Krazy-Kat” (1921) and “Skyscrapers” 
(1926); Copland’s “Grogh” (1932) and 
“Hear ye, hear ye” (1934); Marc Blitz- 
stein’s “Checkmate” (1937); Walter Pis- 
ton’s “The Incredible Flutist” (1938), etc. 

Lit.: W. Beaumont, Complete Bool{ of 
Ballets (1937; sup. 1942); G. Goode, The 
Boo\ of Ballets (1939); V. Arvey, Cho- 
reographic Music (1941); H. Prunieres, 
Le Ballet de cour en France ; DToe 

2S.11 (“Wiener Tanzmusik,” c. 1650- 
1700); DTOe 43/44 (“Ausgewahlte Bal- 
lette Stuttgarter Meister,” c. 1750-1800); 
H. Prunieres, “Le Ballet sous Louis XIII” 
{BSIM x); “Le Ballet au XIX« sikle” 
{RM ii, special number); D. L. Murray, 
“The Future of the Ballet” {ML vii, no. 
i); R. Each, in ZMW iii (Beethoven’s 
“Prometheus”). 

Ballet in opera. Ballets appear in 
opera usually as interludes unessential to 
the plot, although connected with it by 
some more or less specious pretext. Their 
function is thus to offer a diversion from 
the purely vocal and dramatic portions, 
and they frequently involve large choral 
groups and spectacular stage effects as 
well as dancing. They are therefore most 
appropriate in large-scale, serious, formal 
opera, and historically they are found 
chiefly in operas of the French school or 
works written under the influence of 
French taste. Ballets in comic opera are 
simpler and less formal than those in seri- 
ous works, as for example the dances in 
the finale of the first act of Mozart’s Don 
Giovanni. 

Although Lully is commonly credited 
with having introduced the ballet into 
opera, it was not unknown in operas be- 
fore his time. Without reckoning the 
choral dances of Greek tragedy, the gen- 
eral dances which frequendy took place 
at the end of the medieval •mystery-plays, 


[70I 



BALLET IN OPERA 

or the ballet portions of the 16th-century 
^intermezzi, we find closing dances in 
Peri’s and Caccini’s Euridice (both 1600), 
a “Ballo” at the end of Gagliano’s Dafne 
(1608), and a “Moresca” danced by the 
shepherds in the finale of Monteverdi’s 
Orfeo (1607). There are likewise ballets, 
though on a relatively small scale, in 
operas of the Roman school (e.g., Landi’s 
San AlessiOy 1632; M. Rossi’s Erminia sul 
Giordano^ The Venetian opera, 

along with its fondness for spectacular 
stage effects, made some use of the ballet, 
especially in works designed for festival 
occasions, like Cesti’s Pomo d'oro (Vien- 
na, 1667), which has several ballets in each 
act and a grand triple ballet in the finale. 

The importance of the ballet in French 
opera is due to the long previous tradi- 
tion of the Ballet de Cour in France and 
to the fact that Lully, in establishing the 
national operatic form, practically incor- 
porated the entire apparatus of the ballet 
in the new type of entertainment. The 
designation of the opera company as 
“Academic royale de musique et de 
danse” in itself shows the intimate con- 
nection which was felt to exist between 
opera and ballet, a connection which has 
been maintained throughout the entire 
subsequent history of French opera. So 
strong was the French fondness for ballet 
that before the end of the 17th century a 
new form, the “opera-ballet,” was created 
(Campra, U Europe galante, 1697), in 
which the dramatic content was reduced 
to a minimum in order to make room for 
practically continuous dancing, choral, 
and scenic elements (Rameau, Les Indes 
galantes, 1735). The dances of Lully’s 
and Rameau’s operas and opera-ballets 
furnish some of the finest examples of 
French instrumental music of their pe- 
riod. 

English opera likewise introduced bal- 
let, partly from the native tradition of the 
•masque and partly under French influ- 
ence. There are ballets in Blow’s Venus 
and Adonis (c. 1685) and Purcell’s Dido 
and Aeneas (c. 1689), as well as in Pur- 
cell’s other dramatic music (e.g., the Cha- 
conne in King Arthur ^ 1691). 

In Germany ballet in opera was intro- 


BALLET IN OPERA 

duced by foreign composers (C. Pallavi- 
cino’s Gerusalemme liber ata^ Dresden, 
1687), and, under French influence, by 
native composers as well (Joh. Sigismund 
Kusser’s Erindo^ Hamburg, 1693). The 
ballets in the original version of Reiser’s 
Croesus (1711) were omitted in the re- 
vival of 1730. 

In early 18th-century Neapolitan opera 
the ballet was of minor importance, with 
rare exceptions in festival works such as 
Fux’s Costanza e fortezza (Prague, 
1723). Toward the middle of the cen- 
tury, however, with the first movements 
toward reform of the Neapolitan model, 
ballet scenes began to be revived. This is 
especially evident in the works of Jomelli, 
written at Stuttgart in 1753-69, where 
the celebrated ballet master Jean-Georges 
Noverre was also in residence; and in the 
operas of Traetta at Parma (1758-65) 
and St. Petersburg (1768-74), which 
show the influence of Rameau. Gluck’s 
“reform” operas are filled with ballet 
scenes, quite on the model of their French 
prototypes, and the ballet remained a 
constant and important feature in the 
works of Gluck’s disciples, as well as in 
the “grand opera” of the 19th century 
(Auber’s Muette de Portici, 1829; Ros- 
sini’s Guillaume Tell, 1829; Meyerbeer’s 
Robert le Diable, 1831; Halevy’s La Juive^ 
1835; Wagner’s Rienzi, 1842; Berlioz’s 
Les Troyens, 1856—58; Gounod’s Fausty 
1859/69). It will be noted that all the 
above-named works except Rienzi were 
first performed (or intended to be per- 
formed) at Paris, where a ballet was still 
considered to be an indispensable part of 
any large serious operatic work. Wag- 
ner’s addition of the “Bacchanal” music 
for the Paris performance of Tannhduser 
(1861) is a striking evidence of the power 
of this French tradition. Wagner in his 
later works occasionally had recourse to 
the ballet (Die Meistersingery Parsifal) y 
as did Verdi in Aida (1871). There arc 
also important ballet scenes in Borodin’s 
Prince Igor (performed 1890), but on the 
whole the decline of “grand opera” has 
led to a diminution of the importance of 
ballet in opera since the middle of the 
19th century, and this has been accom- 


[71 1 



BALLETTO 

panicd by a steady rise of interest in ballet 
as a separate form [see ^Ballet]. Inci- 
dental dance scenes, closely connected 
with the action, are to be found in some 
modern opera scores, e.g., R. Strauss’s 
Salome (1905), Berg’s Wozze\ (perf. 
1926), Hindemith’s Neues vom Tage 
(1929), and others. The ballets in Mil- 
haud’s Christophe Colomh (1930) arc on 
a grand scale, but this work can hardly 
be regarded as typical of modern practice 
in this respect. D. J. G. 

Balletto [It.],ballett. (i) Vocal com- 
position of c. 1600, dance-like in charac- 
ter, written in a simplified madrigal style 
and frequently provided with a *fa-la- 
burden which was probably danced. The 
first publication in this field was Giov. 
Gastoldi’s Balletti a cinque voci . , , di 
cantarcy sonare e ballare (1591). It was 
imitated by Th. Morley in his The First 
Boo\ of Ballets to 5 voices (1598), and 
similar publications until c, 1620. — (2) 
Instrumental compositions of a similar 
type and style. These appear frequently 
in the German ♦suites of the early 17th 
century, e.g., Joh. Hermann Schein, Ban- 
chetto musicale (1617; complete ed. by 
A. Priifer, vol. ii), Paul Peurl, Melchior 
Franck, Valentin Haussmann, etc. Fres- 
cobaldi wrote ballettos for keyboard [cf. 
TaAMv], 

Ballo, Tempo di [It.]. In dance-like 
character. 

Bamberg, Codex. See ♦Sources, no. 5. 


BARBIERE DI SIVIGLIA, IL 

or to the 24 fiddlers of Charles II (The 
King’s Private Band). See ♦Brass band; 
♦Military band. 

Bandola, bandolon. Same as ♦Ban- 
durria. 

Bandoneon. See ♦Accordion. 

Bandora. See ♦Pandora. 

Bandurria. See ♦Guitar family. 

Banjo. A stringed instrument with a 
long neck and a body in the form of an 
open drum, spanned with parchment as 
a resonator. It usually has six strings, the 
highest of which, called the thumb-string, 
is placed next to the lowest, in the follow- 
ing arrangement: g" g d' g' b' d". The 
banjo is the typical instrument of the 
American Negroes and has been fre- 
quently used in jazz. It was imported by 
the slaves from western Africa (Senegam- 
bia), where it existed under the name 
“bania.” In all probability it is not an 
aboriginal African instrument, but a 
modification of the Arabian or European 
guitar [see ♦Guitar family]. 

Bar. (i) In English, bar-line or, more 
usually, measure (included between two 
bar-lines). — (2) In German, see ♦Bar- 
form. 

Barber of Seville, The. Sec ♦Bar- 
biere di Siviglia, II. 

Barbershop harmony. Colloquial 
term for a type of highly chromatic, over- 
sweet harmony used in popular American 


Band [F. bande\ It. banda]. An orches- 
tral group composed principally of wind 
instruments. Different types are: ♦brass 
band (brass only), wind band (winds 
only), military band (chiefly brass), jazz 
band (various combinations; see ♦Jazz), 
symphonic band (predominantly wood 
wind, with the addition of cello or double- 
bass). Other types are the balalaika-band, 
marimba banA etc. In modern Italian 
orchestra theAoup of brass and percus- 
sion is c2X\t.^^nda, In earlier periods the 
name was appied to orchestral groups of 
highest distinction, e.g., to the “24 violons 
du roy” under Lully (La grande bande). 



part-singing. Diminished seventh chords, 
augmented sixths, and similar combina- 
tions prevail. Cf. S. Spaeth, Barber Shop 
Ballads (1940); also ♦Jazz II. 

Barbiere di Siviglia, II (“The Bar- 
ber of Seville”). Opera buffa by Gioachino 
Rossini (1792-1868), based on Beaumar- 


[72] 


BARBITOS 


BARD 


chais’ comedy Le Barbier de Seville 
(1775), first performance in Rome, 1816 
(New York, 1819). The scene is 17th- 
century Seville where Count Almaviva 
(Tenor) and Dr, Bartolo (Bass) are rivals 
for the love of Rosina (Soprano), with 
the former winning out by £he aid of the 
resourceful barber Figaro (Baritone). 
Mozart’s Le Nozze di Figaro centers 
around a later adventure of the amorous 
Count. 

The Barbiere is one of the last examples 
of the 18th-century type of Italian opera 
and, in particular, the last to use the 
recitativo secco, Figaro’s aria “Largo al 
factotum” is one of the most outstanding 
examples of bu^o aria in rapid declama- 
tion [see *Parlando; *Pattcr song]. 

Barbitos. An ancient Greek instrument 
of the *lyre type. 

Barcarole [from It. barca^ boat]. A 
boat-song of the Venetian gondolieri, or 
an instrumental or vocal composition 
written in imitation thereof. Well-known 
examples for the piano are to be found in 
Mendelssohn’s “Songs without Words” 
[op. 19, no. 6; op. 30, no. 6; op. 62, no. 5] ; 
others were written by Chopin (op. 60) 
and Faure. Vocal barcaroles occur in 
various operas with Italian settings, e.g., 
in Herold’s Zampa (1831), in Auber’s 
Fra Diavolo (1830), in Offenbach’s Tales 
of Hofmann (1831); cf. also Schubert’s 
song “Auf dem Wasser zu singen.” 
Barcaroles are always in moderate 6/8 
or 12/8 time and use a monotonous ac- 
companiment suggestive of the uniform 
movement of the waves and the boat. 

Bard. The hereditary poet-musicians 
(minstrels) of the Celtic nations, espe- 
cially the Irish and the Welsh. In the 
early Middle Ages they exercised great 
political power, serving as historians, 
heralds, ambassadors, and, in brief, con- 
stituting the highest intellectual class. 
Their existence is documented as far back 
as the pre-Christian era by Greek writers 
such as Diodorus Siculus (ist century 
B.C.), who makes reference to the tradi- 
tional instrument of the bards, i.e., the 
•crwth. The privileges of the Welsh 


bards were fixed by King Howel Dha, in 
940, and revised by Gruffyd ap Conan, in 
1040. The first persecution (on political 
grounds) occurred after the conquest of 
Wales by Edward I, in 1284. The bards 
continued to exist, though far below their 
former standard and reputation, in Ireland 
till 1690 (battle of the Boyne), in Scot- 
land till 1748. The congregations of the 
Welsh bards, called Eisteddfod, were re- 
vived in the early 19th century, after an 
interruption of about 150 years. Their 
standard, which was extremely low, has 
recently been considerably raised. See 
^Penillion. 

The music of the Welsh bards has been 
the subject of much discussion and contro- 
versy. Many exaggerated claims have 
been made, chiefly on the basis of certain 
music manuscripts, one of which, called 
Musica neu Beroriaeth (Penllyn MS; 
Brit. Mus. Add. 14905; facsimile ed. by 
Cardiff University, 1936), bears the in- 
scription, made by an 18th-century 
owner: “The music of Britain, as settled 
by the congress of chief musicians, by 
order of Gruffydd ap Cynan, about A.D. 
1040, with some of the most ancient pieces 
of the Britons, supposed to have been 
handed down to us from the British Dru- 
ids.” Actually, this manuscript dates from 
the 17th century and shows nothing to 
substantiate any such claims or similar 
ones voiced by modern supporters of the 
“Mediaeval Bardic music” movement 
(e.g., A. Dolmetsch). The notation is but 
a modification of the German organ 
tablature of the late i6th century [see 
WoHN ii, 294] . The transcriptions given 
by Dolmetsch (who succeeded in clarify- 
ing certain peculiarities of this notation) 
still further discredit the fantastic legends 
so frequently told. It is probably permis- 
sible to interpret the style of these pieces 
as the result of “debasement through seep- 
age,” a process which can frequently be 
noticed in instrumental folk practice [see 
♦Folk song II ] . Such opinion is, of course, 
in the strongest possible opposition to the 
statement that “from internal evidence 
such music could not have been made 
later than the sixth century, and was 
probably much earlier” (A. Dolmetsch, 


173I 



BARFORM 


BARFORM 


in The Consort^ no. 4, p. 14). The ac- 
companying example, transcribed from 



WoHN ii, 298, shows written-out figura- 
tions in the style of the 17th-century 
arplgement figure [see * Arpeggio], 
Only the beginning and the end of the 
piece arc given here, but the intermedi- 
ate measures can easily be found from 
the formula: iiiiooooioioiiiiooooioii, 
given in the original, which indicates the 
scheme of alternation for the two chords 
used in this piece, each being indicated 
by the figure i or 0, a method commonly 
used in 17th-century guitar tablatures [cf. 
WoHN ii, lyiflj. 

Lit.: Joseph Cooper Walker, Historical 
Memoirs of the Irish Bards (1786); Ed- 
ward Jones, Musical and Poetical Relicts 
of the Welsh Bards (4th ed., 1825); Ch. 
dc la Borde, Essai sur les Bardes, 3 vols. 
(1840); G. Borrow, Celtic Bards, Chiefs 
and Kings (1928); W. Evans, The Bards 
of the Isles of Britain (1930); A. Dol- 
metsch, ^Translations from the Pennlynn 
Manuscript of Ancient Harp Music 
(1937); ^^-9 in The Consort (19301!); 
P. Crossley-Holland, “Secular Homo- 
phonic Music in Wales in the Middle- 
Ages” (ML xxiii, no. 2). 

Barform [G.]. I. A term which is used 
frequently in modern German studies to 
denote one of the oldest and most impor- 
tant musical forms, that is, the form with 
the basic scheme a a b. The name is de- 
rived from the medieval German term for 
rixis form, namely Bar. This consisted of 
Mvo Stollen ((|(Cction a) and the Abgesang 
(section b) the imaginative descrip- 
tion in R. ^^|ncr's Meistersinger, Act I, 
3, where KtiPaier says; “Ein jedcs Meis- 
tergesanges Bar” . . , consists of . . . 
“unterschiedlichcn Gcsatzen” ( sundry 


stanzas); “ein Gcsatz” . . . consists of 
. . . “zweenen (two) Stollen” . . . and 
. . . “Abgesang”; also Act III, 2, Hans 
Sachs]. The Bar is by far the most fre- 
quent form of the Minnesinger and Meis- 
tersinger [Ex. in EiBM, nos. 8, 9; HAM, 
nos. 20, 24; SchGMB, nos. 12, 21; RiHM 
i.2, pp. 268!!]. However, the Barform 
itself is of still earlier origin and of a much 
wider occurrence. It is adumbrated in 
the ancient Greek ode which consisted of 
strophe (a), antistrophe (a), and epode 
(b). The examples 13 and 42 in BeMMR 
illustrate its occurrence in the early medi- 
eval music of the Eastern churches. With 
the *canzo of the troubadours and the 
^ballade of the trouveres it established it- 
self in European music. The German Bar 
is an imitation of these French forms. Al- 
though in France their further develop- 
ment lay in the direction of stylistic per- 
fection (particularly in the polyphonic 
ballade of the 14th century), the Germans, 
restricting themselves to the monophonic 
type, exploited its formal aspect. A fre- 
quent feature, already found in the canzo 
[cf. BeMMR, 107], is the use of identical 
endings for the Stollen and the Abgesang 
so that the form: ||: a + x : b + x rc-|] 
suits, as, e.g., in Walther v. d. Vogel weide’s 
“Palestine Song” [see Ex. i], in Hans 
Sachs’s “Silberweise” [SchGMB, no. 78], 
and in many chorales of the i6th century. 



l«<- cot Ltbe Tntr werAe 2 Stb mtn 

5 Dai hiTC lant anA ©ucK dkC er- Ae A ]>cin.inaii vtL Atr 


D» g«i mMtuxdf 



OK.- gs ^i.hb 5. geiAiC'in Ae.^ iJi tt bats 

8' ren. gtK-t 

U- ctien. trat. 


6.I<K btn, kom-man. an. Ate .fiat (7,^ce 



Z U- cem. pro^i,n<ju.am pTaeciAet.5.lfo| Mcitatw menliiwi 

i Jam Chrijlu;: oA tarn ro<ai. 

c-g., “Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme” 
[cf. Bach’s chorale prelude and the first 
movement of the cantata]. Another type 


[74] 





BARFORM 

is the “duplicated” bar: |1: a :||: b :|| c, 
which forms a connecting link with the 
^sequence {*leich), and the “superim- 
posed” bar, in which the Stollen itself is a 
complete Bar [Ex. in F. L. Saran, ^Die 
jenaer Liederhandschrijt (1902) ii, 53 
and 57]. 

II . Of particular importance is that type 
of Bar in which the Stollen is repeated in 
toto at the end of the Abgesang, thus lead- 
ing to the scheme a a b a or || : a : || b a. 
A very early example of this form is the 
liturgical melody to a hymn, Ales diet 
nuntiuSy by Prudentius (d. c. 450), which 
probably is one of the oldest Christian 
melodies preserved [Ex. 2; cf. AR, 109; 
BeMMR, 52]. Minnesinger songs show- 
ing the same structure are quite numerous 
[cf. DTOe 37.i, p. 31; Saran ii, 29; HAM, 
no. 20c; ReMMA, 235]. The modern 
term for this is Reprisenbar or Rundhjzn- 
zone (rounded chanson). Still another 
modification of a more recent date is the 
Reprisenbar with repetition of both sec- 
tions: ||: a :||: b -f- a : 1 |. This occurs in 
numerous pieces of the i8th century as a 
modification of binary form, appropriate- 
ly designated as cyclic binary form [see 
*Binary and ternary form II]. It is this 
form which must be considered as the pre- 
cursor of *sonata-form, the exposition, 
development, and recapitulation of which 
correspond to the Stollen, Abgesang, and 
repeated Stollen of the Reprisenbar. Al- 
though there is, of course, no historical 
relationship between the medieval Bar and 
the classical sonata, the similarity is note- 
worthy, all the more as the Abgesang of 
the early songs frequently shows certain 
elementary development features, such as 
higher range, *Fortspinnung, and greater 
intensity in general, as appears, e.g., in the 
“Palestine Song” and in Hans Sachs’s 
“Morgenweise” [EiBM, no. 9]. It may 
be noted that in pieces such as the first 
movement of Bach’s cantata mentioned 
above the Barform of the chorale (“Wa- 
chet auf”) leads to a structure which is 
quite similar to that of sonata-form. Sec 
also ^Binary and ternary form. 

A. Lorenz has tried to show (with ques- 
tionable success) that the Barform is the 
leading principle of structure in R, Wag- 


BAR-LINE 

ner’s operas, the recitative of which he in- 
terpreted as “superimposed” Bars {Klein- 
bar, Mittelbar, Crossbar), 

Lit.: A. Lorenz, Das Geheimnis der 
Form bei R. Wagner, 4 vols. (1924-33); 
id,, “Das Relativitatsprinzip in den mu- 
sikalischen Formen” {Adler Festschrift, 
1930); id.y “Homophone Grossrhythmik 
in Bach’s Polyphonik” (DM xxii.4); 
H. A. Grunsky, in ZMW xvi. 

Bariolage [F., variety of colors] . A spe- 
cial effect of violin playing, obtained by 
quickly shifting back and forth from open 
strings to stopped strings. This technique 
is used for broken-chord passages [Ex. i, 



Bach, Solo Sonata in E major], or for a 
“coloristic” tremolo [Ex. 2, Brahms, Sym- 
phony no. 4, last movement] . 

Baritone or (rarely) barytone [from 
Gr. barys, heavy, low], (i) The male 
voice intermediate between the bass and 
the tenor; see * Voices, Range of. — (2) 
In connection with instruments (oboe, 
horn, saxophone) the word indicates sizes 
above the bass size. — (3) Short for bari- 
tone horn [see *Brass instruments III(c) ] . 

Baritone clef. See ♦Clefs. 

Baritone horn. See *Brass instruments 
III(c). 

Bar-line [Fr. barre; G. Tal^tstrich], The 
vertical line used to indicate the begin- 
ning and the end of a measure. The con- 
sistent use of the bar-line is of relatively 
recent date. Original bar-lines appear first 
in the German organ tablaturcs of the 
15th century (Ileborgh, 1448; Paumann, 
1452). In the 1 6th century they were al- 
most universally employed for the writing 
down of keyboard and lute music. Their 
use frequently differed considerably from 
that of the present day, however, as ap- 
pears from the accompanying Example i 
(Pisador, Libro de musica de vihuela, 
1552: “Pavana myllana”), in which die 


[75] 



BAROQUE MUSIC 

original barring is given on the staff, the 
modern barring below the staff. [For a 
similar example cf. ApMZ ii, 21; cf. also 
ApNPMy 6511.] In ensemble (vocal) mu- 



8 


i: Pisador; 2: Josquin 

sic the bar-line was not introduced until 
toward the end of the i6th century, when 
the notation in single parts gave way to 
notation in score arrangement. The arias 
of the 17th century frequently show the 
anomalous use of the bar-line referred to 
above, i.e., the disregard of upbeat or of 
triple time; in other words, the employ- 
ment of the bar-line as a means of simple 
orientation rather than as an indication of 
accent [cf. the explanations and examples 
in RiHM ii.2, 12, etc.]. 

Modern editors of polyphonic music of 
the 15th and i6th centuries have increas- 
ingly resented the “tyranny of the bar- 
line” and have tried to make this indis- 
pensable device of modern notation less 
conspicuous by replacing it by apostro- 
phes: by punctuated lines: 1, or by the 
Mensurstrichy i.e., a line drawn between, 
not through, the staves [Ex. 2, from Jos- 
quin, Ave ChristCy immolate]. Unfortu- 
nately, the Mensurstrich is impracticable 
if different meters (mensurations) are 
used in different parts, e.g., % against %, 
a practice which is not infrequent in the 
period of Obrecht and Josquin, and still 
more frequent in the compositions of the 
late ♦Ars nova. 

Lit.: W. H. Cummings, “Bar-lines” 
{Musical TimeSy 1904, p. 574); Th.Wieh- 
mayer, in ZMW vii; H. Keller, in ZMW 
vii; WoHN ApNPMy passim. 

Baroque The music of the pe- 

riod c, 1600^*750, following upon that of 
the *Renaissance. It is also frequently re- 
ferred to as the “thorough-bass period.” 

[ 


BAROQUE MUSIC 

The term baroque (probably from Port. 
barroccOy a pearl of irregular form) was 
used formerly, and still is today, in a de- 
cidedly depreciatory sense, as meaning 
“grotesque,” “in corrupt taste” [cf. Web- 
ster], “overladen with scroll-work,” etc. 
Its application to the Fine Arts was based 
on the opinion (Jacob Burckhardt) that 
17th-century style in architecture and 
paintings was a debased Renaissance style. 
This opinion, however, was thoroughly 
revised about 1900 by Heinrich Wolfflin, 
who was the first to point out the positive 
contributions and the great artistic quali- 
ties of Baroque art, and to vindicate the 
term Baroque from any implication of in- 
feriority. More recently, musical historians 
have followed suit and have adopted the 
term alongside others such as *Renais- 
sance, ^Gothic, ’•‘‘Rococo [see ^History of 
Music]. In view of this situation, the re- 
sistance which the term “Baroque music” 
is still encountering in some circles is 
hardly justified. If understood properly, 
this term has the advantage of placing an 
important and well-defined period of mu- 
sic history within the general frame of cul- 
tural development, and of avoiding the 
emphasis on a special feature of somewhat 
secondary importance which is implied 
in the term “thorough-bass period” — a 
term which, by the way, does not prop- 
erly include one of the most important 
branches of 17th-century music, namely, 
that for organ and harpsichord. 

Both the beginning and the end of the 
Baroque period in music are rather clearly 
defined, much more so than those of most 
other periods, particularly the Renais- 
sance. Baroque music starts about 1600, 
with the rise of monody, opera, oratorio, 
cantata, recitative, and closes 150 years 
later, with the death of Bach and Handel. 
Preparatory phenomena are, on the one 
hand, the *ballettos and *villanellas with 
their reaction against the Flemish po- 
lyphony, and on the other hand, the style 
of the *Venetian School (G. Gabrieli), 
the pomp and splendor of which exceed 
the limitations of true Renaissance art 
and foreshadow the aesthetic basis of 
Baroque style. It may be noticed that 
throughout the 17th century the tradition 





BAROQUE MUSIC 

of Renaissance music persisted to some 
extent in the *Roman School, and that, 
on the other hand, a new period, the 
’••'Rococo, had already begun when Bach 
and Handel were writing their greatest 
masterpieces, the true culmination points 
of Baroque music. 

Generally speaking, the Baroque period 
is an era of ecstasy and exuberance, of 
dynamic tensions and of sweeping ges- 
tures, an era of longing and of self-denial, 
much in contrast to the assuredness and 
self-reliance of the Renaissance. It is the 
period in which men liked to consider 
this life as the “vale of tears,” in which 
the statues of the Saints look rapturously 
toward heaven, in which the clouds and 
the infinite landscape were discovered. 
Much of this attitude is reflected in the 
expressive melodies of the 17th century, 
in its long coloraturas, in its pathetic reci- 
tative, its frequent use of chromaticism, 
its capricious rhythms. Particularly the 
early Baroque music (prior to 1650) 
shows, in its ’"'canzonas and ♦toccatas, 
striking traits of capriciousness, exuber- 
ance, and irregularity, while later compos- 
ers such as Carissimi and Corelli brought 
about a trend towards greater restraint 
and regularity of style. On the other 
hand, the structural, or, as one might call 
it, the architectural element in Baroque 
music must not be overlooked. More than 
any other period, the 17th century has 
contributed toward the development and 
establishment of clearly defined types 
and forms, such as the ostinato-forms, the 
variations, the suite, the sonata, the da- 
capo aria, the rondo, the concerto, the 
opera, the oratorio, the cantata. 

From the point of view of style. Ba- 
roque music is characterized chiefly by 
the thorough-bass technique, leading to a 
texture of two principal contours, melody 
and bass, with the intervening space being 
filled in by improvised harmony. In Ger- 
many, however, the contrasting style of 
true polyphony not only persisted but 
reached, in Bach, its very acme of perfec- 
tion and greatness. A third principle of 
Baroque style is the stile concertante^ that 
is, contrasting effects, a principle which 
expressed itself in the abrupt changes of 


BAROQUE MUSIC 

the early ♦canzona as well as in the solo- 
tutti alternation of the ♦concerto grosso 
and in the ♦echo-effects of vocal and of 
organ music. Other basic conceptions of 
Baroque music are ♦improvisation and 
♦ornamentation. Lastly, mention must 
be made of the final establishment of tonic 
and dominant as the principal chords of 
harmony and, about 1650 (Carissimi), of 
four-measure phrases [see ♦Vierhebig- 
keit]. 

At the beginning of the 17th century 
we find three great figures still rooted in 
the tradition of the Renaissance but in- 
augurating the novel trends of Baroque 
music, namely, Monteverdi, G. Gabrieli, 
and Sweelinck. They may be considered 
as the sources of three main streams run- 
ning through Baroque music, that is, 
vocal, instrumental, and organ music, to 
which, in turn, the three styles mentioned 
above can be roughly coordinated, name- 
ly, accompanied melody, concerto style, 
and contrapuntal style. 

The first of these streams, starting in 
Florence (Caccini, Peri, later Monte- 
verdi), produces the ♦monodic style with 
the ♦recitative and ♦aria, and with the 
composite forms of the ♦cantata, ♦opera, 
and ♦oratorio (♦passion). The second, 
“Venetian,” stream finds its realization 
in the instrumental ♦canzona, the violin 
♦sonata, the trio-sonata in its two varie- 
ties, ♦sonata da chiesa and ♦sonata da 
camera, and in the orchestral forms of the 
♦concerto grosso [see also ♦Concerto III], 
the French ♦overture, and the ♦sinfonia. 
The last stream, starting with Sweelinck 
and Frescobaldi, but continuing chiefly in 
Germany (Scheidt, Froberger, Buxtehude, 
Pachelbel, Kuhnau, Muffat, Fischer, 
Bach), leads to the ♦fugue, ♦organ chorale 
(choral prelude), ♦toccata, and *suite 
(the latter also in France). 

Lit.: R. Haas, Die Musi\ des Baroc\ 
(BuHMy 1928) ; LaMWCy passim; AdHM 
i, 41 1-700; RiHM ii.3; W. Flemming, 
Oper und Oratorium im Baroc\ (1933); 
P. Nettl, Musikbaroc\ in Eohmen und 
Mahren ( 1927) ; E. Wellcsz, Die Anfdnge 
des musi\alischen Barot^\ . . . in Wien 
(1922); W. D. Allen, “Baroque Histories 
of Music” {MQ xxv); E. Schenck, “Ueber 


[77] 



BARPYKNON 


BASSE DANSE 


BegrifiE und Wesen des musikalischen 
Barock” (ZMW xvii); E. Wellesz, ‘'Ren- 
aissance und Barock” (ZIM xi); Th. 
Kroycr, “Zwischen Renaissance und Ba- 
rock” (JMP xxxiv); C. Sachs, in JMP 
xxvi; A. della Corte, in LRM vi; td,y in 
♦Editions XXIV B, 3/4. 

Barpyknon. See ♦Pyknon. 

Barre [F.]. Bar-line. See also ♦Barren 

Barrel organ. See *Mechanical instru- 
ments 11. 

Barrer [F.]. Term of lute and guitar 
playing, calling for the simultaneous 
shortening of the vibratory length of sev- 
eral or all strings by putting the forefinger 
across them. An artificial substitute is the 
♦capotasto [F. barre]. 

Bartered Bride, The (Prodand Ne- 
vesta). Comic opera by Bedric Smetana 
(1824-84), text by Karel Sabina, com- 
posed in 1866. It has been widely sung 
outside of Czechoslovakia in the German 
translation, as Die v€r){aujte Braut, It 
describes an episode from 19th-century 
Bohemian peasant life, centering around 
the love of Yenyi^ {HanSy Tenor) and 
Marhen\a {Maria^ Soprano). The for- 
mer agrees to give up his right to Mar- 
henka’s hand for a sum of money, under 
the condition that shq marry “the son of 
Micha” whom everybody believes to be 
the stuttering Vazhe\ {Wenzely Tenor). 
In the last scene, however, Yenyik is re- 
vealed as Micha’s eldest son, so the “sales- 
contract” is fulfilled to everyone’s satis- 
faction. 

The Bartered Bride is one of the first 
and also one of the most successful exam- 
ples of national opera. It is unparalleled 
in its display of gay spirit and rustic hu- 
mor and in times of political oppression 
has contributed immensely to stimulate 
Czech patriotism. 

Baryton. (i) See •Viol IV, 5* -7 (2) 
In French and German usage, ♦baritone 
(voice); alsc^,.^d in connection with in- 
struments, ep; Barytonhorn (euphoni- 
um), Baryt&^^e, etc. — (3) In German 
usage, short Idr Barytonhorriy i.e., ♦eupho- 
nium. 


Base viol. Same as bass viol. Sec ♦Viol 
II. 

Basis. Fifteenth- and 16th-century hu- 
manistic name for bass. 

Bass [Gr. basisy foundation], (i) The 
lowest of men’s voices [see ♦Voices, range 
of]. — (2) German name (abbreviation 
of Kontrabass) for the double-bass. — (3) 
In connection with instruments, the term 
indicates the lowest and, consequently, 
largest type of the family, e.g., bass clari- 
net. — (4) In musical composition, the 
lowest of the parts. In the styles of the 
1 8th and 19th centuries the bass adopts 
special significance as the determining 
factor of the harmonic structure [see 
♦Harmonic analysis]. The special role of 
the bass is particularly conspicuous in the 
practice and theory of ♦thorough-bass. 
For the origin of the bass, see ♦Contra- 
tenor. 

Bassa [It., low]. Ottava bassa (abbrevi- 
ated 8 va bassa) means the lower octave of 
the written notes. Con 8 va bassa means 
doubling of the written notes in the lower 
octave. 

Bassadanza [It.]. See *Basse danse. 

Bass-bar. In violins, etc., a strip of 
wood glued inside the table, about ii in. 
long and diminishing at either end. Its 
function is to support the left foot of the 
bridge and to spread over the table the 
vibrations of the bridge produced by those 
of the strings. 

Bass clef. See ♦Clefs. 

Bass-course. See ♦Course. 

Basse [F.]. Basse chiffrSy or continue y 
means thorough-bass; basse contraintey 
ground (basso ostinato); basse projondey 
chantantey tailUy see ♦Voices, Range of; 
basse fondamentahy ♦Fundamental bass; 
basse-a-pistony ♦Euphonium. 

Basse danse. A French dance of the 
period 1450-1550 in which it plays a 
prominent role as the ceremonial court 
dance of the Burgundian culture [sec 
♦Burgundian School]. The name {baSy 
low) probably refers to the gliding or 


[78] 



BASSE DANSE 


BASS LUTE 


walking movement of the feet, in contrast 
to the jumping movements in dances 
such as the gaillarde {danse haute y danse 
sautSe), Various sources from c. 1480 to 
1580, theoretical, choreographic, and mu- 
sical, together with many paintings of the 
15th century [cf.,e.g.,^^’MM/^, 179, 195], 
provide information about this dance. Of 
particular interest are two choreographic 
sources, the MS Brussels 90^5 [sec Lit., 
Closson] and a book U Art et instruction 
de bien dancer printed before 1496. These 



contain illustrations such as are repro- 
duced here [Ex. ij, the notes of which 
probably represent a melodic skeleton, 
giving only the chief note for each meas- 
ure (to be played on a trombone?), with 
the real melody provided (extempo- 
rized?) by a melodic instrument, viol or 
recorder [for an example of such a “tenor- 
dance” see W. Merian, Der Tanz in den 
deutschen T abulaturbuchern des 16, Jahr- 
hunderts (1927), p. 44]. The letters 
underneath the notes indicate dancing 
steps. Nineteen {sic) basse danses for lute 
are preserved in P. Attaingnant’s publica- 
tion: Dixhuit basses danses garnies de re- 
coupes et tordions (1529); others for key- 
board in his Quatorze gaillardsy ...<?/ deux 
basse danses (1530); and for ensemble in 
his ISJeu] basse danses, deux branles. . . 
en musique en quatre parties (1530). 
Frequently the basse danse is followed by 
a recoupe and a tordion, thus forming an 
early type of suite. The basse danse is in 
moderate tempo, usually in duple time 
[Ex. 2], although there also exist a num- 
ber of examples in slow triple time [Ex. 3; 
regarding a controversy on the meter of 
the basse danse cf. ApNMPy 67]. The 
latter variety would seem to have been 
favored in Italy since several dances in 
slow triple meter called bassa danza arc 


preserved in the lute books of Pctrucci 
(1507/9). Some of the dances in Kotter’s 
tablature of 1515 evidently belong to the 
same class, c.g., his “Spanieler” [sec Mc- 
rian’s Der Tanz . . .]. Certain of the 





basse danses in Attaingnant’s book for en- 
semble are “a double employ,” i.e., they 
are so written that they can be played in 
(slow) duple time as well as in (quicker) 
triple time, thus serving both as dance and 
“after-dance” [see ’’^Nachtanz] . Around 
1525 the chief vogue of the French basse 
danse was succeeded by that of the Span- 
ish *pavane. See *Dance music II. 

Lit.: E. Closson, Le Manuscript dit 
"'Des Basses danses'' . . . (1912; facsimile 
ed.); VArt et Instruction de Bien Dancer 
(facs. ed. by the Royal College of Physi- 
cians of London, 1936); F. Blume, Stu- 
dien zur Vorgeschichte der Orchester- 
Suite (1925); E. Closson, in SIM xiv; O. 
Gombosi, “About Dance and Dance Mu- 
sic in the Late Middle-Ages” {MQ xxvii); 
E. Hertzmann, in ZMW xi; C. Sachs, in 
AM iii, no. 3. Examples in HAM, nos. 
102, 104; SchGMB no 90; ApMZ ii. 

Basse d’harmonie [F.]. *Ophicleide. 

Basset horn. See ^Clarinet family III. 

Bassetto, bassett, bassettl. Eight- 
eenth-century name for the violoncello. 

Bassflote [G.]. (i) Bass-flute. — (2) 
Eighteenth-century name for bassoon. 

Bass horn. See under ♦Cornett, 

Bassist [G.], bassists [It.]. A bass 
singer. 

Bass lute, Basslaute [G.j. The •chi- 

tarrone, or the ♦theorboe. 


[79] 




BASSO 


B.C. 


Basso [It.]. Bass. Basso continuOy i.c., 
thorough-bass; basso seguente is an instru- 
mental bass (organ, etc.), which merely 
duplicates the lowest vocal part [cf. RiHM 
ii,2, 75f]; basso profondoy cantantCy sec 
•Voices, range of. 

Basson [F.]. Bassoon. Basson quinte 
is a smaller bassoon, also called tenoroon. 
Basson russcy •Russian bassoon. 

Bassoon. See •Oboe family I, C. 

Basso ostinato. See •Ground. Also 
under •Ostinato. 

Basso ripieno [It.]. In 18th-century 
orchestral works, a bass part for the tutti- 
(•ripieno-) passages only, i.e., not for the 
solo sections. 

Bassschlussel [G.]. The F-clef. 

Bass viol. Properly (17th century) the 
viola da gamba [see ♦Viol II]. Today, 
name for the double bass, a descendant of 
the old double-bass viol [see *Viol IV, i] . 

Bathyphone. •See Clarinet family III. 

Baton. The stick used by the conductor 
of an orchestra to beat time. The modern 
baton is made of tapered wood or some 
other light material, such as aluminum, 
celluloid, or lucite. The length varies 
from 15 to 28 inches. See •Conducting. 

Battaglia [It., battle]. Name for pro- 
grammatic pieces (battle pieces) in which 
the fanfares, drum rolls, cries, and general 
commotion of a battle are imitated. This 
was a favored subject of •program music 
from the i6th through the i8th centuries, 
the earliest example being Jannequin’s 
vocal chanson La Guerre (1529), which 
was suggested by the famous battle of 
Marignano, 1515 [repr. in ♦Editions XVI 
(7); see also GD iii, 462]. This batde 
and that of Pavia (1525) were the subject 
of numerous battaglias of the i6th cen- 
tury, e.g., by Hans Neusidler [1535; cf. 
DTOe i8.ii] and by William Byrd [cf. 
My Ladye-'^^^ii^]Boo\ey cd. by H. An- 
drews] . lo century similar pieces 

were writtei^jiy Adriano Banchieri [cf. 
ApMZ i], ^johann Kaspar Kerll [DTB 
2.ii], and others. Although these pieces 


are of a rather limited artistic value, the 
quality is even lower in the numerous 
batde pieces (mostly English) of the i8th 
century, some of which actually prescribed 
the firing of guns at certain moments. 
Franz Kotzwara’s Battle of Prague ( 1788) 
is still known today. Beethoven made a 
contribution to this repertory in his “Bat- 
de Symphony,** Wellingtons Sieg oder 
die Schlacht bei Vittoria (op. 91, 1813, 
publ. 1816). Cf. R. Glasel, Zur Geschich- 
tc der Battaglia (Diss. Leipzig 1931); E. 
Bienenfeld, in ZIM viii; K. G. Fellerer, 
in DM xxxii.7. 

Battement [F.]. French 17th-century 
term for any ornament consisting of an 
alternation of two adjacent tones, e.g., 
mordent, trill, vibrato. 

Batterie [F.]. (i) The percussion 

group of the orchestra. — (2) A drum 
roll. — (3) Eighteenth-century name for 
arpeggio, broken-chord figures, •Alberti- 
basses, etc. — (4) A way of playing the 
guitar by striking the strings. 

Battery. See *Batterie (3). 

Battle pieces. See *Battaglia. 

Battuta [It.]. Beat. A battuta \nA\c2Xfts 
a return to strict time after some deviation 
{ad libituniy a piacere, etc.). In particular, 
battuta means the strong beat at the be- 
ginning of a measure; hence ritmo di tre 
{quattro) battute indicates that three 
(four) measures are to be grouped to- 
gether in a phrase (cf. the Scherzo of 
Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony). 

Bay Psalm Book. A book of psalms, 
published in Cambridge, Massachusetts, 
in 1640 (the second book printed in 
North America). It had numerous later 
editions for over one hundred years. In 
1690 music (in two parts) was added for 
twelve tunes. See •Psalter; •American 
music I. Example in HAMy no. 283. 

Bayreuther Festspiele. See ♦Festi- 
vals III; •Biihne (Biihnenweihfestspiel). 

BBb bass. Sec •Tuba (2). 


B.C. Short for ^basso continuo, 
[80] 



BE 


BEBUNG 


Be [G.]. The sign b. 

Beak flute. *Rccorder. 

Bearbeitung [G.]. Arrangement. 

Beat [F. temps\ G. Zdhlzeity Schlag\ It. 
battuta], (i) The temporal unit of a 
composition, as is indicated by the (real 
or imaginary) up-and-down movements 
of a conductor’s hand. In modern prac- 
tice, the duration of such a beat varies 
from M.M. 50 to M.M. 140, with M.M. 80 
being a middle speed. In moderate tempo, 
the %. measure includes four beats, beat 
one and beat three being strong, the oth- 
ers weak, while the % measure has three 
beats, only the first of which is strong. In 
quick tempo, there will be only two or 
even only one beat to the measure. In 
music prior to 1600, the beat was of much 
less variable duration [see *Tactus, *Tem- 
pus]. 

(2) A 17th-century English ornament 
which may be performed in two ways, 
depending on whether it is a plain beat 
(indicated by an ascending oblique line 
placed before or over the written note) or 
a shaded beat (indicated by a wavy line 
resembling the French sign for the trill). 
The plain beat is an inferior appoggia- 
tura performed on the beat and of flexible 
duration. The shaked beat consists of 
several rapid repetitions of the appoggia- 
tura and its resolution, beginning with 
the former, so that it resembles an in- 
verted trill. In the i8th century the name 
beat is often applied to the ornament 
commonly known as the ^mordent. P. A. 

(3) See ’"'Beats. 

Beats [F. battements\ G. Schwebungen], 
An acoustical phenomenon, resulting from 
the interference [see * Acoustics VI] of 
two sound-waves of slightly differing fre- 
quencies. It is heard as minute, yet clear- 
ly audible, intensifications of the sound 
at regular intervals. The number per 
second of these intensifications, or beats, 
is equal to the difference of frequency of 
the two tones. Thus, a tone of 440 cycles 
will make four beats per second with a 
tone of 444; three, with a tone of 443; two, 
with 442; one, with 441; and the beats 


will disappear if the two strings are in 
perfect unison [sec the illustration Inter- 
ference, p. 14]. This phenomenon is, 
therefore, of fundamental importance in 
♦tuning. Slow beats such as two to four 
to the second arc not unpleasant to the car. 
In certain organ stops (Voix celeste and 
Unda maris; see •Vox coelestis) beats arc 
deliberately introduced by using two 
pipes slightly out of tunc, in order to give 
the combined tone an undulating quality. 
Beats of 5 or 6 per second produce a dis- 
tinctly less pleasant result, and the dis- 
agreeableness of the effect increases until 
the number of beats is c, 30. From there 
on the unpleasantness diminishes because 
the beats rapidly become too quick to be 
distinguished. This phenomenon is the 
basis of Helmholtz’ theory of *consonance 
and dissonance. Sec also •Combination 
tones. 

Bebization. See •Solmization. 

Bebung [from G. beben^ to tremble; F. 
balancement\, A *vibrato effect peculiar 
to the •clavichord, the action of which 
allows for a repeated pressure motion of 
the finger without releasing the key, a 
motion which causes the tangent mo- 
mentarily to increase the tension of the 
string and which thus leads to slight vari- 
ations of pitch. C. P. E. Bach, in his Ver- 
such iiber die wahre Art das Clavier zu 
spielen (1753), considers the Bebung as a 
great advantage of the clavichord over the 
harpsichord and the pianoforte, both of 
which lack this effect. It is indicated by 
the sign shown in Example i. [Cf. C. P. E. 

^ n 

r u u 

Bach’s Probestuc\ey published as Seeks 
Sonaten by E. Doflein, Ed. Schott, no. 
2353]. The Bebung is mentioned in the 
theoretical writings of Printz (1668), 
Mattheson (1735), Marpurg (1750), 
C. P. E. Bach, and many IjSitcr authors. The 
sign, however, docs not occur ia the litera- 
ture for the clavichord brfore Bach. 

The reference in many niusical books 
to certain passages in Beethoven and 
Chopin as Bebung is misleading. An 


[81] 



BEC 

effect such as illustrated in Example 2 
(Beethoven, Piano Sonatas opp. 106 and 
no; also op. 69, op. 59, no. 2, op. 133 for 
violin) is a (slow) ^tremolo (ondule), 
not a vibrato. See *Tie. 

Bee [F.] . The mouthpiece of the clarinet 
or recorder [sec *Mouthpiccc (b), (d)]. 

B^carre [F.]. See *Accidentals. 

Becken [G.]. ♦Cymbals. 

Bedachtig [G.]. Thoughtfully, with 
moderation. 

Bedeutend [G.]. With importance. 

Bedrohlich [G.]. Menacingly. 

Be fa, Befa. Sec *Hexachord III. 

Beggar’s Opera, The. See under ♦Bal- 
lad opera. 

Begleitung [G.]. Accompaniment. 

Behaglich [G.]. Comfortably, agree- 
ably. 

Behend [G.]. Nimbly, quickly. 

Beherzt [G.]. “With heart,” coura- 
geously. 

Beisser [G., “biter”]. Eighteenth-cen- 
tury name for the *mordent [from L. 
mordere, to bite] . 

Bel [from Alexander Graham Bell]. A 
scientific unit for the measurement of 
loudness, i.c., the subjective reaction to 
intensity of sound. Loudness varies with 
the logarithm of intensity; this means 
that 20 violins playing with equal indi- 
vidual intensities arc only 1.3 times louder 
than 10, and 100 violins only twice as 
loud as 10 (log 20=1.301; log 100 = 2). 
One-tenth of a bel is called a decibel (db); 
this represents the smallest change in 
loudness that the car can detect. The 
sounds used in pf^Ctical music vary from 
c. 25 db (sd^^l^r.^jolin tone) to 100 db 
(fortissimo « the full orchestra). Cf. 
John lA)!Lhiij 0 Tuguc in Cycles and Bels 
(1935); StJjbwns and Davis, Hearing 
(1938), pp. 45off. 

[ 


BELGIAN MUSIC 

Bel canto [It., beautiful singing]. The 
term denotes the Italian vocal technique 
of the 1 8th century with its emphasis on 
beauty of sound and brilliancy of perform- 
ance, rather than dramatic expression or 
Romantic emotion. In spite of the re- 
peated reactions against the M canto 
(Gluck, Wagner) and in spite of the fre- 
quent exaggeration of its virtuoso cle- 
ment (coloraturas), it must be considered 
as a highly artistic technique and as the 
only proper one for Italian opera and for 
Mozart. Its early development is closely 
bound up with that of the Neapolitan 
opera (Al. Scarlatti, Porpora, Jommelli, 
Hasse, Piccinni). See *Singing I. 

Lit.: G. B. Lamperti, Technics of Bel 
Canto (New York); H. Klein, The Bel 
Canto (1923); H. Goldschmidt, Die ha- 
lienische Gesangsmethode des ly, Jahr- 
hunderts (1892); B. Ulrich, Die alt- 
italienische Gesangsmethode (1933); G. 
Silva, “The Beginnings of the Art of Bel 
Canto” {MQ viii). 

Belebend [G.]. Becoming animated. 

Belebt [G.]. Animated. 

Belgian music. The present article 
deals with the musical history of the Cath- 
olic (southern, Flemish) part of the Low 
Countries, as distinguished from that of 
the Protestant (northern, Dutch) part, 
the Netherlands. The highly important 
role which Belgium played in the earlier 
history of music is greatly obscured by the 
name “Netherlands School” which is 
widely used for a school of 15th- and 16th- 
century composers nearly all of whom 
came from Belgium [sec *Flemish 
School]. This great period during which 
Belgian musicians held leading positions 
everywhere in Europe was followed, after 
1600, by a long period of low ebb. Only 
in the field of organ music did Belgium 
produce composers of some historical sig- 
nificance, c.g., Charles Luython {c. 1550- 
1620), Pieter Cornet (fl. 1600-25), Gio- 
vanni dc Macque (d. 1614; sec ♦Neapoli- 
tan School II), Charles Guillet (d. 1654), 
Abraham Kerckhoven {c. 1627 — after 
1673), Jean-Baptistc Loeillet ( 1680-1730), 
and Joscph-Hcctor Fiocco (1703-41) 

82] 



BELGIAN MUSIC 


BELL 


[sec ^Editions XVII]. While the latter 
two followed the trends of the French 
Rococo (F. Couperin), the next Belgian 
composer to be mentioned, Francois 
Gossec (1734-1829) belongs to the 
*Mannheim group, and the slightly 
younger Andre Gr^try (1741-1813) plays 
an important role in the history of the 
French opera {Richard Coeur de Lion^ 
1784; see ^Leitmotif). It should be noted 
that Belgium has a certain claim to one 
of the greatest composers, namely Bee- 
thoven, whose ancestors lived near Ant- 
werp and Mecheln [cf. P. Bergmans, Les 
Origines beiges de Beethoven (1927); 
E. Closson, LElement fiamand dans 
Beethoven (1928)]. 

In the 19th-century music of Belgium, 
Cesar Franck (1822-90) is by far the most 
important personality. Like Tchaikov- 
sky, he adhered to the conception of music 
as an international language, while Pierre 
Benoit (1834-1901) played a role com- 
parable to that of Moussorgsky, namely, 
that of the initiator of national music, 
freed from German as well as French in- 
fluence. He is particularly important in 
the field of the oratorio and of the cantata. 
Among his successors Jan Blockx (1851- 
1912) and Edgar Tinel (1854-1912) 
must be mentioned especially. Paul Gil- 
son (b. 1865) adopted some elements of 
Russian music and is particularly known 
for his symphonic poem La Mer (1892). 
A composer who in a very short life wrote 
several works of great promise was Guil- 
laume Lekeu (1870-94). Joseph Jongen 
(b. 1873) was active mainly in the field 
of symphonic and of chamber music. The 
novel trends of 20th-century music have 
found little response in Belgium. Paul de 
Maleingreau (b. 1887) is the main repre- 
sentative of neo-classical tendencies based 
on Bach. 

Belgium has produced a number of 
outstanding music historians, notably 
Francois Fetis (1784-1871), Charles 
Coussemakcr (1805-76; see *Scriptores), 
Pierre van Maldeghem (1810-93; pub- 
lished La Trisor musicale)^ Edmund van 
der Straeten (1826-95; Im Musique aux 
Pays-Basy 1867-88), and Charles van den 
Borren (b. 1874). 


Lit.: FI, van der Mueren, Vlaamsche 
Muzie\ en Componisten (1931); LavE 
i.3, i8i5ff; Ch. van den Borren, ‘The 
General Trends in Contemporary Belgian 
Music” {MQ vii); id.y “Belgian Music 
and French Music” {MQ ix); AdHM ii, 
1074-77. 

Bell, (i) A percussion instrument of 
metal sounded by a clapper usually 
placed inside the bell. The best alloy for 
bells is 76 per cent pure copper and 24 per 
cent pure tin. Sometimes small amounts 
of zinc or lead are added. The tone of a 
well tuned bell is characterized by a great 
number of overtones which, in old bells 
(chiefly those of the Continent), are 
slightly out of tune; owing to the efforts 
of English bell-founders (especially, Tay- 
lor of Loughborough), modern English 
bells have five overtones (including the 
minor, not the major, third) tuned with 
absolute accuracy. The pitch of a bell 
varies inversely with the cubic root of its 
weight. Therefore, if a bell weighing 
100 pounds sounds c'" (the actual tone 
is nearer b"), a bell of 800 pounds 
( \ 8 = 2) will be needed for the tone of 
the half frequency, c", one of 6,400 for c', 
of 51,200 pounds for c, and of 409,600 
pounds for C. The largest bell ever 
founded was the Tsar Kolokol of the 
Kremlin of Moscow (1734, destroyed by 
fire in 1737) which, after the best estima- 
tion, weighed c, 500,000 pounds, and 
measured over 20 feet in diameter. The 
largest bell in existence is the Trotzkoi, 
also in Moscow, weighing c, 350,000 
pounds. Old bells in France and in Ger- 
many weigh from 20,000 to 40,000 
pounds. Large modern bells usually 
weigh from 5,000 to 15,000 pounds. The 
use of bells in churches can be traced back 
to the 6th century (Gregory of Tours, 
c. 560); the earliest record of large bells 
in England dates from the loth century 
(Turketyl, Abbot of Croyland); the earli- 
est preserved bells arc ta be found in Italy 
and in Germany (nth century). 

Three ways of sounding church bells 
are distinguished: (a) chiming, in which 
the rope moves the bell just sufficiently 
for the clapper to strike it; (b) ringing, 



BELL HARP 


BERCEUSE 


in which the bell is swung round full 
circle, thus giving a more vigorous sound; 
(c) clocking, in which the clapper is 
moved instead of, as usual, the bell — a 
method which should not be used since 
it is likely to cause the bell to crack. 
Whereas in continental Europe church 
bells arc sounded in such a way as to pro- 
duce a confused musical noise, the Eng- 
lish bells are rung in succession according 
to certain elaborate systems so that a 
“melody” is produced. This method is 
known as ^change ringing. Sec also ♦Ca- 
rillon; ♦Campana. 

The bell effect has been frequently re- 
quired in orchestral works, the earliest 
known example being the two bells (prob- 
ably an organ stop) in Bach’s solo-cantata 
Schlagc dock gewunschte Stunde. In the 
modern orchestra real bells are not used 
(because of their lack of definiteness in 
pitch), but are replaced by the “tubular 
bells” (*chimes; see also *Bells), i.e., a 
number (7 to lo) of cylindric metal tubes 
of different lengths, hung in a frame and 
struck with a hammer. Debussy’s “La 
Cathedrale engloutie” and Busoni’s “So- 
natina in Diem Nativitatis Christi” con- 
tain bell effects produced on the piano- 
forte. See also ♦Campanella. 

Lit.: G. S. Tyack, A Boo\ about Bells 
(1898); J. J. Raven, The Bells of England 
( 1906) ; S. N. Coleman, T he Boo\ of Bells 
(1938; bibl.); G. Morrison, Bells — Their 
History and Romance (1932); W. W. 
Starmer, “Bells and Bell Tones” (PM A 
xxvii); H. Bewerunge, “On the Tuning 
of BeUs” (ZIM vii); J. Biehle, “Die 
Analyse des Glockenklangs” (AMW i). 

(2) The bell-shaped opening of wind 
instruments such as the horn or the trum- 
pet. 


Belly. The upper plate of the resonant 
box in violins, lutes, etc. Also the ♦sound- 
board of the piano. 

Be mi, Bemi. See ♦Hcxachord III. 

Bemol [F.], bemolle [It.]. Flat. See 
♦Pitch names; ♦Accidentals. 

Benedicamus Domino. A salutation 
of the Roman liturgy, with the response 
Deo gratias. It is used occasionally at the 
end of *Mass [cf. GRy i8*, 55*, etc.], and 
at the end of all Offices. For the latter 
purpose various melodies (toni) are pro- 
vided [cf. ARy 58* ]. The Benedicamus 
Domino plays a most important role in the 
history of early polyphony (Schools of St. 
Martial and Notre Dame; see ♦Ars an- 
tiqua; ♦Organum) since its melodics, 
especially the first one given in the An- 
tiphonarium, have been very frequendy 
used as the tenor of organa in two or three 
parts. In fact, the entire history of early 
polyphony could easily and, no doubt, 
quite instructively, be demonstrated by 
means of the numerous pieces written on 
this tenor [cf. HAMy nos. 28a~i]. Cf. 
also H. Schmidt, "fDrei Benedicamus Or- 
gana (1933); AdHMy 179; ReMMA, 266; 
BeMMRy 97; ApNPMy passim. 

Benediction. An extra-liturgical popu- 
lar service of the Roman Catholic Church, 
usually following Vespers and including 
the blessing of the congregation with the 
Host. “Tantum ergo” and “O salutaris 
hostia” arc the most important hymns of 
Benediction [cf. ARy 88*]. 

Benedictus Dominus Israel. The 

canticle [see *Canticum] of Zacharias. 
(Note that Benedictus alone will nearly 
always refer to *Bencdictus qui venit.) 


Bell harp. A sort of psaltery invented Benedictus (qui venit). Second part 
c. 1700 by John Simcock. It took its name the Sanctus of the Mass. In Mass com- 
from the bell-shaped form of its frame, positions it is usually treated as a separate 
Cf. SaRMy 44. . ' movement [see ♦Mass III]. 

Bequadro [It.]. Natural, the natural 
sign. Sec ♦Accidentals. 

Berceuse [F.]. Lullaby. Usually the 
name refers to instrumental pieces (piano, 
orchestra) in moderate 6/8 time, and 

[84] 


Bell-lyra;» J 


nder ♦Glockenspiel. 


Bells. Wme for the orchestral 

glockenspil^ ♦Percussion instru- 
ments A, 



BERGAMASCA 

with an accompaniment reminiscent of 
the rocking of a cradle. The most famous 
example is Chopin’s op. 57. 

Bergamasca. (i) In the i6th and 17th 
centuries a popular tune from the district 
of Bergamo in northern Italy whose peas- 
ant inhabitants were proverbial for their 
clumsiness and backwardness. Fresco- 
baldi (Fiori musicali, 1635) used this 
melody as a theme of one of his most elab- 
orate canzonas, adding the remark: “Chi 
questa Bergamasca sonara, non pocho ini- 
parera” (He who plays this Bergamasca 
will learn a good deal). }ean-Baptiste 
Besard [cf. O. Chilesotti, in RMC i, 145] 
and Samuel Scheldt [cf. G. Harms, 
Scheldt* s Wer){e, vol. 5] used its scheme 
of harmonies for continuous variations 
similar to a chaconne, except for the duple 

Bergamasca 

time. The same melody occurs, with 
slight modifications, in Salomone Rossi’s 
“Varie Sonate . . .” (1623) and in 

Marco Uccellini’s “Sonate, sinfonie, . . 
(1642). Two simple settings for the gui- 
tar are reproduced in WoHN ii, 166 and 
188. Whether the somewhat similar mel- 
ody “Kraut und Riiben haben mich 
vertrieben,” which Bach uses in the final 
quodlibet of his Goldberg Variations [see 
Ex. under *Quodlibet] goes back to the 
old Italian melody, as has been frequently 
claimed, is uncertain. Cf. P. Nettl, in 
ZMW v; R. Each, in Museion, 1920. 

(2) The 19th-century bergamasca is a 
quick dance in 6/8 time, much like the 
^'tarantella. Alfredo Piatti (1822--1901), 
a native of Bergamo, wrote a Bergamasca 
for cello solo. Debussy’s “Suite Berga- 
masque” is a free composition based upon 
impressions from the peasant life of 
Bergamo. 

Bergerette [F., from herger, shep- 
herd]. (i) An 18th-century type of 
French lyric poetry with a pastoral or 
amorous subject. Cf. J.-B. Weckerlin, 
Bergerettes (Engl. ed. 1913). — (2) In 
the 15th century, bergerette denotes a 


BERLIN SCHOOL 

fixed form of French poetry, similar in 
construction to the *virelai, but with one 
stanza only. Such bergerettes occur in the 
Kopenhagen Chasonnier [ed. by K. Jep- 
pesen] and in the *Odhecaton. Cf. H. 
Hewitt, Harmonice Musices Odhecaton 
A ( 1942), pp. 49f. — (3) In the i6th cen- 
tury the name occurs as a title for instru- 
mental dances in quick triple time, simi- 
lar to the saltarello. Cf. RiML, 155. 

Berg(k) reyen [old German for Berg- 
reigen y d'^nct of a mountainous country]. 
Name of various 16th-century collections 
of songs from German mountainous 
countries (Silesia, Thuringia), composed 
in two or more parts, in simple note- 
against-note style (E. Rotenbucher, 1551; 
Melchior Franck, 1602). Therefore, “in 
Bergreyenweis” (“in the manner of a B.”) 
is a 16th-century expression — slightly 
pejorative — for simple chordal style 
(^familiar style). 

Bergomaska. See ^Bergamasca. 

Berkshire Festivals. See *Festivals. 

Berlin School. Collective designation 
for a group of composers, also known as 
Norddeutsche Schule^ who worked in 
Berlin during the second half of the i8th 
century. Most of them were connected 
with the court of Frederick the Great 
(1712-86) who, through his numerous 
flute sonatas and other compositions, con- 
tributed actively to the musical life of his 
residence. The most important members 
of the group were: J. J. Quantz (1697- 
1773; flute sonatas, etc.); Johann Gottlieb 
Graun (1702-71; symphonies, trio so- 
natas); Karl Heinrich Graun (1703-59; 
opera Montezumay text by Frederick the 
Great \DdT 15] and oratorio Der Tod 
}esu)\ Franz Benda (1706-86; violin so- 
natas, concertos); C. P. E. Bach (1714- 
88); Christoph Nichelmann (1717-62; 
songs, harpsichord sonatas); Friedrich 
Wilhelm Marpurg (i7ij^^; songs; edi- 
tor of Berlinische Oden J^edcfy 1756; 
numerous theoretical ^o6ks)> Johann 
Kirnberger (1721-83; sQ^]gp, harpsichord 
pieces, theoretical books); aind Johann Fr. 
Agricola (1720-74; songs). 


[85] 



BERSAG HORN 

While in the field of instrumental 
music diese men, particularly C. P. E. 
Bach, made significant contributions, 
their activity in the field of the *Licd 
{Berliner Liederschule) was largely frus- 
trated by the spirit of rationalism and 
the Enlightenment to which Frederick 
the Great, a close friend of Voltaire, had 
given ready admittance. The situation 
changed when a younger generation, 
known as Zweite Berliner Liederschule ^ 
turned from the dry moralism of Gellert 
to the inspiring poems of Klopstock and 
the young Goethe. Johann P. A. Schulz 
( 1747-1800), Johann F. Reichardt ( 1752- 
1814), and Karl F. Zelter (1758-1832) 
are the most important members of this 
group. See *Lied IV; also *SingspieL 
The name Berliner Schule is sometimes 
restricted to this group. 

Lit.: AdHMj 699^; M. Friedlander, 
Das deutsche Lied im 18. Jahrhundert^ 2 
vols. (1902); Flueler, Die norddeutsche 
Sinfonie (Diss. Berlin 1910); H. Hoff- 
mann, Die norddeutsche Triosonate . . . 
(Diss. Kiel 1924); E. Stiltz, Die Berliner 
Klaviersonate zur Zeit Friedrichs des 
Grossen (Diss. Berlin 1930); A. Mayer- 
Reinach, “K. H. Graun als Opernkom- 
ponist” {SIM i). 

Bersag horn. See ♦Brass instruments 
IV. 

Beruhigend [G.]. Calming down. 
Bes [G.]. B-double flat. 

Beschleunigt [G.]. Accelerando. 
Beseelt [G.]. Soulfully. 

Bestimmt [G.]. With decision. 
Betont [G.]. Stressed, accented. 
Beweglich [G.]. In an agile manner. 

Bezifferter Bass [G.; Zi^er^ figure]. 
Figured bass, i.e., ♦thorough-bass. 

B fa. Sec ♦H^^ord III. 

B.-G. Abhi^^tion for Bach-GeselL 
schaft [see 11, 2 ] . 

B.-H. A^^^tion for Breitkopf und 
Hartel, of numerous complete 

editions. 

[ 


BINARY AND TERNARY FORM 

Bible regal [G. Bibelregal], Sec 
♦Regal. 

Biblioteca di Rarita Musicali. See 
♦Editions III. 

Bicinium [L. bisy twice, and canercy to 
sing]. A 16th-century name chiefly used 
in German for vocal compositions in two 
parts. The Greek synonym diphona oc- 
curs also. The bicinia, which form a de- 
lightful contrast to the rich texture of the 
late- 16th-century motet, madrigal, etc., 
represent a litde-known treasure of great 
artistic value and educational significance. 
The most important publications arc: 
G. Rhaw, Bicinia Gallicay Latina et Ger- 
manic a (1545; partly republished by K. 
Ameln, Barenreiter-Verlag; by Reichen- 
bach, Verlag Kallmeyer); Kaspar Oth- 
mayr, Bicinia Sacra (1547; partly republ. 
by Lipphardt, Bar. V.); Erasmus Roten- 
bucher, Diphona amoena et florida 
(1549); Seth Calvisius, Biciniorum libri 
duo (1599, 1612); E. Bodenschatz, Bi- 
cinia XC selectissima ... (1615; cf. 
SchGMBy no. 163). Outstanding exam- 
ples are found among the works of Lud- 
wig Senfl, Orlando di Lasso (complete 
works, vol. i), and Michael Praetor ius 
(cpl. works, vol. ix, and passim) cf. HAMy 
no. 167b). An Italian publication of 
bicinia is Pietro Vinci, II primo libro della 
musica a due voci (1560). Throughout 
the 17th century numerous two-part 
pieces were written in Italy, under the 
name *ricercare [sec also ♦Invention]. 
S. Scheidt, in his Tabulatura nova 
(1624), uses the term Bicinium for organ 
verses and variations in two voice-parts. 
See ♦Tricinium. 

Bina. Same as vina [see ♦Hindu music 

II]- 

Biniou. See under ♦Bagpipe. 

Binary and ternary form. I. The 
terms signify two basic musical forms, 
consisting of two or of three main sections 
respectively. The binary form follows the 
scheme A B, with each section repeated; 
the ternary form (also called: ♦song 
form) follows the scheme ABA. Ex- 
amples of the former category abound in 

5 ] 



BINARY AND TERNARY FORM 


BINARY AND TERNARY FORM 


the allemandes, gavottes, etc,, of Bach’s is frequently considered a ternary form, 

suites, while the latter occurs frequently Such an interpretation, although admis- 

in the slow movements of sonatas (e.g., sible from the point of view of program- 

Beethoven, Piano Sonata op. 7; op. 10, no. notes, is too much of a “listener’s simpli- 

3), in the Scherzo with Trio, and in prac- fication” to be accepted in serious studies, 

tically all the ^character pieces of the The main objection against it lies in the 

Romantic composers, such as Schu- fact that it does not take into account the 

mann’s Novellettes, Chopin’s Nocturnes, repetition of the exposition which is al- 

Brahms’s Fantasias, etc. most invariably prescribed in the works 

It should be noticed that binary and of the Viennese classics, including Brahms 
ternary forms are not so similar in char- — an oversight for which the blame must 
acter as the nomenclature might suggest, be put on our conductors and pianists 
In fact, to consider them as analogous who consistently disregard in their per- 
forms is quite misleading. The binary formances a feature whose aesthetic im- 
form is essentially a stylistic and structural portance was clearly recognized by the 
entity, a unified whole which, like many great masters of the sonata. Another ob- 
phrases in music, falls into two halves, the jection is that in the sonata-form the mid- 
second of which forms the logical and die section (development) is based on the 
necessary completion of the first. The thematic material of the first section (ex- 
ternary form, on the other hand, is usu- position), while in true ternary form it 
ally the sum of three single units each of has different and contrasting material, 
which is complete in itself. This differ- Finally, the historical development of 
ence is clearly reflected in the harmonic .sonata-form clearly shows its derivation 
scheme normally found with these forms: from binary schemes, such as were used 
in the binary form each section is har- in the dance movements of the suite [see 
monically “open,” the first leading from ♦Sonata-form II]. Three such schemes 
T to D, the second back from D to T; in can be distinguished: ( i) the symmetrical 
the ternary form each section is harmoni- binary form, in which both sections are 
cally “closed,” beginning and ending in of equal length; (2) the asymmetrical 
the same key, but with a different key 
(dominant, relative key, parallel key) 
often used for the middle section. Stylis- 
tic considerations also corroborate this 
fundamental difference; the binary form 
uses the same or similar material through- 
out, whereas the ternary form uses differ- 
ent, frequently contrasting, material for 
the middle section. Briefly stated, the 
binary form is a continuous form, the 
ternary, a sectional form. The minuet 
(scherzo) with trio of the sonata shows 
both forms combined, since the whole 
movement is in ternary form, each section 
in binary form. 

II. The historical development of the 
binary form is of particular interest since 
it includes one of the most important de- 
velopments of music history, namely, that 

leading to the sonata-form of the classical ^ ^ 

sonata, symphony, etc. Owing to the fact binary jorm^ the secoflifisfction of which 
that this form includes three main sec- is longer than the first, owing to a “bulg- 

tions, the exposition, the development, ing-out” process at its beginning; (3) die 
and the recapitulation ( = exposition), it rounded binary form^ which has repetition 

[87] 





BIND 


BLANCHE 


(in toto or partially) of the first section at 
the end of the second [see Ex. 1-3]. The 
latter is structurally identical with the 
earlier type of sonata-form (Haydn, Mo- 
zart) in which both sections are repeated. 
The same scheme exists in many dance 
movements and other pieces of Bach (e.g., 
in the Anglaise from his French Suite no. 
3 and in die Prelude in D of Wt, Cl. ii) 
as well as in practically all the minuets 
(scherzos) and trios of the classical pe- 
riod. In fact, any of these pieces may well 
serve as an example of sonata-form, show- 
ing its main sections in a condensed shape. 
Regarding a medieval type of binary form 
in which the first section only is repeated 
(as in the later examples of sonata-form), 
see *Barform. 

III. The principle of ternary structure 
appeared first in the French chansons of 
the 1 6th century (Jannequin; cf. RiHM 
ii.i, 367). The idea of a contrasting mid- 
dle section is quite clearly expressed in the 
shepherd’s solo of Monteverdi’s Or/eo, 
1607 [cf. also his famous duet “Pur- 
ti miro” from Llncoronazione, 1642; 
SchGMBy no. 178]. Ternary form be- 
came clearly established in the *da-capo 
aria, c, 1700. Another realization of the 
ternary construction exists in the alterna- 
tive use of two dances, the first being re- 
peated after the second [see *Alterna- 
tivo]. In 19th-century music, the ternary 
form was frequently broadened into a 
five-part scheme: ABABA or ABAC A, 
particularly in slow movements of sym- 
phonies [cf., e.g., that of Bruckner’s Sym- 
phony no. 7]. See ♦Forms, Musical; also 
♦Rondo. Cf. E. J. Dent, “Binary and Ter- 
nary Forms” (ML xvii, no. 4). 

Bind. Same as ♦tie. 

Bird song. The song of the birds, being 
practically the only case of “music in 
nature,” has been the subject of innumer- 
able studies. Interesting facts are that only 
small birds sing, that the best singers 
(nightingale, thrush, blackbird) are 
unobtrusively t^^d, that they prefer to 
sing in soHtu$ik than in flocks, that 
only male b|iPfimvc loud musical voices, 
and that godq singers are found only in 
moderate climates. 


Much attention has been given to the 
question as to the relationship between 
bird song and our music. Certainly no 
biological relationship exists, as most ani- 
mals do not sing. Whether or not our 
music developed in imitation of bird song, 
as has been frequently maintained, is a 
matter of mere speculation. Although it 
is true that bird song has many features 
in common with primitive folk song (ir- 
regularity, wavering of pitch, microtonic 
deviations from our scale, improvisation), 
it should be noticed that this type of folk 
song exists chiefly in the exotic countries 
(Africa, Asia) where there are no singing 
birds. 

Lit.: S. P. Cheney, Wood Notes Wild 
(1891); F. Schuyler Mathews, Fieldboo\ 
of Wild Birds and Their Music (1904); 
W. Garstang, Songs of the Birds (1922); 

A. R. Brand, Songs of Wild Birds (1936; 
with records); E. M. Nicholson, Songs of 
Wild Birds (1936; with records); A. A. 
Saunders, A Guide to Bird Songs of 
North-eastern United States (1935), W. 

B. Olds, in MQ viii. Cf. also William 
Gardiner, The Music of Nature (1832), 
chapter XII. 

Bis [F., twice J. (i) Same as ♦encore. — 
(2) Indication that notes or passages 
should be repeated. 

Biscroma [It.]. See ♦Notes. 

Bisdiapason [L.j. The interval or 
range of two octaves. 

Bistropha. See ♦Neumes I (table). 

Bitonality. See ♦Polytonality. 

Bivirga. See ♦Neumes I (table). 

Biwa. The Japanese lute. See ♦P’ip’a. 

Bkl. Short for G. Bass\larinette, i.e., 
bass clarinet. 

Black-bottom. See ♦Jazz III. 

Blackening. Same as ♦coloration [sec 
♦Mensural notation Vj. 

Bladder pipe [G. Platerspiel], Sec 
under ♦Bagpipe. 

Blanche [F.]. Sec *Notes. 


[ 88 ] 



BLASINSTRUMENT 

Blasinstrument [G.]. *Wind instru- 
ment BlasmusiJ{y music for wind instru- 
ments. 

Blasquinte [G., “blown fifth”]. A 
term introduced by E. von Hornbostel for 
a fifth of 678 cents, i.e., % of a whole- 
tone lower than the Pythagorean (pure) 
or the tempered fifth of 702 or 700 cents 
respectively. This interval results if a 
stopped pipe (bamboo) is overblown. 
Hornbostel derived from this interval a 
circle of Blasquinten (Blasquintenzirl(el) 
similar to that of the ordinary ^circle of 
fifth and based on the absolute pitch of 
the Chinese huang chung [see ^Chinese 
music I]. He was able to show that the 
tones resulting from this procedure re- 
cur in many musical cultures of the Far 
East and of South America, most clearly 
in the Javanese scale pclog [see ^Javanese 
music II] . Recent studies by M. Bukofzer 
have shown, however, that the blown fifth 
is without physical foundation, and the 
theory of the circle of blown fifths has 
been contested. 

Lit.: E. M. V. Hornbostel, “Die Mass- 
norm als kulturgeschichtliches Forsch- 
ungsmittel” (in Festschrift fiir P, W. 
Schmidt^ 1928); id., “Musikalische Ton- 
systeme” (in H. Geiger, Handbuch der 
Physit{, viii, 1928); R. Lachmann, MusiJ{ 
des Orients (1929); M. Bukofzer, in 
Zeitschrijt fiir Physi\, 99 (1936) and in 
Anthropos, 32 (1937). 

Blatt [G.]. Reed. 

Blattspiel (“playing from the sheet”). 
Sight-reading. 

Blechinstrument [G.]. Brass instru- 
ment; also called simply Blech, 

Blechmusik. Music for brass bands. 

Blockflote [G.]. Blockflute, i.e., *re- 
corder. See also under *Whisdc. 

Blue notes. In jazz music, name for 
certain degrees of the scale, mainly the 
third and the seventh, which are used 
both natural and flatted (E and Eb, B and 
Bb), and frequently with a deliberately 
“wrong” intonation in between. The re- 


BOEHM SYSTEM 

suiting formations (blues scale) arc a 
characteristic of the *blues. 

Blues. See ♦Jazz II; ♦Negro music III; 
♦Blue notes. Cf. W. C. Handy, The Blues 

(1925)- 

Blumen [G.]. Name for the coloraturas 
of the ♦Meistersinger. 

B.M.V. Sec ♦Antiphon (2). 

B mi. See ♦Hexachord III. 

B moll [G.]. B-flat minor. 

Bobisation. See *Solmization III. 

Bocal [F.]. Mouthpiece of a brass in- 
strument. 

Bocca chiusa [It.]. Same as ♦bouche 
ferme. Bocca ridente (laughing mouth) 
indicates in singing a smiling position of 
the lips. 

Bocedisation. See ♦Solmization III. 

Bockstriller [G., from Boc\, he-goat]. 
See ♦Tremolo (3). 

Boehm clarinet (flute). See ♦Boehm 
system; ♦Clarinet (♦Flute). 

Boehm system. A system of keying a 
wood-wind instrument which allows the 
holes to be cut in the proper acoustical 
position and size, and yet to be within the 
spread of the average hand. It was in- 
vented around 1830 by the flutist Theo- 
bald Boehm of Munich (1794-1881) to 
supersede earlier methods of keying in 
which the holes were not placed exactly 
from the acoustical point of view, but 
in a sort of compromise-position, with 
greater regard to the hand than to the ear. 
In spite of its complicated mechanism and 
the fact that it detracts slightly from the 
tonal quality of the instrument, it has been 
universally adopted in the manufacture 
of flutes, and the benefits of the system 
have been applied also to oboes, clarinets, 
and (to a lesser extent)*'^ bassoons. Du- 
plicate fingerings arc ^^iroduced which 
facilitate passages prejj^sly impossible, 
and the system has the ^^anUge of keep- 
ing different keys more oii the same 
level as regards difficulty. The pre-Boehm 


[89] 



BOETHIAN NOTATION 

types of flutes and oboes are now obsolete, 
but clarinets with the older system are still 
used. Cf. H. C. Wysham, The Evolution 
of the Boehm Flute ( 1 898) . W. D. D. 

Boethian notation. See *Letter nota- 
tion. 

Bogen [G.]. (i) The bow of a violin, 
etc. — (2) The tie. Bogenform^ see 
*Forms, Musical (after A, I). Bogen- 
fuhrung, i.e., bowing. Bogenl^lavier, 
Bogenfliigely see *Sostenentc pianoforte. 

Boheme, La. Grand opera by Giacomo 
Puccini (1858-1924), based on Henri 
Murger’s La Vie de Bohhmey composed 
in 1896. The setting is Paris in the 1840 s, 
and the opera gives a touching though 
somewhat sentimental description of the 
Bohemian life of young artists, centering 
around the love between the poet Rodolfo 
(Tenor) and Mimi (Soprano) who, in 
the last act, dies of consumption. The 
lighter side of Bohemian life and love is 
represented by another couple, Marcel 
(Baritone) and Musetta (Soprano). 

The opera, one of the best-known ex- 
amples of •Verismo, approximates, in its 
light texture, clarity of orchestration, and 
lyric style, the French rather than the 
typically Italian (Verdi) opera. Interest- 
ing are the *parallel chords in the opening 
to the second act. R. Leoncavallo wrote 
an unsuccessful opera on the same subject 
in 1897, without knowledge of Puccini’s 
score. 

Bohemian music. See ♦Czech music. 

Bois [F., wood]. Les boisy the wood 
winds. 

Boite de musique [F.]. Musical box. 
See ♦Mechanical instruments III. 

Bolero. A Spanish dance said to have 
been invented by Sebastian Cerezo, a cele- 
brated dancer of Cadiz, around 1780. It 
is a solo or couple dance including many 
brilliant and difficult steps, quick move- 
ments, such z^^^^ntrechat of the classi- 
cal ballet, as a sudden stop in a 

characterist^ tt^^n with one arm held 
arched ov^wi^ad {bien parado). The 
music is in moderate triple time, with ac- 

t 


BOLOGNA SCHOOL 

companiment of the castanets and rhythms 
such as: 

Probably the earliest extant example is a 
“Bolero a solo” by Beethoven [cf. W. 
Hess, in DM xxx.12]. Operatic boleros 
occur in Auber’s La Muette de Portici and 
Le Domino noir^ and in Weber’s Prezi- 
osa. Particularly famous are Chopin’s 
Bolero op. 19 for pianoforte, and Ravel’s 
Bolero for orchestra (1928). The Cuban 
bolero is in 2/4-meter. 

Bologna School. A term applied to a 
17th-century group of instrumental com- 
posers who were active in Bologna. In- 
cluded among its members are Maurizio 
Cazzati (1620-77), Giov. Battista Vitali 
(i 644?-92), Pietro degli Antonii (1648- 
1720), Giov. Battista Bassani (1657- 
1716), Domenico Gabrielli (1658-90), 
Giov. Battista Borri (?), Giuseppe To- 
relli (d. 1708), Tommaso Antonio Vitali 
(1665-1747), and Giuseppe Aldrovan- 
dini (1665 or 1673-1707). See ♦History 
of music V. 

The Bologna School was important in 
the formal development of the ♦trio so- 
nata (Cazzati, Bassani, G. B. Vitali), solo 
violin sonata (degli Antonii, Aldrovan- 
dini), solo cello sonata (Gabrielli), ♦con- 
certo grosso (Torelli, Gabrielli), and violin 
concerto (Torelli). The stylistic contribu- 
tions of these men were in the direction 
of a disciplined formalism, an elegance 
of expression, and a pervasive lyricism. 
These characteristics, combined with their 
deliberate avoidance of virtuosity, were in 
reaction to the technical exuberance of the 
string composers of the early Baroque, 
Biagio Marini, Carlo Farina, Marco Uccel- 
lini (and their German successors Rosen- 
miiller, Walther, Biber), who early de- 
veloped such extreme features of violin 
playing as col legnOy scordaturUy sul ponti- 
celloy use of double and triple stops, and 
of higher positions (5th and 6th). The 
Bologna School thus constitutes a lyrical 
interlude between the virtuoso experi- 
mentation of the early Baroque and the 

)] 



BOMBARDE 

bravura style of the later Baroque (Vi- 
valdi, Tartini, Handel). 

The most illustrious proponent of the 
Bologna style, although not a member 
proper of the school, ^vas Arcangelo Co- 
relli (1653-1713), who studied and 
worked at Bologna from 1666 till 1671, 
becoming a member of the famous Ac- 
cademia Filarmonica of Bologna [see 
*Accademia] in 1670. His identification 
with the Bologna School is evident from 
the restrained classicism of his style as 
well as from the title “detto il bolognese” 
which appears in his op. i (1681), op. 2 
(1685), and op. 3 (1689). 

Much of the activity of the Bologna 
School centered around the chapel of San 
Petronio, which was organized by Caz- 
zati in 1657. The reorganization of this 
institution, in 1701, in conformity with 
the new Neapolitan taste, probably 
marked the end of the Bologna School. 

Lit.: G. Gaspari, La Musica in San Pe- 
tronio (1868/70); id., Musicisti holognesi 
(1875/80); F. Vatielli, Arte e vita mu- 
sicale a Bologna (1927); id., if Antichi 
maestri Bolognesi, vol. ii; L. Frati, in 
RMl xxi, xxiv, xxvi, xxxii. Musical exam- 
ples in "^SchGMB, nos. 228, 241, 257; 
HAM, nos. 219, 244-246; Torchi, If H Arte 
musicale in Italia, vol. vii; J. W. Wasie- 
Icwski, Die Violine im 77. Jahrhundert 
(Instrumentalsdtze, 1905). H. G. Mish- 
kin, “The Solo Violin Sonata of the Bo- 
logna School” (MQ xxix, Jan.). H. G. M. 

Bombarde, bombarda. (i) French 
(Italian) name for the *shawm, particu- 
larly the bass size of this instrument. In 
Germany, the perverted names Bomhart, 
Pomhart, Pumhart, Pommer, occur. See 
*Oboe family III. — (2). Same as ’“‘bom- 
bardon. 

Bombardon. See *Brass instruments 
Ill(e). 

Bombo [It.]. See *Tremolo (i). 

Bomhart [G.]. See ^Bombarde (i). 

Bonang. See ♦Javanese music I. 

Boogie-woogie. See *Jazz IV; ♦Divi- 
sions; ♦Ostinato. 


BOUCHE FERMfiE 

Bordun [G.], bordone [It.]. See 
♦Bourdon. 

Boris Godunov. Opera by Modest 
Moussorgsky (1839-81), produced in 
1874; orchestral revision by N. Rimsky- 
Korsakov, 1896. The setting is Moscow 
of c. 1600, where Boris Godunov (Bass), 
after having murdered Dmitri, the right- 
ful heir to the throne, rules over Russia, 
but, suffering from a sense of guilt (in 
the Prologue he is in a convent in order 
to gain expiation), and frightened by the 
appearance of a “false Dmitri” (the young 
monk Gregory, Tenor), finally prays for 
forgiveness of his sin and, bequeathing 
the crown to his young son Feodor 
(Mezzo-soprano), falls dead. 

Boris Godunov is the outstanding mas- 
terpiece of Russian national opera. Its 
musical style is remarkably advanced for 
the time it was written, and although its 
unconventional boldness aroused great 
resentment in professional circles, many 
innovations of a more recent date have 
been traced back to this work, e.g., the use 
of ♦parallel chords, of ♦modality, and 
other unorthodox devices. Particularly 
striking is the prominence of the chorus, 
representing the Russian people who, it 
has been said, are the real protagonist of 
the opera, rather than Boris himself. 

Borre, borry, borea [It.]. See ♦Bour- 
rec. 

Boston, valse Boston. An American 
ballroom dance which was in vogue 
around 1915. It is in the character of a 
slow waltz, with a more subde rhythm 
and a more sophisticated accompaniment 
than the ordinary waltz. In post-war Ger- 
many it acquired a prominent position as 
an “American importation” and was im- 
bued with jazz-like elements. Numerous 
composers used the type, e.g. Hindemith 
(ist String Quartet; Suite 1922); Erwin 
Schulhoff (Esquisses de Jazz, 1927; Par- 
tita, 1925) ; Louis Gruci^^g {Jazzherries, 
1925); Conrad Beck (JS^^i Tanzstuc\e). 

Bouche [F.]. SeeH^^I^ 

Bouche fermee [F.], Botefe chiusa 
[It.]. Singing without words and with 


[ 91 J 



BOUFFONS 


BOW 


dosed mouth or, at least, dosed teeth. 
This is occasionally used as a special effect 
of vocal accompaniment, e.g., in Verdi’s 
Rigoletto, last act. 

Bouffons [F., comedians], (i) In the 
15th and 1 6th centuries bouffons were cos- 
tumed dancers probably similar to those 
who performed the *morisca and the 
•matasin. — (2) In 1752 the Guerre des 
bouffons (War of the Comedians) was a 
quarrel between two parties of Parisian 
musicians and opera-enthusiasts — those 
favoring the national French serious op- 
era (Lully, Rameau, Destouches) and 
those preferring the Italian opera buffa 
(Pergolesi). Pergolesi’s famous opera 
buffa La Serva padrona (The Servant as 
Mistress), which was composed in 1733, 
had been given in Paris for the first time 
in 1752, without arousing more than mod- 
erate interest. The second performance, 
however, given by a troupe of Italian co- 
medians {buffi)^ led to a quarrel which 
divided Paris into two halves and became 
famous in the history of opera. The na- 
tional party consisted largely of the aris- 
tocracy (including the King and Madame 
de Pompadour) and the plutocracy, while 
the Italian party numbered among its ad- 
herents the intelligentsia and the musical 
connoisseurs (including the Queen and 
such outstanding men as Rousseau, 
d’Alembert, Diderot). The latter consid- 
ered the Italian opera superior because it 
had more melody, expression, and natural- 
ness, and had shaken off completely the 
“useless fetters of counterpoint.” Briefly 
speaking, the guerre des bouffons was a 
fight of the rising *Rococo against the dy- 
ing *Baroque. [For a similar movement 
in Spain, see *Zarzuela.] Rousseau’s fa- 
mous Lettre sur la musique fran^aise 
(1753) was one of the hundreds of pam- 
phlets issued in this controversy. The ef- 
forts of French musicians to compete with 
the popularity of the opera buffa resulted 
in a new kind,^ of French comic opera 
known as Cotnidie milie d'ariettes [sec 
♦Comic ojjpra Tife)]. 

Lit.: Gj L^s CrSateurs de Vo- 

pha<om^ti^fmn^ais (1914) ; L. Reichen- 
berg. Contribution h Vhistorie de la **Que- 

[ 


relle de Bouffons** (1937); E. Hirschberg, 
Die Encyclopddisten und die jranzdsische 
Oper (1903); L. de la Laurencic, “La 
grande saison italienne de 1752” {SIM 
viii). 

Bourdon. The general connotation of 
this term is that of a low tone of long du- 
ration, that is, a ♦drone or ♦pedal point. 
The term was also applied to instrumental 
devices producing such tones, e.g., to the 
low-pitched bass-courses of the ♦viella and 
the ♦hurdy-gurdy which could be sounded 
continuously against a melody played on 
the higher strings [cf. Petrus Picardus, 
i, 153] , to the large pipes of the organ, 
or to the drones of the bagpipe. In French 
17th-century music, the name bourdon is 
given to pieces in which there is a uniform 
bass-accompaniment similar to that of the 
drones of a bagpipe, e.g., C-g-c-g C-g-c-g 
... [cf. F. Couperin’s Air des vieleux in 
his harpsichord suite (♦ordre) “Les Pastes 
de la grande Menestrandise,” ed. Augener 
ii, 209; also the musette in Bach’s English 
Suite, no. 3]. 

Bourree [English borry, borre, etc.]. A 
French 17th-century dance, probably from 
the Auvergne, usually in quick duple 
meter with a single upbeat [Ex. from 



Bach’s French Suite, no. 6] . The dance is 
mentioned by M. Praetorius {Syntagma 
musicum^ 1615), but does not appear in 
musical composition prior to Lully’s op- 
eras and ballets {c, 1670), whence it was 
transferred to the suites of the late 17th 
and early i8th centuries (Pachelbel, 
J. K. F. Fischer, J. S. Bach). See ♦Dance 
music III. 

Bout d’archet [F.]. Point of the bow. 

Boutade [F.]. A dance or ballet in a 
capricious style. The name is also used 
for 18th-century instrumental pieces of a 
similar character. 

Bow [F. archet\ G. Bogen\ It. archetto‘\. 
This implement of violin playing takes its 




BOW 


BOWING 


name (in all languages) from the fact that 
it had originally the form of a bow similar 
to that used in archery. Chinese and 
Arabian fiddles are still played with bows 
of such shape, as were stringed instru- 
ments in Europe until about the 15th cen- 
tury. During the i6th and 17th centuries 
various shapes of bows were used, some of 
which are reproduced here. Fig. 3 shows 



Corelli’s bow which was short and of hard, 
unelastic wood, while Tartini’s bow (Fig. 
4) was longer and more elastic. In Ger- 
many a bow of a slightly curved shape 
(much less curved, however, than the 
early bows) was used, which facilitated 
the playing of polyphonic violin music 
such as was particularly cultivated in Ger- 
many (Fiber, Bach). On these bows it 
was also possible to vary slightly the ten- 
sion of the hair by a gentle pressure of the 
thumb. 

The nut (frog) originally was a small 
piece of wood fastened to the stick, around 
which the hair was wrapped tightly. The 
horn-shaped nut shown on Fig. i is still 
reminiscent of this early shape. Fig. 2 
shows a device which was used tempo- 
rarily before 1700 in order to allow for an 
adjustment of the tension of the bow, 
namely a wire loop that could hook into 
a series of teeth (dentated bow). About 
1700 this device was replaced by a screw 
mechanism such as is still used today 
[Figs. 3-5J. 


The bow received its classical and final 
form at the hands of Francois Tourte 
(1747-1833). The most important char- 
acteristics of his bow [Fig. 5] are the 
long, tapering, and slightly inward curv- 
ing stick, the use of metal or ivory 
plates for the tip, of Pernambuco wood 
for the stick, the exact measurements for 
perfect balance, probably also the metal 
ferrule of the frog through which the hair 
passes evenly spread (this latter invention 
is also credited to Tourte’s contemporary 
John Dodd). 

The bows used for the viola, cello, and 
double-bass are of the same design as the 
violin bow, but successively heavier and, 
with the two last-named instruments, 
shorter. 

Lit.: H. Saint-George, The Bow (3d 
ed., 1922); H. Drager, Die Entwichjung 
des Streichbogens {i^yj)\LavE ii.3, 1744. 

Bowed harp. Modern name for the 
•erwth and similar instruments of North- 
ern Europe. Cf . O. Andersson, T he 
Bowed Harp (1930). 

Bowing. The technique of using the 
bow on stringed instruments (violins, 
etc.). The mastery of the bow includes 
a considerable number of different man- 
ners of bowing, the most important of 
which are briefly described here. It 
should be noted that these terms, except 
for the most common ones like detache^ 
sautilley spiccato^ staccato, are net much 
used by players, and that-^e various ef- 
fects are frequently not iiljjjicated exactly 
with their proper notation, although they 
are clearly suggested to the player by the 
character of the music. 

(a) Blain Bowing {legato). This con- 
sists of two basic strokes: Down-bow [F. 
tire\ G. Abstrich, Herabstrich, Herstrich, 
Herunterstrichy Niederstrich\ It. areata in 
g/«] and Up-bow [F. pousse; G. Auf- 
strichy Heraufstrichy Hittstrich\ It. areata 
in su]. In down-bow, Indicated by the 
sign (i), the arm is mo^^away from the 
body, while in up-bow 2) the arm 
moves towards the .The slur (3) 

indicates the number of to be taken 
in a single stroke. 



BOWING 


BOWING 

(b) Ditachi. A broad vigorous stroke 
in which the notes of equal time value arc 
bowed singly with a slight articulation 

\ Z ^ ^ I 6 

nv ^ miuv.nv. 

Tm 

mm 

due to the rapid change of bow. This 
stroke is much used for loud passages of 
not too great speed. Sometimes it is indi- 
cated by lines under (or above) the notes, 
as in (4). When an exceptionally long 
stroke is used it is called le grand di- 
tachi. 

(c) Martels [It. martellato]. Literally 
a “hammered” stroke, this is played with 
very short bows at the point. The ham- 
mered effect is obtained by releasing each 
stroke forcefully and suddenly. It cannot 
be executed rapidly, and is indicated by 
an arrowhead, as in (5). It is generally 
found in loud passages. 

(d) SautillS [It. spiccato\ G. Spring- 
bogen^, A short stroke played in rapid 
tempo in the middle of the bow in such 
a way that the bow bounces slightly from 
the string. This stroke requires good con- 
trol on the part of the performer in order 
to keep it steady. It is a most brilliant 
effect and can be done from very soft to 
quite loud. It is indicated by dots, as in 

(6) . Variants of this stroke are known 
as piquS, picchettato, 

(e) ]etS (also known as ricochet). This 
is done by “throwing” the bow on the 
string in the upper Aird of the bow so 
that it will bounce a scries of rapid notes 
on the down-bow. Notation as under 

(7) . Usually from two to six notes 
are taken in one stroke, although a 
skillful player can do more than this 
number. 

(f) Lour S. A stroke useful in slow 
tempo to sepatatc slightly each of several 
notes taken in a slur. It is indicated as 

[ 


under (8). It can be played in a highly 
expressive manner and is capable of nota- 
ble emotional intensity. 

(g) Staccato. This is a solo effect and 
theoretically consists of a number of 
martelS notes taken in the same stroke. 
It can be executed with dazzling brilliance 
either up-bow or down-bow, but the lat- 
ter IS more difficult. When the bow is al- 
lowed to spring slighdy from the string 
it is known as Staccato volante (flying 
staccato). Notation as under (9). 

(h) ViotU-stro\e. This is attributed to 
Giov. Battista Viotti (1753-1824), and 
consists of two detached and strongly 
marked notes, the first of which is unac- 
cented and given very little bow, while 
the second comes on the accent and takes 
much more bow. It is done at the point, 
and is highly effective, especially at a 
fairly quick tempo. Notation as under 

(lo)- 

(i) Arpeggio or arpeggiando. A bounc- 
ing stroke played on broken chords so 
that each bounce is on a different string, 
as in (ii). 

(j) Tremolo. This is primarily an or- 
chestral effect and is produced by mov- 
ing the bow back and forth in short and 
extremely rapid strokes, on the same note 
(12). Sec *Trcmolo. 

(k) Sul ponticello [F. au chevaleV, G. 
am Steg^ . A nasal, glassy effect produced 
by bowing very close to the bridge. Its 
use is confined almost entirely to chamber 
music. 

( l ) Flautandoy flautato (also It. sul 
tastier a\ F. sur la touches G, am Griffs 
breti). A flute-like effect produced by 
bowing very slightly over the finger 
board. This stroke is generally confined 
to sustained passages or slow notes. 

(m) Col legno. This is done by strik- 
ing the string with the stick instead of the 
hair. A purely orchestral effect. 

(n) Flatter la corde. A soft, expressive 
stroke in which the string is literally “ca- 
ressed.” 

(o) OndulS [It. ondeggiando] . An ob- 

solete form of tremolo (“undulating 
tremolo”) in which several notes arc 
taken in the same bow [see *Trcmolo 
(i)]. H.N. 

4] 



BRABANCONNE 

Brabanconne. See ^National anthems. 

Braccio [It., arm]. In the Baroque pe- 
riod, the term braccio was used to signify 
the members of the violin family {viola 
da braccio) which were held at arm level, 
as distinguished from the viols (simply 
viola) which were held downwards rest- 
ing on the knees, or from the larger viola 
da gamba [gamba^ leg] which was held 
resting between the legs of the player. 
Later, after the name violin had estab- 
lished itself, only the second-smallest size 
of the family retained the name viola da 
braccio^ a name the first half of which 
survives in the English term viola, the 
second, in the German term *Bratsche. 

Brace [V.accolade\G.Klammer\, The 
perpendicular line combined with a 
bracket that joins the different staves in 
piano music or in scores. Hence, the en- 
tirety of the (two or more) staves to be 
read simultaneously. 

Braille music notation. The method 
of writing music according to the princi- 
ples of the Braille system for the blind. 
In this system, as is well known, raised 
dots are used in various configurations all 
of which are derived from an elementary 
configuration of six dots: : :. Following 
are the signs for the C major scale and a 
few other symbols. 

• • •• •••• •• <• •• •• •• •• 


cde£gab#bll 

The rhythmic value of the note signs 
is an eighth note, unless a dot is added 
underneath to the right or to the left side. 


• •••#• •• •• • # 



Example of Braille Notation 


In the former case, the value is ^ or %4; 
in the latter, /4 or %2- If both dots are 
added, the value is 34 or %6. See the ac- 
companying example. The octave position 
is indicated by special signs which nor- 
mally appear at the beginning of each 
measure. Other signs indicate rests, time 

[ 


BRASS BAND 

signatures, etc. For more details, cf. A. 
Rcuss, Development and Problems of 
Musical Notation for the Blind (1932); 
WoHN i, 4490; LavE ii.6, 3836. 

Brandenburg Concertos. Six con- 
certos written by Bach in 1721 and dedi- 
cated to Christian Ludwig, Margrave of 
Brandenburg. They represent the artistic 
acme of the ^concerto grosso, although 
the traditional contrast between a group 
of solo instruments {concertino) and the 
ensemble {ripieno) is clearly manifest 
only in the second, fourth, and fifth con- 
certos. 

Brando [It.], brangill [Old E.]. 
*Branle. 

Branle, bransle [F., from branler^ to 
fling, to sway; It. brando]. A very popu- 
lar group dance of the i6th century. It 
was executed in a great number of local 
varieties (Arbeau’s *OrchSsographte enu- 
merates 26 species) many of which 
were of the “follow-the-leader” type, sim- 
ilar to the *farandole and the *cotillon. 
It was accompanied by singing and ap- 
parently included some “swaying” move- 
ments of the body or of the hands. The 
branle simple was in duple meter, the 
branle gay in triple meter. The branle h 
mener survived in the *amener of the 
17th century and, very likely, in the *min- 
uet. In England the dance was known 
under the name “brangill” or “brawl” 
[cf. Shakespeare, Love’s Labour’s Lost 
iii, i]. A 17th-century Italian name is 
“brando” [cf. Carlo Farina, Pavane^ gag- 
liar de, brandi . . . ( 1626-28) ] . See *Dancc 
music II. 

Brass band. A small military band, or- 
dinarily consisting of three or more cor- 
nets in B-flat, three E-flat alto Saxhorns, 
one or more baritones or euphoniums, 
basses, and drums, as well as, on occasion, 
trumpets, bugles, and kettledrums. It has 
not the variety of color possessed by the 
full military band, but ?on account of the 
relative case with whiph instruments of 
the Saxhorn family ar^^^tlcarned, a brass 
band is easier to establisl^/^nd maintain. 
The brass band movement is particularly 
popular in the United States and in Eng- 

] 



BRASSED 


BRASS INSTRUMENTS 


land, where such bands are frequendy 
found attached to high schools and col- 
leges, religious groups (Salvation Army), 
factories, etc. See *Brass instruments III; 
■"“Military band. W. D. D. 

Brassed. See ♦Horn I. 

Brass instruments [F. instruments de 
cuivre\ G. Blechinstrumente\ It. stromenti 
d'ottone\, 

I. General. That section of the orches- 
tra which includes the instruments made 
of brass or other metal, such as trumpets, 
horns, trombones, tubas, as distinguished 
from those made of wood [see ♦Wood 
winds; also ♦Orchestra]. This feature, 
however, is of a merely external signifi- 
cance, since the material from which a 
wind instrument is made has a practically 
negligible effect upon its tone quality and 
its other properties [see ♦Wind instru- 
ments Ij. Moreover, various instruments 
of the “brass family” were formerly made 
of wood [see V] and, on the other hand, 
the “wood-wind family” includes instru- 
ments made of metal, e.g., the flute and the 
saxophone. A more characteristic feature 
of the family in question is the mouth- 
piece, which nearly always has the shape 
of a cup, hence the name “cupped-mouth- 
piece family” which can be accepted for 
all practical purposes as a basis of classifi- 
cation. If even this definition is rejected 
— on the ground that in certain obsolete 
or Oriental instruments the mouthpiece 
can hardly be said to have the shape of a 
cup — the instruments in question must 
be defined as “lip-vibrated aerophones,” 
i.e., wind instruments with which the lips 
of the player serve as a reed [see ♦Reed]. 

The “brass instruments” — as we may 
call them with due reservation — form 
an extremely large group, including not 
only numerous ancient instruments but 
also many of a more recent date which 
were invented in the i8th and 19th cen- 
turies for military purposes, for bands, 
and as improvements of older orchestral 
types. The subsequent grouping is in- 
tended to place the various instruments 
in certain general categories which show 
their historical or other position, a group- 
ing which, needless to say, admits of some 


overlapping. For the general acoustical 
properties of the brass instruments, see 
under ♦Wind instruments. 

II. Orchestral Instruments. The brass 
section of the modern orchestra consists 
mainly of the ♦horn, the ♦trumpet, the 
♦trombone, and the ♦tuba. The tuba is 
related to the horn, both having a pipe the 
diameter of which increases throughout 
the greater part of its length (conical 
pipe), while in the trumpet and the trom- 
bone the pipe is to a great extent (about 
two-thirds) cylindrical and widens only 
at the end into a relatively small bell. The 
mouthpieces also show a difference, being 
more cup-shaped with the two latter in- 
struments than with the former. For 
more details on these instruments, see the 
separate entries. Other instruments which 
have occasionally been used in the mod- 
ern orchestra are the Wagner tubas [see 
♦Tuba], the cornet, and several other 
types mentioned under III. 

III. Band Instruments. Under this cat- 
egory we group all those brass instruments 
which are used chiefly in the brass band 
and in other bands, primarily for open-air 
performance of marches and of other pop- 
ular music. Some of them, however, have 
occasionally been used in the orchestral 
scores of composers, mainly the cornet. 
Most of these instruments can be consid- 
ered as hybrids between the horn and the 
trumpet in that they combine features of 
the horn (e.g., conical bore) with other 
features of the trumpet (e.g., cup-shaped 
mouthpiece). A methodical survey of 
these instruments is extremely difficult, 
owing to the large variety of types and 
sizes as well as, particularly, to the utterly 
confusing terminology. The subsequent 
survey of the most important types fol- 
lows in principle the description given in 
N. Bessaraboff, Ancient European Musi- 
cal Instruments (1941), pp. i5off, which 
may be consulted for more details. 

(a) Cornet [F. cornet-a-pistons\ G. 
Kornett\ It. corn€tta\ . An instrument sim- 
ilar in shape to the trumpet, but shorter 
and with a relatively longer conical part. 
It is pitched in Bb (sometimes in A), and 
has a written range from f J to c'", sound- 
ing a whole-tone (or three semitones) 


[96] 



nil 




BRASS INSTRUMENTS 

lower. The cornet possesses a timbre sim- 
ilar to that of the trumpet. Owing to its 
shorter tube it has a considerably greater 
agility and has, therefore, been used a 
good deal by French and Italian compos- 
ers (Berlioz, Bizet, Rossini). Its tone has 
been described as coarse and vulgar, and 
has been compared unfavorably with the 
brilliant tone of the trumpet. This differ- 
ence, however, is largely due to a bad style 
of playing and to the music commonly 
associated with the instrument. 

(b) Flugelhorn [F. bugle) It. flicorno]. 
An instrument similar in design and size 
to the cornet, but with a wider bore. It is 
usually built in Bb, more rarely in C. Its 
sound is somewhat similar to that of the 
horn, but lacks the latter’s mellowness. 
The instruments named subsequently are 
larger sizes constructed after the princi- 
ples of the Flugelhorn. They might be 
considered as forming a family for which 
the generic name “bugles” is often used. 
The largest members of the family are 
the *tubas and these are the only ones 
used in the orchestra. See also below, 
under (f). 

(c) Baritone [F. bugle tSnor; G. Tenor- 
horn) It. flicorno tenore]. This is a larger 
instrument pitched C or Bb, and built in 
two shapes, either in the usual shape of 
the trumpets with the bell pointing up- 
wards, or oval with the bell facing back- 
wards. The range is from E to b'b. 

(d) Euphonium [F. basse a pistons) G. 
Baryton) It. Eufonio]. Its shape, pitch, 
and range are the same as those of the 
baritone. A larger bore, however, gives it 
a broader, mellower timbre and favors the 
lower notes. French and other composers 
have used it in place of the tuba, e.g., 
Stravinsky in Petrouch1{a. 

(e) Helicon. These are bass and con- 
trabass tubas in a circular form (similar 
to the shape of the horn) instead of the 
upright form of the tubas. The circle is 
wide enough to allow the player to carry 
the instrument over the shoulder. An 
American variety, characterized by a spe- 
cially designed bell, is the sousaphone 
(named after John Philip Sousa who sug- 
gested it). In Germany similar instru- 
ments are called Bombardon, 


brass instruments 

(f) Saxhorn. This is an entire family 
of instruments invented by Adolphe Sax 
and designed on a uniform model. Their 
bore is somewhat narrower than that of 
the above-described instruments, result- 
ing in a more brilliant timbre. They are 
all upright, with the pipe starting hori- 
zontally from the mouthpiece (as in the 
tubas, etc.), and the pistons stand on top 
of the upper horizontal part of the tube. 
It should be noticed that the Saxhorns 
made today frequently differ in details 
(width of bore, etc.) from Sax’s original 
design and therefore approach the class of 
the Fliigelhorns. Most authorities maintain 
that it is practically impossible to make a 
clear distinction between the Saxhorns 
and the Fliigelhorns. Usually, the latter 
term is restricted to the one size described 
under (b). All agree that there is an in- 
extricable confusion of nomenclature in 
this group. The most important types of 
Saxhorns are: (i) in Eb or F (Sopranino 
Saxhorn, Soprano Saxhorn, Soprano Flii- 
gelhorn, etc.); ( 2 ) in Bb or C (Soprano 
Saxhorn, Alto Saxhorn, Alto Flugelhorn) ; 
in low Eb or F (Alto Saxhorn, simply 
Saxhorn, Althorn, Tenor Saxhorn, etc.); 
in low Bb or C (Baritone Saxhorn, Alt- 
horn, Tenor horn, etc.). See *Saxtromba. 

IV. Military Instruments. Under this 
heading brief mention may be made of 
instruments used for the purpose of sig- 
naling. They are all natural instruments, 
restricted to the tones 2 to 6 of the har- 
monic series, e.g., g-d'-g'-b'-d" for an in- 
strument built in G. The most common 
of these is the bugle [F. clairon) G. Sig- 
nalhorn) It. cornetta segnale] built in G 
or Bb and occasionally in F. Bugles have 
been furnished with a single valve lower- 
ing the pitch a fourth, and these are 
known under the name Bersag horn, 

V. History, (a) Trumpets and horns, 
though existing in many ancient cultures, 
were very late in acquiring those proper- 
ties which made them useful as musical 
instruments in the proper sense of the 
word. Only a few tones of the harmonic 
series were available on the primitive in- 
struments, a fact which restricted their 
use to the purpose of signaling, cither in 
religious ceremonies or in military serv- 


[99] 



BRASS INSTRUMENTS 

ice. Moreover, the trumpets and horns of 
the Jews, Greeks, Romans, etc., possessed 
a sound which was far from agreeable but 
rather terrifying, as are to the present day 
the trumpets of China, Tibet, India. Plu- 
tarch likens the sound of the Egyptian 
trumpet to the bray of an ass, and the 
Jewish ceremonial horn, *shofary even 
today fills the congregation with awe and 
fright. The Jews also had a long straight 
trumpet made of silver, the hasosra [sec 
^Jewish music]. The Greek straight 
trumpet, called salpinx^ was taken over 
from the Orient. The same shape occurs 
with the Roman tuba^ a straight instru- 
ment made of bronze, about four feet in 
length. The Romans also had a trumpet 
which curved upwards at the end in the 
shape of a J, called lituus^ while the buc- 
c'lna or cornu was entirely curved in the 
shape of a G and was provided with a 
wooden crossbar, forming the diameter, 
by which it was carried over the shoulder. 
Among the most interesting examples of 
ancient trumpets are the Nordic *lurer 
which, although of pre-historic age, show 
a high degree of perfection in bronze 
founding. 

Horns were originally made from ani- 
mals’ horns as, e.g., the shofar, which is 
made from a ram’s horn, or Babylonian 
ox-horns wEich, we are informed, were 
covered with gold and studded with pre- 
cious stones. Metal horns, S-shaped and 
widening as the animal’s horn, are much 
rarer m ancient cultures than the more 
cylindrical trumpets (whether straight or 
curved, as the cornu^ which, in spite of its 
name, must be classified as a trumpet), 
probably owing to the greater difficulty of 
founding. They are also relatively rare 
among the Oriental nations. 

(b) In Europe, also, trumpets appear 
much earlier than horns. With the Ro- 
man armies their various trumpets spread 
over Europe. After A.D. looo the straight 
tuba acquired the shape of a long and slim 
pipe with a rather large funnel-shaped 
bell. This instrument was called buisine 
(from Lat. buccina^ which, however, was 
circular), while smaller sizes were called 
trombetta. From the early part of the 15th 
century we have the first evidence of a 


BRASS INSTRUMENTS 

folded trumpet. The same principle was 
also applied to the larger buisine^ which 
by the 15th century had acquired the dis- 
tinguishing feature of the modern trom- 
bone, i.e., the slides [see ^Trombone II]. 
In the 15th and i6th centuries trumpets 
became associated with heraldry [see 
^Trumpet II], while the wooden *cornett 
[G. Zin 1 (\ acquired a prominent place in 
the chamber music of the i6th century. 
Its bass size was built in a clumsy serpen- 
tine shape and, therefore, called serpent. 
All these instruments had side-holes cov- 
ered by the fingers [see *Wind instru- 
ments IV(d)]. Later a few keys were 
added in order to facilitate playing, par- 
ticularly with the large serpent which, in 
an improved form, doubled up on itself 
like the bassoon, became known under 
the name of bass horn or Russian bassoon 
[see *Cornett]. 

(c) About 1650 begins the development 
of the modern horn and trumpet which is 
briefly described under *Horn II and 
^Trumpet II. Here it will suffice to men- 
tion a group of instruments which devel- 
oped about 1800 and are characterized by 
the use of side-holes (as in the much older 
Cornetts), operated by keys. This princi- 
ple was applied, not only to horns and 
trumpets, but also to bugles [ see IV ] with 
which it proved more successful (Joseph 
Halliday, 1810). The \ey bugle or Kent 
bugle {Kent horn), as it was named in 
honor of the Duke of Kent [F. bugle a 
cUs\ G. Klappenhorn], remained in use 
until the second half of the 19th century. 
Later a larger size was constructed under 
the name ophicleide, which had the dou- 
bled-up shape of the Russian bassoon. 
Spontini prescribed it in his opera Olym- 
pia (1819), and Mendelssohn in his over- 
ture to A Midsummer-Night’s Dream 
(1826). Although soon replaced by the 
tuba in the orchestra, the ophicleide was 
used in Italian, French, Spanish, and 
South American bands up to this cen- 
tury. 

Lit.: A. Carse, ^‘Brass Instruments in 
the Orchestra” {ML iii); J. M. Barbour, 
“The Use of Brass Instruments in Early 
Scores” {BAMS iv)w See also under 
♦Wind instruments; *Turmsonaten. 


[ 100] 



BRATSCHE 


BRAZIL 


Bratsche [G., from It. viola da *hrac- 
cio\. The German name for the viola. 
Bratschist, viola player. 

Brautlied [G.]. Bridal song. 

Bravoure [F.], bravura fit., literally 
“courage”], denotes greatest ease in con- 
quering technical difficulties. Hence, the 
term aria di bravura [(i. Bravur-arie\ 
for an aria in a brilliant, virtuoso-like 
style. 

Brawl. Old English perversion for 
^branle, 

Brazil. The first music school in Brazil, 
the Conservatorio da Fazenda Nacional 
de Santa Cruz, was founded by the Jesuits, 
who were the first to educate the natives 
of this country in European ways. Asso- 
ciated with this school was the greatest 
Brazilian composer of the Colonial pe- 
riod, Jose Mauricio Nunes Garcia (1767- 
1830), a priest who wrote mostly religious 
music, including an admirable Requiem 
in D minor, showing the influence of 
Mozart and Haydn. He was followed by 
Francisco Manoel (1795-1865), compos- 
er of the Brazilian National Anthem, and 
founder, in 1841, of the Conservatory in 
Rio de Janeiro which later became the 
Escola Nacional de Mtisica. The prestige 
of Brazilian music was greatly enhanced 
abroad by the success of Carlos Gomes 
(1836-96), the most famous opera-com- 
poser produced by Latin America. He 
was trained in Italy, and several of his 
operas, including 11 Guarany (1870), were 
received with acclaim at La Scala of Mi- 
lan. The overture to ll Guarany is doubt- 
less the best-known orchestral composi- 
tion to come out of South America. Oth- 
er operas by (iomes include Fosca, Maria 
Tudor, Lo Schiavo, and Condor, A pio- 
neer symphonic composer was Leopoldo 
Miguez (1850-1902), who wrote the first 
symphonic poems composed in Brazil; he 
also wrote an opera of Wagnerian tenden- 
cies, Saldunes, and a notable Sonata for 
violin and piano. The Romantic tradi- 
tion was represented by Henrique Oswald 
(1852-1931), noteworthy especially for 
his chamber music, and by Alexandre 
Levy (1864-92)5 a brilliant pianist, author 


of a Brazilian Rhapsody for piano and 
orchestra. Alberto Nepomuceno (1864- 
1920) was the precursor of the modern 
National school through his utilization 
of Brazilian elements in such works as 
his orchestral “Brazilian Suite” and prel- 
ude to Garatuja. He also composed many 
songs which laid the basis for the modern 
Brazilian lied. Another pioneer of na- 
tionalism in music was Brasilio Itibere 
(1846-1913), whose orchestral fantasia, 
“Sertaneja,” is based on Brazilian folk 
themes. In the popular field, the most 
noteworthy composer was Ernesto Naza- 
reth ( 1 863-1934), creator of the Brazilian 
tango and author of nearly 500 pieces in 
popular style. 

Dean of contemporary Brazilian com- 
posers is Francisco Braga (b. 1868), who 
has also distinguished himself as a con- 
ductor. He has written symphonic and 
dramatic works, chamber music, etc. The 
Brazilian art song has been carried to a 
high degree of perfection by Oscar Lo- 
renzo Fernffiidez (b. 1897), who is also the 
composer of a successful opera, Malazarte 
(Rio, 1941), and of several symphonic 
works imbued with Brazilian color, such 
as “Reisado do Pastoreio,” “Imbapara,” 
and “Batuque.” In his chamber-music 
output, a trio for piano, violin, and cello is 
notable. An exact contemporary of Fer- 
nandez is Francisco Mignone, professor 
of conducting at the Escola Nacional de 
Musica and composer of numerous or- 
chestral works of brilliant coloring, among 
them three Brazilian Fantasias for piano 
and orchestra, and “Maracatu do Chico 
Rei.” Other contemporaries who should 
be mentioned are Barrozo Netto (1881- 
1941), Fructuoso Vianna, and, among 
the younger men, Radames Gnattali, Luiz 
Cosme,and especially Camargo Cmarnieri, 
composer of a splendid Concerto for piano 
and orchestra and other works revealing 
a powerful creative temperament. 

A place apart must be reserved for the 
greatest of contemporary Brazilian com- 
posers — and probably the most outstand- 
ing composer of all Latin America — 
Heitor Villa-Lobos (b. 1881), amazingly 
prolific and original creator of some 1400 
works, including many characteristic 



BRAZIL 

piano pieces that mark a new style of 
writing for the instrument. Among his 
larger works, especially notable are the 
Chores No. 8 for orchestra, Chores No. 
10 for orchestra and chorus, the sym- 
phonic poem “Amazonas,” “Dansas 
Africanas” for orchestra, and “Memo 
Precoce” for piano and orchestra. Among 
his most recent works are 5 suites, for 
various instrumental combinations, en- 
titled “Bachianas Brasileiras,” being com- 
positions in which the spirit of Brazilian 
folk music is fused with that of J. S. Bach. 
Although Villa-Lobos’ production is un- 
even in quality, and though he lacks a 
finished technique and a sense of organic 
form, at his best he creates works which 
are entirely sui generis and which, more 
than any others, seem to represent the 
music of the New World. Villa-Lobos 
has been very active in promoting musi- 
cal education in Brazil and at present he 
is director of public school music in Rio 
de Janeiro. 

Most of the modern Brazilian com- 
posers have drawn freely upon the rich 
and colorful folk music of Brazil, which 
is composed of Portuguese (some Span- 
ish), African, and Indian elements. Of 
these the African element is perhaps the 
most potent. A pioneer in the study and 
collecting of Brazilian folk music was Lu- 
ciano Gallet, whose work in this field has 
been continued by such notable folklorists 
as Mario de Andrade and Luiz Heitor 
Correa de Azevedo, the latter professor 
of national folk music at the Escola Na 
cional de Miisica. Many Brazilian com- 
posers have written *modinhas^ the char- 
acteristic love song of Brazil, of Portu- 
guese origin, usually of a rather melan- 
choly and sentimental nature. Popular 
dances are the ^Maxixe and the *samba. 

Lit.: G. Pereira de Mello, A Musica no 
Brasil (Bahia, 1908); R. Almeida, H/V- 
toria da Musica Brasileira (Rio de Janeiro, 
1926); M. de Andrade, Ensaio sohre Mu- 
sica Brasileira (Sao Paulo, 1928); L. Gal- 
let, Estudos do Folclore (Rio de Janeiro, 
1934) ;t Musique BrSsilienne Moderne, 
preface by Andrade Muricy (Rio de Ja- 
neiro, 1937); A. T. Luper, The Music of 
Brazil (1943). 


BRISL 

Breit [G.]. Broad. Breit gestrichen^ 
broadly bowed. 

Breve, Brevis. An old note value, 
written (4 or |c|, and equal to two whole- 
notes. See ’•^Notes; ^Mensural notation. 
Also *Alla breve. 

Breviary, Breviarium. See ♦Liturgi- 
cal books I (b). 

Bridge [F. chevalet, G. Steg* It. ponti- 
cello], (i) In stringed instruments, the 
wooden support atop the table across 
which the strings are stretched. Its shape 
and size differ in the various instruments. 
The bridge of the double-bass has “legs.” 
In spite of its symmetrical appearance, 
the two halves of the bridge serve some- 
what different purposes. The right 
(treble) foot rests firmly upon the table, 
very nearly above the sound post, while 
the other, having no such support, trans- 
mits the vibrations of the string to the 
body of the instrument. The present-day 
shape of the violin bridge was developed 
in the time of Antonio and Gerolamo 
Amati (c. 1550-1630) 

(2) Short for ♦bridge passage. 

Bridge passage. In musical composi- 
tions a passage of subordinate importance 
serving as a connection between two 
themes. It consists of figurations, se- 
quences, or other subsidiary material. 
Frequently it effects the modulation of 
key, e.g., from the first to the second 
theme in ♦sonata-form. 

Brillenbass [G., from Brille, spec- 
tacle]. Derogatory nickname for stereo- 
typed accompanying figures in the man- 
ner of the ♦Alberti bass the abbreviated 
writing of which [see ♦Abbreviations, 
Ex. 4, 5] suggests a pair of spectacles. 

Brindisi [It.]. Drinking song, such as 
occurs in operas, e.g., in Verdi’s Traviata 
(“Libiamo”), Mascagni’s Cavalleria rus- 
ticana (“Viva il vino”). 

Brio, Con [It.]. With vigor and spirit. 

Brise [F.]. French 18th-century name 
for the ♦turn. In modern terminology, 
indication for arpeggio playing, or for de- 
tached bowing. 


G.C. 

[ 102] 



BROADCASTING 


BUFFO 


Broadcasting. Sec •Radio broadcast- 
ing of music. 

Broderie [F.]. (i) French term for 
coloratura; also found in German writ- 
ings, not so much for “virtuoso passages,” 
but for carefully designed “embroideries,” 
such as occur in the polyphonic music of 
the 15th century [Ockeghem; cf., e.g., 
SchGMB, no. 52]. — (2) Same as aux- 
iliary tone [see •Nonharmonic tones 1 , 5] . 

Broken chord. The tones of a chord 
played in succession, instead of simul- 
taneously, either in the form of an *ar- 
peggio, or in the form of quick passages. 
See also •Alberti bass. 

Broken consort. See •Consort. 

Broken octave. Sec under •Short 
octave. 

Browning. A type of i6th- and 17th- 
century English instrumental music, sim- 
ilar to the *Innomine, but with the cantus 
firmus taken from a secular song: “The 
leaves be greene, the nuts be browne” or, 
perhaps, from other popular melodies. 
Examples by Byrd, Bevin, Woodcock, 
Stoninge, Coperario (?), and Jenkins (?) 
are preserved. Cf. E. H. Meyer, Die 
mehrstimmige Spielmusi\ des IJ. Jahr- 
hunderts (1934), pp. I3f. 

Bruitisme [F.]. See ^Futurism. 

Brumeux [F.]. “Misty,” veiled. 

Brummeisen [G.]. •Jew’s harp. 

Brummscheit [G.]. Perverted from 
Trumscheit [see •Tromba marina] . 

Brummstimmen [G.]. Humming 
voices [see •Bouche fermee]. 

Brunette [F.]. A 17th- and 18th-cen- 
tury type of French popular song, with or 
without accompaniment, on idlyllic, pas- 
toral, or amorous subjects. They replaced 
the earlier •bergerettes and •vaudevilles. 
The name is probably derived from one 
famous example “Le Berger Tirsis,” with 
the refrain “Ah petite brunette, ah tu me 
fais mourir.” Ballard published three col- 
lections of Brunettes ou petits tendre airs 


in 1703, 1704, and 1709. Some of these 
songs occur in the harpsichord pieces by 
Chambonniere and d’Anglebert, e.g., the 
Sarabande de Jeunes Zephirs, and the 
Gavotte Ou estes vous allez. Others were 
adopted later into the comic opera. Cf. 
P. M. Masson, in SIM xii. 

Bruscamente [It.]. Brusquely. 

Bruststimme [G.]. Chest voice. 

Brustwerk, Brustpositiv [G.]. A 
special group of smaller organ pipes 
placed in the middle of the front of the 
organ, between the large pedal pipes. It 
is of softer intonation than the Haupt- 
W€r\ (great organ) and is usually played 
on the second manual. 

Buccina [L.j. An ancient Roman brass 
instrument [see •Brass instruments V 
(a)]. The name reappears in the medi- 
eval *buisine^ in the German word Po- 
saune (i.e., trombone), and in the French 
buccin. The last was a pseudo-antique 
variety of the trombone used during the 
French revolution for festive occasions, 
with the bell shaped into a dragon’s head. 
Cf. LavE ii.3, 1449. 

Buchstabenschrift. ♦Letter notation. 

Buckwheat notation. See under ♦Fa- 
sola. 

Biigelhorn [G.]. German term for the 
entire family sometimes referred to as 
•bugles. Cf. SaRMy 62. 

Biihne [G.j. Stage. Biihnenfestspiel 
(stage festival play) and Buhnenweihfest- 
spiel (stage-consecrating festival play) 
are names by Wagner, the former for his 
*Ringy the latter for his *Parsifal which 
was written for the dedication of the Bay- 
reuth opera house, in 1882. Buhncnmusi\ 
means •incidental music for plays, or, in 
operas, music played on the stage itself, as 
for instance in the final scene of Mozart’s 
Don Giovanni, 

Buffet [F.]. Organ case. 

Buffo [It., comic]. A comic character 
in Italian 18th-century operas, usually a 
basso bufio (e.g., Leporello in Mozart’s 


[ 103 ] 



BUGLE 


BURGUNDIAN SCHOOL 


Don Giovanni), Hence, a singer for 
comic parts. See *Comic opera. Buffon- 
istenstreity see *Bouffons (2). 

Bugle. A military instrument [see 
*Brass instruments IV]. The term is also 
used as generic name for the entire group 
of brass instruments described under 
*Brass instruments III (b)-(e). For the 
key bugle (Kent bugle) see *Brass in- 
struments V (c). 

Buisine. See *Buysine. 

Bulgarian music. The history of Bul- 
garian music is closely linked with that 
of Russia. The folk song as well as the 
liturgical music of the Bulgarians has 
been much less exposed to Western influ- 
ence than, e.g., that of the Czechs. The 
Bulgarians possess a large repertory of 
traditional songs, mostly heroic, which 
they consider one of their greatest treas- 
ures. Most of their folk music is dance- 
like, though irregular meters are frequent. 
A few examples of very early folk music 
in rhapsodic rhythm, uncertain intervals, 
microtonic ornaments (glissando), etc., 
still survive in some provinces. The chief 
instruments are the gaida, a bagpipe, and 
the ^gusluy a primitive bowed instrument 
with one string. The liturgical music of 
the Bulgarian Church was largely that of 
the Russian Church, until the adoption 
of the Greek rites, in the 19th century. 

The activity in art music did not begin 
until 1900. Pancho Vladigerov (b. 1899) 
is the leading composer of the present. 

Lit.: P. PanofI, Die altslavische Vol}{S- 
und Kirchenmusi\ (Biicken’s Handbuchy 
1930); id.y “Die Volksmusik der Bul- 
garen” {Melos iv, H. i); Ch. Obresch- 
koff. Das bulgarische Vol\slied ( 1937 ); 
AdHMy ii6gi; cf. MoMLy 104. 

Bund [G.; pi, Bunde], Fret. Bundfrei, 
see ^Clavichord. 


Burgundian cadence. See under 
’"‘Landini cadence. 

Burgundian School. The leading 
music school of the early 15th century, 
represented chiefly by Guillaume Dufay 
{c, 1400-74) and Gilles Binchois (c, 
1400-67). It forms the hnk between the 
*Ars nova (14th century) and the *Flem- 
ish Schools (1450-1600) [see ^History of 
music]. In older writings, the Burgun- 
dian School is called First Netherlands 
School [see ^Netherlands Schools]. To- 
day, the term Burgundian School is pre- 
ferred because the musical activity of this 
period centered in the cultural sphere of 
the kingdom of Burgundy which, under 
Philip the Good (1419-67) and Charles 
the Bold (1467-77), included the whole 
of eastern France as well as Belgium and 
the Netherlands. Its court at Dijon was 
the leading center of culture for all Eu- 
rope, a culture which manifested itself 
in the paintings of the brothers Van Eyck 
as well as in the fantastic fashion of peaked 
shoes, long cone-shaped hats, and extrava- 
gant colors which still survives in the 
“once-upon-a-time” setting of our fairy 
tales. 

The music of the Burgundian School 
represents a reaction against the complex- 
ity and mannerism of the late Ars nova. 
Strongly influenced by the English Dun- 
stable, Dufay and Binchois developed a 
musical language whose beauty and ten- 
der sweetness is just as lively today as it 
was 500 years ago. Perhaps their most 
important contribution was the establish- 
ment of the third as a principal interval 
of melodic design. Many melodies of 
Dufay and Binchois (particularly those 
from their later period) are “orna- 
mented triads’’ [see Ex.; Dufay, Craindre 




Burden [homF. ^bourdon], A refrain, 
particularly one consisting of syllables 
without meaning, as, e.g., “Hey troly lo,” 
or “Fa la la.” Such burdens are common 
in the *ballettos of the idth/iyth centu- 
ries [see also *Fa-la]. 


vous vueil\. No less striking is the exten- 
sive use of *jauxbourdon and of the *Bur- 
gundian cadence, which, with its two 
leading-tones, contributes largely to the 
transcendental sensuousness of Burgun- 
dian music, as do also the high range of 
the men’s voices (high tenors, ^falsetto). 


[ 104] 



BURLA 


BYZANTINE CHANT 


and the simultaneous use of strongly dis- 
similar instruments such as recorders, 
shawms, viols, and trombones (together 
with voices) which, in spite of their 
“earthly” incongruity merge into what 
may be called a “celestial symphony.” 

The Burgundian composers can be ten- 
tatively grouped in three generations, as 
follows [the single dates indicate years 
of their activity, at the Papal Choir, at the 
court of Dijon, etc., the only known rec- 
ords of their life]: (i) born c, 1375: 
Reginald Liebert, Pierre Fontaine (1420), 
Nicolaus Grenon (1421, ’27), Johannes 
Brassart (1431); (2) born c, 1400: Guil- 
laume Dufay (1400-74), Gillcs Binchois 
(1400—67), Hugo de Lantins, Heyne von 
Gizeghem (1453, ’68); (3) born c. 1423: 
Antoine Busnois (d. 1492), Johannes 
Regis (1463, ’74), Philippe Caron. The 
last-named composers already show the 
influence of the early Flemish masters 
(Ockeghem, Obrecht) and form the tran- 
sition to Josquin. Dufay and also various 
other Burgundian composers spent parts 
of their lives at Cambrai; hence, the name 
School of Cambrai, which would seem to 
apply chiefly to the latest members of the 
Burgundian School. Examples in HAM, 
nos. 65-72. 

Lit.: W. Ambros, Geschichte der Musi\ 
iii (1891); E. Dannemann, Die spat go- 
tische Musiktradition in FranJ^reich und 
Burgund vor dem Aujtreten Dufay's 
(1936); J. Wolf, “Dufay und seine Zeit” 
(StM i) ; Ch. van den Borren, '\Polyphonia 
sacra (1932); J. F. R. and C. Stainer, 
'\Dufay and his Contemporaries (1898); 
K. Dczes, '\Messen- und Motettensatze 
des 75. fahrhunderts (1927); W. Gurlitt, 
'\Gilles Binchois, 16 weliliche Lieder 
(1927); ll. Besseler, ^Guillaume Dufay, 
12 geistliche und weltliche Werkje ( 1932); 
J. Marix, ^Les Musiciens de la cour de 
Bourgogne au XV e siecle, i^ioSy 
(1937). See also *Chansonnier. 

Burla, burlesca, burletta [It., jest], 

A composition in a jesting mood. Bach’s 
A minor Partita has a Burlesca; Schu- 
mann’s Albumbldtter include a Burla. 


Busspsalmen [G.] . ^Penitential psalms. 

Buxheim Organ Book [G. Bux- 
heimer Orgelbuch]. A MS collection of 
organ music, written about 1470 and con- 
taining a large number of *Intabulie- 
rungcn of ^Burgundian chansons, some 
30 ^preludes and a copy of Conrad Pau- 
mann’s *Fundamentum organisandi, Cf. 
MfM 1888, Beilage; L. Schrade, Die 
dltesten Dcnbjndler der Orgelmusi\ 
(1927). Cf. also H. Schnoor, in ZMW iv. 

Buysine, buzine, busine, buisine, 
buzanne [see *Buccina]. A medieval 
straight trumpet. See *Brass instruments 
V; also ^Trombone II. 

B.V.M. See ^Antiphon (3). 

Byzantine chant. I. The ecclesiasti- 
cal chant of the Byzantine empire 
(founded A.D. 328 by Constantine the 
Great; destroyed in 1453, with the fall of 
Constantinople) With the exception of 
a few ceremonial songs, the ^acclama- 
tions, no music other than the liturgical 
chants has been preserved. Although the 
language of the Byzantine Church was 
Greek, it has become more and more ap- 
parent that the Byzantine music — as 
well as the whole of Byzantine culture — 
was not a continuation of that of the an- 
cient Greeks (as has long been assumed) 
but constituted a new tradition based to 
some extent on Oriental (Jewish) models 
[see Tillyard, Wellesz]. The Byzantine 
system of modes {^echoi), for example, 
differs sharply from that of the so-called 
Greek modes {tonoi) but is quite similar 
to that of the Western Church [see 
*Church modes], 

II. The Byzantine chant has many 
features in common with Gregorian 
chant, being monophonic, unaccompa- 
nied, chiefly diatonic, and devoid of strict 
meter. A fundamental difference between 
the two bodies of chant, however, is that 
of their textual basis. While the Western 
tradition adopted the Jewish psalms as 
the basis of their texts, the liturgical texts 
of the Eastern Church are all free poetry 
(occasionally modeled after psalms), i.c., 
hymns. The earliest of these hymns, the 

[ 105] 


Busine. See *Buysine. 



BYZANTINE CHANT 


BYZANTINE CHANT 


troparia (4th, 5th centuries), were inter- which is that of a later stage, known as 
calations (^tropes) sung between the middle (or round) notation. The latter 
reading of the psalms, but the latter system, which was in use from c, iioo- 

dropped out during the ensuing develop- 1450, has been deciphered in all essential 

ment. The 6th century marks the begin- details, including the rhythmic signifi- 
ning of a new era, that of the Xpntahjon^ cance of the neumatic signs, on the basis 
with Romanus {c, 500) and Sergios {c, of information contained in certain theo- 

600) as the leading figures. A kontakion retical manuals called papadil{€. The 

is an ode consisting of a short prooemium principal feature of this notation is that 

(introduction) and a great number (20- its signs do not indicate pitches (as do, 

30) of stanzas of uniform structure which more or less exactly, the Western 
end with a refrain (either a single word neumes), but intervals to be taken from 
such as . . time,” or a complete line) the tone reached previously. The starting 
and which, by their initial letters, form an note was indicated by a special sign (the 
acrostic. The most famous example of martyrion)^ which signified the echos of 

this species is the *acathistos, Troparia the melody. Thus, in Byzantine notation, 

and kontakia were superseded around the melody deggafgd would be no- 
700 by the \anon (Andrew of Crete, tated as a succession of intervals according 
c, 650-720; John of Damascus; and Kos- to the following scheme: (d) stusl_ 
mas of Jerusalem, c, 750). The kanons s f_ (s = second, u — unison, t = third, 

are extremely long poems consisting of a f = fourth; descending intervals with a 

succession of nine parts (called hymns, minus-sign) [example in GD i, 520]. 

odes), each of which was supposed to IV. After 1400 the traditional chant, 
contain allusions to one of the nine *can- which was largely syllabic, was enriched 
tides (as a rule, the second ode was by the introduction of coloraturas which, 
omitted, on account of the somber nature owing to abuse and individual license, 
of the second canticle; the others are all soon led to a complete decadence of By- 
chants of praise and joy). The poetic ac- zantine chant. Kukuzeles, who flourished 
tivity came to an end in the nth century, about 1300, seems to have been the first 
owing to the codification of the hymns to introduce new signs for stereotyped 
and their final reception into the liturgy, melismas. These signs were generally 
III. The earliest Byzantine sources con- adopted after 1400 (late Byzantine or 
taining musical signs date from the 9th 
century, and are written in *ekphonetic 
notation. According to recent interpreta- 
tion [cf. C. Hoeg, La Notation €\pho- 
netique (1935)] these signs, which al- 
ways occur in pairs (one at the beginning, 
the other at the end of a sentence), repre- 
sent certain stereotyped formulae, which 
were used for phrases of frequent occur- 

rente, such as: “And Jesus said.” Begin- " xal “eg ce- i 
ning with the loth century, sources show 
a more fully developed type of musical 
notation, indicating a continuous melody. 

As is the case in the notation of Gregorian 

chant, the early Byzantine “neumes” First Ode of a Canon for Saturday 

{c, 950-1200) cannot be deciphered. in Holy Week 

Only a few melodies from some of the 

latest MSS of this period, written in the Kukuzelian notation; see also ^Teretism). 
so-called Coislin system^ have been tran- In the 1 8th century, Turkish and Arabian 
scribed with the help of parallel versions elements were introduced into the chant 
existing in later sources, the notation of (Lampadarios, c, 1730-70), thus leading 

r >o6] 


6a>- pov-jit-voj tj-juv xb e-Afi - 0 $. 




c 

to a complete destruction of the tradition. 
At the beginning of the 19th century the 
Greek archimandrite Chrysanthos devel- 
oped a notation which utilizes the prin- 
ciples and some of the details of the By- 
zantine notation and which is still used 
today for the chants of the Greek Church. 

From our present-day state of knowl- 
edge, the MSS of the 12th and 13th cen- 
turies represent the classical tradition of 
Byzantine chant. The example on p. 106 
[cf. MQ xxiii, 208] illustrates the style 
which prevails in the chants of this period 
[cf. also HAM, no. 8]. 

In 1935 C. Hoeg, H. J. W. Tillyard, 
and E. Wellesz started a complete edition 
of medieval Byzantine Musical MSS, 
under the title Monumenta Musicae By- 
zantinae [see ’^'Editions XVIII]. This 


CACOPHONY 

publication was taken over in 1942 by the 
Byzantine Institute (American Branch, 
Boston). See *Acathistus; ^Acclamation; 
♦Akoluthia; *Automela; *Echos; *Sti- 
cheron. 

Lit.: H. J. W. Tillyard, Byzantine 
Music and Hymnography (1923); E. 
Wellesz, Byzantinische Musif{ (1927); 
O. Tiby, La Musica hlzantina (1938); 
L. Tardo, Vantica tnelurgia bizantina 
(1938); ReMMAy 75fl; AdHM i, i26ff; 
GD i, 5141!; H. J. W. Tillyard, in MQ 
xxiii and in ML iv; E. Wellesz, in PM A i; 
O. Strunk, “The Tonal System of Byzan- 
tine Music” (MQ xxxviii); O. Gombosi, 
in AM X, xi, xii. For additional bibliog- 
raphy, cf ReMMAy 432!! and O. Tiby, in 
RMl xli, xlii. 


c 


C. (i) See ^Letter notation; ♦Pitch 
names; ♦Hexachord. — (2) C, as an ab- 
breviation, may stand for: con (colla, 
coW), i.c., with [see ♦C.a.; ♦C.b.; *0.0. ; 
^C.s.]; cantus [see ♦C.f.j; capo [see 
♦D.c.j. In modern part songs C means 
contralto', in i6th'Century part books, 
cantus, 

C.a. Abbreviation for [It.] colV arcOy 
i.e., with the bow. 

Cabaletta [It., possibly from cobola, 
cobla, i.e., couplet; the derivation from 
caballo, horse, is very doubtful j . A short 
operatic song characterized by popular 
style and natural simplicity, with a rather 
uniform rhythm in the vocal line and in 
the accompaniment. They arc frequent in 
the operas of Rossini. One of the earliest 
examples is “La bella imagine” in Gluck’s 
Paride e Elena ( 1770). In the later Italian 
opera (Verdi) the term was applied to 
the final stretto close of arias or duets in 
which elaborate treatment usually gives 
way to quick, uniform rhythm. 

Caccia [It., chase, hunt] . An important 
form of 14th-century Italian poetry and 
music which was chiefly used in the first 


half of that century (Giovanni da Cascia, 
Jacopo da Bologna; see ♦Ars nova). The 
text deals with hunting and fishing scenes 
(pescia) or with similar subjects of a 
strongly marked naturalistic character 
(fire, cries of street vendors, etc.). The 
musical form is a strict canon in two parts 
at the distance of eight or more measures. 
These “chasing” voices are usually sup- 
ported by a free tenor in longer note val- 
ues. The form originated in France 
around 1300 (chace; cf. BeMMR, 13 1), 
but developed in Italy. For a Spanish 
14th-century example, cf. O. Ursprung, 
in ZMW iv, 151. 

Lit.: G. Carducci, Caccie in rime (1896; 
only texts); W. Th. Marrocco, ^The 14th- 
Century Italian Caccia (1942; complete 
collection of all the caccias); ^WoGM ii, 
iii, nos. 42, 56; HAM, no. 52; J. Wolf, 
1 [Sing- und Spielmusi\ aus dlterer Zeit, 
no. 7. 

Cachucha. An Andalusian dance simi- 
lar to the ♦bolero. It was introduced to 
the opera by Fanny Elssler in the ballet of 
Le Diable boiteux (1836). 

Cacophony [from Gr. \a\oSy bad]. 
Bad sound, discord. Richard Strauss’s 


[ 107] 



CADENCE 

tone-poems were decried as cacophony at 
the time of their first performance. 

Cadence [from L. cadere^ to fall; G. 
Kadenz\ It. cadenza]. I. A melodic or 
harmonic formula which occurs at the 
end of a composition, a section, or a 
phrase, conveying the impression of a 
momentary or permanent conclusion. In 
each period of music there exist a rather 
limited number of such formulae or, at 
least, a limited number of types of which 
all closing passages are but variations or 
modifications. Those which were in cur- 
rent use during the i8th and 19th centu- 
ries have been studied in great detail. 
Unfortunately, the classification and ter- 
minology in this field are greatly lacking 
in uniformity and frequently also in clar- 
ity. The following presentation is made 
with a view, not to completeness of the 
enumeration of terms, but to clarification 
of the essential points [cf. the chapter on 
“Cadences” in W. Piston, Harmony 
(1941)]. 

A cadence is called perfect {final, full) 
if it can be satisfactorily and normally 
used as the close of a composition. Ac- 
cording to the standards of classical har- 



mony this requires that the last chord be 
the tonic triad (I) and that it have the 
tonic note in the soprano. Regarding the 


CADENCE 

penultimate chord, there is a choice be- 
tween the dominant (V) and the sub- 
dominant (IV), both in root position. 
The combination V-I is called authentic 
cadence [Ex. ij, the progression IV-I, 
plagal cadence [Ex. 2]. The authentic 
cadence occurs usually in the fuller form 
IV-V-I (lU-V-I) [Ex. 3l or, still more 
complete, IV-I«-V-I (IIM«-V-I) [Ex. 

4]. All four of these last are sometimes 
called mixed cadences. 

The remaining cadences fall into two 
classes, imperfect, and deceptive (or inter- 
rupted) cadences. The imperfect cadences 
are the same as the two elementary perfect 
cadences, except that they have the tonic 
chord in another arrangement, e.g., with 
the third or fifth in the soprano [Ex. 5I ; 
or have the penultimate chord in inver- 
sion [Ex. 6] — these are called inverted 
or medial cadence, as opposed to a radical 
[L. radix, root] cadence; or occur in 
transposition to the dominant or (more 
rarely, the subdominant) [Ex. 7-10]. 
These “transposed” cadences occur almost 
regularly at the end of the first half of a 
musical phrase and are therefore termed 
half-cadence (authentic or plagal). 

The deceptive cadence [F. cadence 
rornpue or evitee; G. Trugschluss; It. 
inganno] is an authentic (or, sometimes, 
plagal) cadence the tonic chord of which 
(I) is — deceptively — replaced by some 
other chord, most frequently by VI [Ex. 
II ]. Some other possibilities are indi- 
cated in Ex. 12-14. ^Masculine, 

feminine cadence. 

II. The cadences of early music differ 
sharply from those described above, par- 
ticularly prior to 1500 when progressions 
such as V-I and IV— I were very little used 
[see ^Harmony]. The history of these 
cadences is interesting since the various 
formulae are characteristic of their period 
and may well serve as identifying marks. 
Prior to 1450, practically all cadences are 
based on the progression II-I in the low- 
est part (tenor). This cadence appears in 
various modifications [Ex. 15— 19], among 
which that with two “leading-tones,” one 
before the octave, the other before the 
fifth, is particularly frequent before and 
after 1400 [Ex. 16-18; see *Landini 


[ 108 ] 






CADENZA 


CADENCE 


cadence]. After 1400 another modifica- 
tion of the II—I cadence appears in which 
the contra-tenor jumps up an octave from 
the lower fifth to the higher fifth [Ex. 20] . 


This cadence is interesting because it 
foreshadows the authentic cadence with 
its V— I movement in the lowest part 
[Ex. 21 J. This as well as the plagal 
cadence was introduced around 1450, as 
a result of the addition of a true bass to 
musical texture (Ockeghem, Obrecht; see 
^Flemish Schools), The earlier type (II- 
I) survived only in the so-called Phrygian 
cadence [Ex. 22]. It should be noticed 
that, until 1500, the third is practically 
always omitted in the final chord of the 
authentic as well as of the plagal cadence 
[still in Purcell!; see *Picardy third]. In 
the 1 6th century the “suspension”-for- 
mula [Ex. 21] was universally accepted, 
while in the 17th century the “anticipa- 
tion”-formula [Ex. 23] is very common. 
Composers of the 17th century frequently 
use both formulae simultaneously in two 
parts (violins) in a strikingly dissonant 
combination known as CorcUi-clash [Ex. 
24; for an early instance, in Stefano 
Landi’s San Alessio (1634), cf. H. Gold- 


schmidt, Studien zur Geschichte der 
italienischen Oper (1901), i, 212]. 

III. The cadences of the classical and 
romantic periods offer little historical in- 
terest since they usually conform with the 
standard types outlined in I. Toward the 
end of the 19th century, however, the 
amplification of the harmonic vocabu- 
lary brought with it numerous novelties 
in the writing of cadences, such as the use 
of modal cadences [Ex. 25; Moussorgsky, 
Boris Godunov^ 1869], the use of a dis- 
sonant final chord [Ex. 26; Ravel, Les 
grands vents]^ of polytonal formations 
[Ex. 27; Busoni, Sonatina Seconda, 1912J 
and, more recently, the return to a “con- 
trapuntal’' type of cadence reminiscent of 
medieval cadences in the stepwise motion 
of the bass and in their “plagal” feeling 
[Ex. 28; Hindemith, Sonate jiir Klavier^ 

1936]. 

Lit.: A. Casella, The Evolution of 
Music, through the History of the Perfect 
Cadence (1924); E. M. Lee, “Cadences 
and Closes” (PM A xxxi); H. J. Moser, 
“Das Schicksal der Penultima” (/A/Pxli); 
H J. Moser, “Die harmonischen Funk- 
tionen in der tonalen Kadenz” (ZMW i); 
C. Artom, “Cadenze e pseudocadenze” 
(RMl xxxiv); R. Tenschert, “Die Ka- 
denzbehandlung bei Richard Strauss” 
(ZMW vii). 

Cadence [F.]. French 17th-century 
name for the trill. 

Cadent. Sec under *NachschIag. 

Cadenza. An extended section in free, 
improvisatory style inserted usually near 
the end of a composition where it serves 
as a retarding element, giving the player 
or singer a welcome chance to exhibit his 
technical brilliance shortly before the 
piece closes. Its traditional place is in the 
concerto, between the six-four chord 
(marked with a fermata) and the domi- 
nant chord of the final cadence [see Ex.]. 
Such cadenzas make ample use of highly 
virtuoso passage work, but also draw from 
the thematic substance of the movement, 
presenting its subjects in artfully devised 
modifications or combinations. They usu- 


[ 109] 





CADENZA 

ally close with an extended trill on the 
dominant chord. 

In the earlier concertos (Haydn; 
Mozart; Beethoven, Piano concertos nos. 
1-4) the cadenzas are not included in 



the composition, since they were supposed 
to be provided by the performer. In the 
19th century cadenzas to the famous con- 
certos were written by the outstanding 
virtuosos (Hummel, Thalberg, Mosche- 
les, Reinecke, Joachim), frequently with- 
out proper regard to matters of style, so 
that it is not unusual to hear a Mozart 
concerto winding up with a cadenza full 
of the lush harmonies and heavy texture 
of the late Romanticism. Beethoven was 
the first to write his own cadenzas as an 
integral part of the work, in his last Piano 
Concerto, op. 76 (Emperor Concerto). 
His precedent was followed by most of 
his successors (Schumann, Brahms), who 
wanted to guard their works against the 
poor taste and the stylistic incongruities 
of the “pianist-composers.” There exist 
authentic cadenzas (written by the com- 
posers themselves) for all the Beethoven 
concertos and for a number of the Mozart 
concertos. Although not entirely satisfac- 
tory, they should be consulted by anyone 
confronted with the necessity of choosing 
(or writing) a cadenza. Judicious artists 
will probably find them preferable to any 
of those in current use, with the sole ex- 
ception of the excellent cadenzas to 
Mozart’s piano concertos written by Bu- 
soni. In the piano compositions of Chopin 
and Liszt ample use is made of another 
type of cadenza, consisting of relatively 
short passages of glittering passage work, 
written in small notes, and inserted where 
a momentary retardation or a display of 
pianistic brilliancy was desired. 

Cadenzas in the form of running pas- 
sages following (rather than preceding) 

{ 


CALLIOPE 

the final chord of a cadence occur in the 
lute and keyboard music of the i6th cen- 
tury (Don Luis Milan, 1535; Girolamo 
Cavazzoni, 1542). Early examples of the 
modern cadenza, on I^ are found in Co- 
relli and Vivaldi (c. 1700). Throughout 
the 1 8th century improvised cadenzas of 
a highly virtuoso type were an established 
feature of the solo arias in the Neapolitan 
operas, whence they were adopted in the 
concerto (Mozart). 

Lit.: R. Stockhausen. Die Kadenzen zu 
den Klavier\onzerten der Wiener Klas- 
si\er (Diss. Vienna 1936); H. Knodt, 
“Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Kaden- 
zen im Instrumentalkonzert” {SIM xv); 
A. Schering, “Die freie Kadenz im In- 
strumentalkonzert des 18. Jahrhunderts” 
(KIMy 1906, p. 204). 

Cadenzato [It.]. With determination 
(as in a cadence). 

Caecilianismus [G.]. See ♦Cecilian 
movement. 

Caisse [F.]. Drum. See ^Percussion 
instruments B, 1-3. 

Calando [It.]. Diminuendo, usually 
with rallentando. 

Calascione. Same as *colascione, 

Calata. Italian lute dance of the early 
i6th century, notated in ^ - (^ -) time, but 
actually in ^ - (3 x J) meter, and therefore 
similar to the *bassa danza. Petrucci’s 
Intavolatura de lauto iv (1508) contains 
13 calatas, one for two lutes. Cf. J. W. 
Wasielewski, Geschichte der Instrumen- 
talmu 5 i\ im 16, Jahrhundert (1878), 
Bcilage. 

Calcando [It.]. “Trampling,” i.e., ac- 
celerando. 

Calino casturame. This title of a piece 
in the Fitz william Virginal Boo\ is prob- 
ably a perversion of Irish “Cailinog a stuir 
me,” “Young girl, my treasure.” 

Calithump. See ^Charivari. 

Calliope. Originally the name of the 
Greek Muse of Eloquence, the term was 

10] 


CALMATO 

adopted for an instrument which its un- 
known inventor probably expected to 
have divine powers of persuasion, as it 
consisted of a number of steam-blown 
whistles (played from a keyboard) which 
could be heard over a distance of ten 
miles. It was used at American fairs to 
attract people from far and wide. 

Calmato [It.]. Calmed. 

Galore, Con [It.]. With warmth. 

Cambiata [It., from camhiarcy to 
change]. Sec *Nonharmonic tones I. 

Camera [It., chamber]. In Baroque 
music (1600-1750) da camera indicates 
music for use outside of the church, as 
distinguished from da chiesa, i.e., music 
to be performed in the church [see 
*ChiesaJ. This dichotomy was applied 
to sonatas, cantatas, duettos, etc. Espe- 
cially in the first case it entailed a distinct 
difference of form which is discussed 
under *Sonata B, II. In modern Italian 
usage, music a da camera means chamber 
music. 

Camerata [It., from earner a y chamber, 
salon]. Name for a group of distin- 
guished literary men, artists and musi- 
cians who, shortly before 1600, used to 
gather in the palace of the Count Bardi at 
Florence to discuss the possibilities of a 
new musical style in imitation of the 
music of the ancient Greek drama [see 
*Nuove Musiche; *Opera]. Members of 
this “charmed circle” were the poet Ot- 
tavio Rinuccini and the musicians Vin- 
cenzo Galilei, Giulio Caccini, and Jacopo 
Peri. 

Lit.: H. Martin, “La ‘Camerata’ du 
Comte Bardi et la musique florentine du 
xvie si^le” (RdMy nos. 42-44, 46, 47); 
G. Gilli, Una Corte alia fine del '500 
(1928). 

Camminando [It.]. Proceeding, push- 

ing on. 

Campana [It.]. *Bell. Campanology is 
the art of bell-founding and bell-ringing. 
Campanella (little bell) is the *glocken- 
spiel; also the title of a violin piece by 
Paganini and of an etude by F. Liszt (a 


CANCIONERO 

piano adaptation of the former) in which 
the sound of small bells is imitated. 

Can. In English Service music, abbrevi- 
ation for cantoris. See *Polychoral style. 

Canadian music. Cf. M. Barbeau and 
Edw. Sapir, Fol 1 { Songs of French Canada 
(1925); J. M. Gibbon, Canadian Fol\ 
Songs (1927); Soeurs de Sainte-Anne, 
Dictionnaire biographique des musiciens 
Canadiens (1935); E. Gagnon, Chansons 
populaires du Canada (7th ed., 1940); M. 
Barbeau, in ML xiii, no. 2. 

Canarie, canario. A French dance of 
the 17th century, designed as an imitation 
of the “sauvages des lies Canaries,” the 
natives of the Canary Islands who repre- 
sented the “exotic” element in the Euro- 
pean culture of the i6th and 17th centu- 
ries. It is in quick % or %-timc, with a 
dotted note on each strong beat, almost 
identical in rhythm with that of the gigue. 
The earliest examples are to be found in 
the harpsichord suites of Champion de 
Chambonnieres (1602-72) and of Louis 
Couperin {c, 1626-61). Others occur in 
the operas of Lully, Purcell {Diocletiany 
1690), in Johann K. F. Fischer’s Musikjal- 
isches Blumenbiischlein (1696), in Georg 
Muffat’s Florilegium primum (1690), 
etc. Examples in ApMZ ii; TaAM vii, 43. 
Cf. P. Nettl, in StM viii. See *Dance 
music III. 

Cancan. A popular dance of the late 
19th century which developed from the 
quadrille and which became world- 
known for its vulgarity and indccorous- 
ness. J. Offenbach introduced it into his 
Orphee aux enfers (1874). 

Cancel, Same as natural (sign). 

Cancion [Sp.]. Song. 

Cancionero [Sp.]. Collection of songs, 
particularly folk songs. Important pub- 
lications of this type have been issued by 
F. Pedrell and by E. M. Torner. For an 
important 15th-century MS, known as 
Cancionero musical del palacioy see 
♦Sources, no. 27; ♦Spanish Music I. 


[Ill] 



CANCRIZANS 


CANON 


Cancrizans [from L. cancer^ crab]. In 
crab'wise motion; see ^Retrograde. 

Canntaireachd. See under *Pibroch, 

Canon [Gr., law, rule], (i) A poly- 
phonic composition in which all the parts 
have the same melody throughout, al- 
though starting at different points. The 
canon is the strictest species of imitation. 
Accompanying is an example by Schubert 



(Piano Trio op. lOo, Scherzo), It ap- 
pears that in a canon the normal contra- 
puntal texture of horizontal (melodic) 
and vertical (harmonic) relationships is 
“reinforced” by diagonal threads which 
consistently connect the places of imita- 
tion [see *Texture]. It is this added di- 
mension which accounts for the special 
artistic charm of the canon. Any phrase, 
heard now in the leading voice {dux, ante- 
cedent), will soon be heard in the follow- 
ing voice or voices incomes, consequent)', 
in the meantime, however, the dux has 
proceeded to another motive which thus 
sounds against the first and which, in 
turn, will soon occur in its comes, 

I. Types, The following types of canon 
are commonly distinguished, (a) Ac- 
cording to the temporal distance between 
the parts: canon of one, two, etc., meas- 
ures; in earlier terminology: canon ad 
minimam, ad semibrevem, ad brevem (or 
ad tempus), i.e., in the distance of a 
minim, etc. (b) According to the interval 
of imitation: canon in unison, of the fifth, 
fourth, etc.; earlier terms are: canon ad 
unisonum, ad hypodiapentc (the comes 
begins at the lower fifth), ad hyperdiates- 

[ 


saron (the comes begins at the higher 
fourth), etc. According to special devices: 
(c) canon by ^augmentation or diminu- 
tion (the comes has the melody in doubled 
or in halved values); (d) canon by ’’•‘in- 
version (the comes has the inverted mel- 
ody; also called per motu contrario)', (e) 
retrograde canon or crab canon or canon 
cancrizans (the comes imitates the dux 
in retrograde motion; see ^Retrograde) ; 
(f) canon al contrario river so (the comes 
is the retrograde inversion of the dux; 
such a canon can be executed by reading 
the melody with the page turned upside 
down; see ^Retrograde, Ex. 2); (g) group 
canon (the dux and, consequently, the 
comes consist of two — or more — parts 
each; a famous example of this type is 
Byrd’s motet “Diliges Dominum”; most 
of the many-voiced canons of the 17th 
century — for 12, 16, or even 48 voices — 
belong to this group); (h) circle canon 
or perpetual canon (i.e., one which leads 
back to the beginning and which, there- 
fore, may be repeated several times; most 
of the popular canons, called ^rounds, be- 
long to this type); (i) spiral canon or 
canon per tonos (here the melody ends 
one tone higher than it started; thus the 
canon must be played six times, first in 
C, then in D, in E, in F-sharp, etc.; an 
example is found in Bach’s Musical Offer- 
ing under the title: “Ascendente modula- 
tione ascendet gloria regis,” i.e., “May 
the glory of the king rise as the modula- 
tion ascends”). A canon is called mixed 
if parts are added (usually in the bass) 
which do not participate in the imitation 
(e.g., the canons in Bach’s Goldberg Vari- 
ations), 

II. History. In early music, the pres- 
ent-day type of canon occurs under names 
such as *rota or ^rondellus (*round, e.g., 
the well-known ^ Sumer is icumen in of 
circa 1310), *caccia (14th century), and 
*fuga (i6th century), while the term 
canon has a much wider significance, 
namely, that of any kind of inscription 
(“rule”) giving a clue as to the intended 
execution of a composition which is pur- 
posely notated in an incomplete or ob- 
scure manner (riddle canon). Such 
canons appear first in the works of Guil- 





CANON 


laume de Machaut, among which there 
is a motet “Trop plus est belle” [cf. F. 
Ludwig, G. de Machaut^ Musi\alische 
Wer\e ii, 71; J. Wolf, Musi\alische 
Schrijt-tafeln (1930), p. 23], the tenor of 
which is to be sung “ad modum ron- 
delli” (rondellus means here, not round, 
but ^rondeau), i.e., as follows: a b a a a 
b a b, although only a b is notated. Ex- 
amples of much greater complexity occur 
in the French MSS of the late *Ars nova 
[cf., e.g., the “Canon balade” in WoHN 
i, 375J. In the Flemish era {c, 1450-- 
1550) the canonic inscriptions grow more 
and more enigmatic so that Tinctoris, in 
his Diffinitorium {c, 1500) aptly defines 
the canon as “a rule which shows the in- 
tention of the composer in an obscure 
way” [GiS iv, 179]. Among the simpler 
examples of riddle canon are the various 
inscriptions indicating retrograde motion 
[see ^Retrograde] . More complicated is 
the inscription given with the Agnus Dei 
of Dufay’s Missa Lhomme arme\ “Can- 
cer eat plenis et redeat medius” (The crab 
proceed full and return half). This means 
that the tenor should be read first back- 
wards (a crab “proceeds” backwards) in 
the full note-values, then forward from 
the beginning, but in halved note-values. 
Even more oracular are inscriptions such 
as “Ne recorderis” (literally “Don’t re- 
member”) which must be read “Ne re 
corderis,” i.e., “Don’t remember r<?,” 
“Don’t sing r^,” “Omit all the notes r(?,” 
i.e., “D.” Riddle canons of particular 
complication occur in the English 15th- 
century Missa O quam suavis [new ed. 
by H. B. Collins (1927)]. For more de- 
tails see WoHN i, 427; GD ii, 713 (“In- 
scriptions”); RiHM ii.i, 83—95; ^pNPMy 
179. 

Less obscure, hence of greater practical 
importance, are the so-called mensuration 
canons of the 15th and i6th centuries. 
Here, a single written part has to be read 
simultaneously in different ^mensurations 
or ’••'proportions. These canons, some- 
times called *fuga, start simultaneously 
at the intervals of tonic and dominant, 
but proceed differently, owing to the dif- 
ferent value of the longer notes (longa^ 
brevis^ under the various signs of men- 


CANON 

suration. Accompanying is a “Fuga trium 
vocum” by Josquin [cf. ApNPM, 180]. 
An interesting example of a “group- 



canon” for two lutes occurs in Vincenzo 
Galilei’s Fronimo (1563; see ^Editions 
XIV, 4) under the name “Fuga.” 

In the 17th century, canons were fre- 
quently devised in such a way as to admit 
of a number of solutions. A well-known 
example is a “Non nobis domine” (at- 
tributed, probably wrongly, to W. Byrd), 
which admits 6 or 7 solutions differing 
according to number of parts, to the inter- 
vals, and to the distance of the imitating 
parts [cf. GD iii, 642f]. Pier Francesco 
Valentini (d. 1654) wrote a canon which 
boasts of more than 2000 solutions. At 
the same time, the English provided a 
great number of popular canons in their 
’•^catches. It was chiefly through Bach’s 
genius that the canon again obtained an 
important position in musical art, a posi- 
tion which it has maintained to the pres- 
ent day. Particularly noteworthy are 
Bach’s Kanonische V ariationen iiber das 
W eihnacht sited and the canons in his 
Goldberg Variations, Haydn, Mozart, 
Beethoven, contributed many charming 
examples to the popular repertory, but 
also used canon technique in their sonatas 
(mostly in the menuets) and variations. 
A well-known example of a more recent 
date is the last movement of Cesar 
Franck’s Violin Sonata (1886) which, 
however, employs a rather facile tech- 
nique, while Brahms made a more in- 
genious use of the canon, e.g., in his /j 
Canons (for women’s voices), op. 113. 

Lit.: S. Jadassohn, Canon and Fugue 
(1899); C. H. Kitson, Invertible Counter- 
point and Canon (1927); E. Prout, 
Double Counterpoint and Canon\ B. 


[ 113] 



CANONICAL HOURS 


CANTATA 


Ziehn, Canonical Studies (1912); L. Fein- 
inger, Die Friihgeschichte des Kanons bis 
Josquin (1937); F. Jode, "^Der Kanon 
(1926); P. Mies, “Der Kanon im mehr- 
satzigen klassischen Werk” {ZMW viii); 

0. E. Deutsch, “Haydn’s Kanons” 
(ZMW xv). 

(2) In ancient Greek music, canon is 
the name of the monochord which served 
to demonstrate the “laws” of acoustics. 
See * Kan {in. 

(3) In Byzantine chant, a special type 
of poetry, more correctly spelled kanon; 
see Byzantine chant II. 

(4) In the Roman liturgy, canon is the 
central and most solemn part of the 
*Mass, said by the officiating priest after 
the Sanctus. It begins with the words Te 
igitur [cf. LU, 4]. 

Canonical hours. See ^Office hours. 

Canonic treatment, style. The term 
refers to short passages written as a more 
or less free canon and forming a part of a 
larger composition such as a sonata (fre- 
quently in the development section). 

Canso. See *Canzo. 

Cantabile [It.]. Singable, singing. 

Cantata [from It. cantare, to sing]. 

1. A composite vocal form of the Baroque 
period, consisting usually of a number of 
movements such as arias, recitatives, 
duets, choruses which are based upon a 
continuous narrative text, lyrical, dra- 
matic, or religious. Owing to the activity 
of J. S. Bach, the church cantata (cantata 
da chiesa)y i.e., a cantata of devotional 
subject matter, is particularly well known 
and clearly defined. However, the secular 
cantata (cantata da camera), was not only 
the earlier, but also the more frequent 
type throughout the 17th century, espe- 
cially in Italy. The cantata appeared 
shortly after 1600 as the third offspring of 
the *monodic style [see *Opera, *Orato- 
rio], replacing the 16th-century madrigal. 
In its early, experimental, stage (till 
1630) it occurred under different names 
and in a great variety of forms and styles. 
Certain pieces in Caccini’s Nuove musiche 
(1602) and in Peri’s V arie musiche 


(1609), written in the form of strophic 
arias with the same bass used for every 
stanza, but with different melodies for 
the voice [see ’"‘Strophic bass], may be 
considered as the point of departure. As 
a matter of fact, Alessandro Grandi’s 
“cantade” (Cantade et arie a voce sola, 
1620; first appearance of the name) fol- 
low the same scheme of the “strophic-bass 
cantata,” as do also the majority of can- 
tatas written before 1650 |cf. RiHM ii.2, 
20, 31; AdHM i, 437]. On the other 
hand, a piece such as Peri’s “Se tu parti” 
more clearly foreshadows the later can- 
tata, since its three stanzas (written to 
the same bass) contain contrasting sec- 
tions, arioso, and recitativo, separated by 
instrumental ritornellos, and thus antici- 
pate to some extent the composite struc- 
ture of the developed cantata. This struc- 
ture becomes more clearly evident in the 
cantatas of Francesco Rasi (Dialoghi rap- 
presentativi, 1620; cf. RiHM, 299), Gio. 
Pietro Berti (Cantate ed arie, 1624), G. F. 
Sances (Cantade, 4 vols., 1633-40), and 
Benedetto Ferrari (Musiche varie, 1637). 
The free composite cantata — in a way, 
the vocal counterpart of the contemporary 
*canzona da sonare — reached a peak in 
Luigi Rossi (1598-1653; cf. RiHM, 
37iff), Giacomo Carissimi (1605-74; 
RiHM, 383f), and Marc’Antonio Cesti 
(1623-69; cf. AdHM ii, 439). This form 
was taken over by the masters of the Nea- 
politan School (Provenzale, Stradella, Al. 
Scarlatti) who, however, standardized 
its structure into a form consisting of two 
arias of contrasting character, each intro- 
duced by a recitative. It is interesting to 
notice that an almost identical process of 
standardization took place simultane- 
ously in the instrumental field, leading 
from the canzona to the sonata da chiesa 
and da camera. Stradella wrote more 
than 190, Al. Scarlatti more than 600 can- 
tatas, mostly of the type described above, 
which was almost exclusively adopted in 
the 1 8th century as a convenient and con- 
ventionalized scheme for virtuoso display 
and sentimentality (Leonardo Leo, Leo- 
nardo Vinci, Niccolb Jommelli, Johann 
Hasse). 

II. In France the first cantatas were 


[ 114] 



CANTATA 


CANTATA 


written by Antoine Charpentier (1634- 
1704), a pupil of Carissimi. It was, how- 
ever, not until after his death that the 
Italian cantata became popular among 
French composers. A great number of 
cantatas, mostly to French texts, appeared 
between 1705 and 1730, written by Andre 
Campra (1660-1744), Nicolas Bernier 
(1664-1734), Michel Monteclair (1666- 
1737), Jean-Bapt. Morin (1677-1745), 
Nicolas Clerambault (1678-1749), J. J. 
Mouret (1682-1738), and Jean-Philippe 
Rameau (1683-1764). The latter’s can- 
tatas (complete ed., vol. iii) are all secular, 
mostly for one voice, and consist usually 
of three recitatives, each followed by an 
aria. Cf. LavE i.3, iS57^- 
III. The development of the cantata in 
Germany, although strongly influenced 
by the Italians, presents an entirely differ- 
ent picture, chiefly on account of the em- 
phasis on the church cantata (Kaspar 
Kittel’s Arien und Kantaten of 1638 are 
practically the only secular cantatas of the 
17th century; cf. RillM, 349). Schiitz’s 
Symphoniae sacrae (1629) contain sev- 
eral compositions which, although based 
on Latin texts, must be regarded as can- 
tatas, being similar in form and style to 
those of Grandi or Rossi. However, the 
cantatas of Tunder (1614-67), Weck- 
mann (1621-74; DdT 6), Rudolf Able 
(1625-73; DdT 5), Buxtehude (1637- 
1707; DdT 14), and J. S. Bach’s uncle 
Johann Christoph Bach (1642-1703) 
already show a distinctly German charac- 
ter, being more serious, more genuinely 
dramatic, and more elaborate musically 
than the contemporary Italian cantata, 
owing chiefly to the inclusion of orchestral 
and choral participation. A specially in- 
teresting type is the ^chorale cantata 
which was cultivated by Tunder, Johann 
Ph. Krieger {DdT 53/54), Kuhnau 
{DdT 58/59), and others, while Buxte- 
hude’s numerous cantatas are all based on 
free poetic texts and are, in a way, more 
“Italian” than those of the other German 
composers. The tendency from the cho- 
rale to free texts (and, as a consequence, 
from cantus-firmus pieces to entirely free 
composition) found a strong nourish- 
ment about 1700 when the pastor E, Neu- 


meister began publishing annual sets of 
cantata texts from his own pen, mostly 
poetic paraphrases of scriptural passages 
proper for the various feasts of the church 
year. Some of these sets were written ex- 
pressly for certain composers, e.g., for 
Krieger (Set i, 1704), for Philipp Erle- 
bach (Set ii, 1708), and Georg Philipp 
Telemann (Sets iii, iv, 1711, 1714). How- 
ever, many other musicians also were 
eager to seize upon these extremely timely 
and popular texts, above all J. S. Bach 
who, by the artistic greatness and religious 
dignity of his music, sanctioned Neu- 
meister’s “theatrical” poetry as well as the 
“operatic” form of the da-capo aria. 

Bach’s cantatas (195 are preserved out 
of a total number of probably close to 300) 
usually open with a chorus in fugal style 
which sometimes assumes great propor- 
tions, continue with a number of reci- 
tatives and arias, one for each of the two 
or three soloists, and close with a har- 
monized chorale. See ^Chorale cantata. 

After Bach, the cantata merged with the 
oratorio of which it represents the dimin- 
utive and more casual type. Most of these 
cantatas were written for special occa- 
sions, e.g., Haydn’s Birthday Cantata for 
Prince Nikolaus Eszterhazy (1763), or 
Mozart’s cantata Die Maurerfreude {The 
Joy of the Masons, 1785), or Beethoven’s 
Der glorreiche Augenblic\ (op. 136, 
1814). Numerous later composers (Schu- 
bert, Spohr, Weber, Schumann, Mendels- 
sohn, Liszt, Brahms, d'Indy, Saint-Saens, 
Bennett, Stanford, Parry, Sullivan, 
Vaughan Williams) have made contri- 
butions to the repertory, but none of last- 
ing importance. American composers of 
cantatas were John K. Paine and Dudley 
Buck {The Voyage of Columbus). 

Lit.: E. Schmitz, Geschichte der welt- 
lichen Solo){antate (1914); M. Lange, 
Die Anfdnge der Kantate (Diss. Leipzig 
1938); K. F. Rieber, EntwicJ{lung der 
geistlichen Solol(antate im 17. Jahrhun- 
dert (Diss. Freiburg 1925); W. S. Han- 
nam. Notes on the Church Cantatas of 
/. S. Bach (1928); W. G. Whittacker, 
Fugitive Notes on Church Cantatas and 
Motets of /. 5 . Bach (1923); E. J. Dent, 
“Italian Chamber Cantatas” {MA ii); 


[115] 



CANTE FLAMENCO 


CANTIGA 


H. Prunieres, “The Italian Cantata of 
the 17th Century’’ {ML vii, no. i); 

E. Schmitz, “Zur Geschichte des italien- 
ischen Kammerducts im 17. Jahrhun- 
derts” (JMP xxiii); E. B. Helm, in BAMS 
vi; H. Goldschmidt, in ZMW ii; H. Rie- 
mann, in SIM xiii; A. Heuss, in ZIM x; 

F. Treiber, in AMF ii. 

Musical publications: DdT 3 (Tun- 
der); DdT 6 (Bernhard, Weckmann); 
DdT 14 (Buxtehude); DdT 
(Zachow); DdT 51/52 (Graupner); 
DdT 53/54 (KriegerV, DdT 58/59 
(Kuhnau, Schelle); DTB 6.i (Niirnberg 
masters); cantatas by Buxtehude (ed. by 
W. Gurlitt), Georg Bohm (ed. by J. Wol- 
gast), Nikolaus Bruhns (ed. by F. Stein); 
H. Riemann, Kantatenfruhling^ 4 vols.; 
SchGMB, nos. 212, 213, 260, 284; HAM^ 
nos. 214, 227, 235, 258, 279. 

Cante flamenco, cante Hondo. See 
^'Flamenco. 

Canti carnascialeschi [It., carnival 
songs]. Early- 16th-century part songs in 
the styles of the *frottola, the *villanella, 
the *canzonetta, the *balletto, etc., de- 
signed for the elaborate carnival festivities 
which took place at the court of the Med- 
icis and of other Italian sovereigns. Hein- 
rich Isaac wrote a number of such songs 
during his stay at the court of Lorenzo 
de Medici, c. 1480. Unfortunately these 
are lost. Numerous anonymous examples 
exist in several Italian MSS of the i6th 
century. Example in HAM, no. 123. 

Lit.: F. Ghisi, 7 canti carnascialeschi 
(1937); id., “Carnival Songs” {MQ xxv); 
P. M. Masson, ^Chants de Carnaval flo- 
rentins (1913); ^Editions V, 43. 

Canticum [E. canticle; F. cantique\. 
In the Catholic liturgy, biblical songs 
similar to a psalm but occurring elsewhere 
in the Scriptures than in the Psalter of 
David. They are classified as: (a) cantica 
minora (lesser canticles), i.e., those which 
occur in the Old Testament, and (b) can- 
tica major a (major canticles. Gospel can- 
ticles), i.e., those from the New Testa- 
ment. To the former class belong: 
“Audite caeli quae loquor” (^canticum 
Moysis II) y “Cantemus Domino” {can- 


ticum Moysis 7 ), “Audite verbum” {can- 
ticum Jeremiae), “Benedicite omnia 
opera Domini” {canticum puerorum); to 
the latter: “Magnificat anima mea” {can- 
ticum Marine or canticum B.V.M.; see 
^Magnificat), “Benedictus Dominus 
Deus Israel” {canticum Zachariae), 
“Nunc dimittis” {canticum Simeonis). 
The chants of the latter class form the 
climax of Vespers, Lauds, and Compline 
respectively. Canticum canticorum is the 
Song of Solomon, selections from which 
have been frequently composed as motets 
(e.g., “Quam pulchra es,” by Dunstable; 
cf. SchGMB y no. 34), most completely by 
Palestrina (29 motets; cf. compl. ed. vol. 
iv). See ^Service; ^Byzantine chant 
{hanon). 

Cantiga. Spanish monophonic songs of 
the 13th century, mostly in honor of the 
Virgin Mary (C. de Santa Maria), which 
are preserved in great number (over 
400) in four MSS of the Bibl. Nazionale 
and the Bibl. Escoriale, in Madrid. They 
were collected for the king Alfonso el 
Sabio (“the Wise,” 1252-84) who was a 
great lover of poetry and music and who 
probably himself contributed a good part 
of the contents. The pictorial reproduc- 
tions of instruments and players con- 
tained in the MSS arc of the highest im- 
portance [cf. GD ii, 482; iii, 260; iv, 184]. 
The chief form of the cantigas is that of 
the *virelai. Regarding their textual as 
well as musical form the cantigas are very 
similar to the Italian *laudas of about the 
same period. However, the strict virelai 
form is more frequently used in the Span- 
ish pieces. Examples in HAM, no. 22; 
ReMMAy 274; OH ii, 297; BeMMR, 166. 

The cantigas have been the subject of 
studies by various scholars the first of 
whom, J. Ribera, made sensational claims 
as to the Arabic origin of the songs and 
gave transcriptions in what he believed 
to be “Arabic rhythms,” providing some 
of the songs with a 19th-century dance 
accompaniment. Actually, the cantigas 
are an outgrowth of the Provencal trouba- 
dour movement and must, therefore, be 
rendered, as these, in modal rhythm, less 
strictly applied, however, than in the case 
of the trouvere songs. 


[ ” 6 ] 



CANTILENA 


CANTUS FIRMUS 


Lit.. H. Angl&s, Las Cantigas (1927); 
G. Chase, History of Spanish Music 
(1942); ReMMA^ 245 (bibl. p. 450); P. 
Aubry, Iter Hispanicum (1908), 37!! 
(facsimiles). 

Cantilena, (i) A vocal melody of a lyri- 
cal rather than a dramatic or virtuoso 
character; also an instrumental passage of 
the same nature. — (2) In medieval writ- 
ings the term is loosely used to denote 
secular vocal compositions, homophonic 
as well as polyphonic (ballades, rondeaux, 
etc.) [cf. ReMMAy 294, 322]. Cantilena 
romana is the Roman (i.e., Gregorian) 
chant. 

Cantillation. Chanting in plainsong 
style, especially that of the Jewish service. 

Cantino {\x..,V,chanterelle’\, The high- 
est string of lutes, viols, etc. A 16th-cen- 
tury German term is Sangsaite. 

Cantio sacra. Latin name for the 
motet. Many collections of motets bear 
the title: Cantiones Sacrae (Tallis, Byrd, 
G. Gabrieli, Schiitz). An Italian syno- 
nym is Canzoni spirituah. 

Canto [It.]. Song; soprano; melody; 
subject. Canto fermo, *cantus firmus. 
Canto piano, plainsong. 

Cantor. In the Catholic service the lead- 
ers, two to six, of the chorus (the schola), 
who sing the solo portions of the chants 
(incipits and verses). In the Anglican 
service, see under *Polychoral style. In 
the Protestant church, the director of 
music (e.g., Bach in Leipzig). In the Jew- 
ish service, the solo singer, also called 
chazzan, 

Cantus [L.]. Medieval and Renaissance 
term for melody; especially for the upper 
part (soprano) of polyphonic composi- 
tions (abbreviated C). Also for entire 
vocal compositions, chiefly secular, as, 
e.g., in the three volumes of the *Odheca- 
ton which are designated: Canti A, 
Canti B, Canti C. Cantus figuratus (figu- 
ralis), cantus fractus, and cantus men- 
suratus all refer to the use of exactly meas- 
ured {mensuratus) note-values (figurae) 
of different lengths such as result from 

[ 


the breaking up (fractus) of a long note 
value into smaller parts. Hence, they des- 
ignate polyphonic music, as opposed to 
plainsong (cantus choralis, cantus planus) 
with its notes of (supposedly) equal 
duration. 

Cantus firmus [L., fixed melody]. A 
pre-existent melody which is made the 
basis of a polyphonic composition by the 
addition of contrapuntal voices. As re- 
gards their origin, the cantus (or canti) 
firmi usually belong to one of the four fol- 
lowing groups: (a) plainsong melodies; 
(b) Protestant chorales; (c) secular melo- 
dies; (d) abstract subjects. To group (a), 
which is by far the most numerous, be- 
long all the *organa and *clausulae, prac- 
tically all the motets of the 13th and 14th 
centuries, a number of masses of the 15th 
and i6th centuries [see *Mass B, II (b)] 
as well as the numerous organ verses 
(*verset), organ hymns, etc., of the i6th 
century (Schlick, Cabezon, Bedford, 
Titelouze). The latter pave the way to 
group (b) which includes the *organ 
chorales (^chorale preludes) of Buxte- 
hude, Pachelbel, Bach, Brahms, etc., as 
well as the chorale choruses in cantatas, 
passions (for instance, the first chorus of 
Bach’s St. Matthew Passion). Group (c) 



Ave maris Stella (i) by Cabezon; (2) by Dufay 


includes some motets of the 13th century, 
and numerous masses of the 15th century, 
e.g., Missa ^Phomme arme, Missa bassc 
danse. To the last group belong the vari- 
ous compositions based on the hexachord 
(e.g., Sweelinck, Fantasia super ut, re, mi, 

17] 




CANTUS LATERALIS 


CANZONA 


fa, sol, la) or those based on a ^soggetto 
cavato. 

The cantus firmus appears most fre- 
quently in the *tenor, usually in long 
notes (*Pfundnoten) which form a strong 
contrast to florid design of the other parts 
[Ex. i; Cabezon, Ave maris Stella]. In 
many cases, however, the c.f. was sub- 
jected to considerable ornamentation and 
melodic elaboration, a process by which 
the original melody became more or less 
completely disguised [cf. the analyses in 
DTOe i9.i; also BeMMR, 202]. Particu- 
larly complex examples of this type exist 
in certain masses in which the discant is 
a free elaboration of the c.f. [see *Dis- 
cant mass]. Less “scholarly” than these 
methods is the treatment encountered in 
hymns of Dunstable, Dufay, and Ockeg- 
hem in which the c.f. is used in the so- 
prano, skillfully changed from a plain- 
song into a graceful melody in triple 
meter, and supported by two or three 
lower parts [Ex. 2: Dufay, Ave maris 
Stella; cf. ^Editions V, 49]. Examples in 
HAM, nos. 28-32, 44, 65, 67, etc. See 
*In seculum; *L’homme arme; *Felix 
namque; ^Innomine. 

Lit.: P. Aubry, Recherche s sur les 
tenors fran^ais {latins) dans les motets du 
xiiie siecle (1907); id,, in TG xiii; F. H. 
Sawyer, “The Use . . . of Cantus Firmus 
by the Netherland Schools” {PM A 
Ixiii). 

Cantus lateralis [L., song written side 
by side]. Fifteenth- and 16th-century 
term for the large ^choir books in which 
the parts of a polyphonic composition 
were written “side by side” on the double 
page, in distinction from the *part books. 

Cantus planus [L.]. Plainsong, Gre- 
gorian chant. The term was not used 
until the 13th century, earlier names be- 
ing cantus choralis, cantilena Romana, 
etc. The word planus (even, level) is usu- 
ally explained as referring to the fact that, 
in this period, the original tradition of 
Gregorian rhythm was lost and the chant 
began to be interpreted in uniform values 
of rather long duration (a brevis each), 
an interpretation which was probably a 


concomitant of its adoption as a *cantus 
firmus for polyphonic compositions. 

Cantus prius factus [L., song made 
in advance]. Same as *cantus firmus. 

Cantus visibilis [L., visible song]. A 
misleading translation given by John 
Hothby (d. 1487) of the English term 
“sight,” which was used in the 14th cen- 
tury in connection with improvised “Eng- 
lish discant”; see Fauxbourdon (2). 

Canun. Sec *Kanun. 

Canzo, canso [Provencal for chanson]. 
A form of troubadour music and poetry, 
also referred to in modern writing as 
canzone, Kanzonc, chanson. It consisted 
of various stanzas of 6 to 7 lines each with 
music provided according to the follow- 
ing scheme: 

a a b 

This is the Provencal (troubadour) 
counterpart of the northern French 
(trouvere) * ballade and of the German 
(Minnesinger) Bar [see *Barform|. Ex- 
amples in HAM, nos. i8b, c; ReMMA, 
214!; BeMMA, 107; RiHM i.2, 251!. 

Canzona or canzone (pi. canzone or 
canzoni). (i) In Italian poetry of the 
13th through the 17th centuries, name for 
serious lyrical poems, usually in four or 
five stanzas of eight lines each. — (2) In 
1 8th- and 19th-century music, name for 
lyrical songs (e.g., the canzone “Voi che 
sapete” in Mozart's Figaro) or for instru- 
mental pieces of a similar character (e.g., 
the slow movement of Tchaikovsky's 
Symphony no. 4, designated “in modo di 
canzone”). — (3) See *canzo. 

(4) A designation of 16th-century 
Italian secular vocal music, including: 
(a) certain members of the early *frottola 
family, set to free poems (called “can- 
zoni”) of Petrarch and others, which 
were important predecessors of the early 
madrigal (Examples in Canzoni, Sonetti, 
Strambotti et Frottole, 1517, reprinted 
1941 by A. Einstein); (b) later popular 
forms of the villanella type [see *Villa- 
nella] also variously known as “Canzoni 

18] 



CANZONA 


CANZONA 


Villanesche” (Nola, 1541; Cimello, 1545) 
and “Canzoni alia Napolitana” (Ferretti, 
1573; Conversi, 1572). In the latter dec- 
ades of the century, the *canzonetta be- 
came popular (Horazio Vecchi, 1580 and 
later years; Hassler, 1590). C£. E, Helm, 
The Early Italian Madrigal (unpubl. diss. 
Harvard 1939); E. Hertzmann, Adrian 
Willaert in der weltlichen Vol{alfnusi\ 
seiner Zeit (1931). 

(5) An important instrumental form 
of the 1 6th and 17th centuries. It devel- 
oped from the Franco-Flemish chansons 
of Jannequin, Crecquillon, Clemens non 
Papa, and others [see ^Chanson (3)] 
which were reprinted in Italy in great 
numbers, under the name “Canzon fran- 
cese.” The immense popularity of these 
pieces led to numerous arrangements for 
lute (Francesco da Milano, 1536, 1546, 
etc., and others) and for keyboard (Marc’ 
Antonio da Bologna, 1523; Attaingnant, 
1530, 1531; A. Gabrieli, Canzoni alia 
jrancese per lorgano, 1571). Composers 
furthermore wrote, in the style and form 
of certain vocal chansons, original instru- 
mental pieces which were known as “Can- 
zoni alia francese” or “Canzoni da so- 
nare.” It is this procedure which became 
the point of departure of a long and inter- 
esting development which in the instru- 
mental field eventually led to the sonata 
of the 17th century [see *Sonata B, I], 
while in the field of keyboard music it 
paved the way for the *fugue. As early 
as the 1 6th century, canzones were desig- 
nated either for keyboard (primarily or- 
gan) or for instrumental ensemble. They 
were characterized, like their chanson 
models, by clarity and balance of form 
(typical schemes are A B A, A B B, A A 
B C, etc.) and by variety of texture (free 
alternation of imitative, dialogue, and 
homophonic styles with the former in 
predominance). In contrast to the con- 
temporary ricercar, they possessed a 



Canzona Theme 


lighter, less “learned” style and a more 
lively rhythm, moving in quarter- instead 


of half-notes and marked by the frequent 
appearance of repeated notes at the begin- 
ning of the subjects [see Ex.]. At first 
there were relatively few differences be- 
tween keyboard and ensemble canzonas 
(those of Claudio Merulo, for example, 
appear to have been performed by both 
media). During the 17th century, how- 
ever, the keyboard canzona became grad- 
ually more concentrated in its form, lead- 
ing to the fugue, while that for ensembles 
became more sectional and finally identi- 
fied itself with the sonata. 

I. Keyboard Canzona. The first steps 
in the development of independent can- 
zonas were taken by Girolamo Cavazzoni 
{Intavolatura cioh ricercari^ canzoni, . . . , 
1542) in pieces such as his “Canzone 
sopra Fait d’argent” which uses the the- 
matic material of Josquin’s famous chan- 
son “Fault d’argens,” but differs from this 
in the contrapuntal elaboration of the 
themes [cf. HAM, nos. 91 and 118]. 
While Andrea Gabrieli’s canzonas are 
mostly ornamented arrangements [see 
*Intabulierung] of vocal chansons, origi- 
nal organ canzonas were published by 
Merulo (1592, 1606, 1611), Pellegrini 
(1599), Mayone (1603, 1609), Cima 
(1606), Trabaci (1603, 1615), Cifra 
(1619), and others. These pieces are im- 
portant as forerunners of the fugue; in 
fact, the name Fuge was used in Germany 
as synonymous with canzona (B. Schmid, 
1607: “Fugen, ode: wie es die Italiener 
nennen, canzoni alia francese”; Mursch- 
hauser, 1707: “canzona sive fuga”). Fres- 
cobaldi (1615, 1628, 1635, and 1645) es- 
tablished the variation-canzona consisting 
of various fugal sections, each based on a 
free rhythmic variation of one and the 
same theme, and frequently interspersed 
with free transitional passages. His ex- 
ample was followed by Froberger, Kerll, 
Poglietti, and many other German com- 
posers, including Bach {B.-G, vol. 38, no. 
20). 

II. Canzonas for Instrumental Ensem- 
bles were first composed in the 1570’s [see 
♦Editions XIV, vol. 2, for description and 
reprints of these works]. . Flourishing 
chiefly in Lombardy and Venetia, such 
canzonas were published by Maschera 


[ 119] 



CANZONA 


CAPOTASTO 


(1584); G. Gabrieli (1597, 1615); Canale 
(1600); Mortaro (1600, 1610); Rognioni 
(1605); Soderino (1608); Banchieri 
(1596, 1603, etc.); and many others. They 
fall into three types. Some works, gen- 
erally in four parts and closely modeled 
on the chanson in style and form, were 
primarily contrapuntal in character (they 
always began with an imitative expo- 
sition) and had little stylistic contrast 
among their various sections. Canzonas 
of this rather conservative type continued 
to be written throughout the early 17th 
century. Another type, allied in principle 
to the ricercar, occasionally manifested 
tendencies toward thematic unity (Ca- 
nale) of the sort found in the variation 
canzonas for keyboard written by Fresco- 
baldi [cf. above]. A third type, repre- 
sented by the brilliant polychoric canzonas 
of Giovanni Gabrieli and his followers 
(1597, Raverii Collection 1608, 1615), 
was freer in structure, consisting of an 
alternation between sections in lively imi- 
tation and four-four time, and homophonic 
sections in triple time. Occasionally these 
sections were very short and fragmentary 
in character [see *Flick-kanzone] . 

The free, multi-sectional type of can- 
zona reached a climax in the ensemble 
works of Frescobaldi (four editions, 1623- 
34). These canzonas, marked in the later 
editions by systematic changes of tempo 
('‘allegro” for the imitative sections in 
canzona style, “adagio” for the homo- 
phonic sections in slower rhythms), may 
well be considered a turning-point lead- 
ing to the sonata da chiesa. Henceforth, 
the canzona identifies itself more and more 
with the sonata. Its individual sections, 
tending gradually to be reduced in num- 
ber, are also more highly developed, and 
stylistically more sharply contrasted to 
one another. At the same time, vestiges of 
the old canzona, such as the ABA struc- 
ture typical of the original chanson and 
the long introductory fugal section, re- 
main for a long time. These characteris- 
tics may be observed in certain canzonas 
of Marini (1626), Buonamente (1636), 
Merula (1615, 1637, 1639, and 1651), 
Neri (1644, 1651), and Cazzati (1642, 
1648, and later years). By c. 1650, the 


terms “canzone” and “sonata” have be- 
come synonymous and the former is in 
general replaced by the latter (Legrenzi, 
Vitali). At the same time, the older term 
continues to be used by some composers. 
Long associated by theorists and com- 
posers with the “Allegro” style and also 
with the fugal style of writing, the word 
“canzona” (or “canzone”) is sometimes 
found as the designation of the principal 
fugal movement of the sonata (Young, 
1653; Purcell, 1683, 1697; Baldacini 

[1699], 1720; see also Brossard, 1706). It 
also occasionally enters the operatic *over- 
ture (e.g., in S. Landi’s S, Alessio, 1634). 
See *Sonata B, I. 

Lit.: J. M. Knapp, The Canzone Tran- 
ce se and its Vocal Models (unpubl. mas- 
ter’s thesis, Columbia 1941); E. Crocker, 
An Introductory Study of the Italian Can- 
zona for Instrumental Ensembles (unpubl. 
diss., Radcliffe 1943); A. Schlossberg, Die 
italienische Sonate fiir mehrere Instru- 
mente im 77. fahrhundert (1935); RiHM 
ii.2, passim. Examples in HAM, nos. 88, 
118, 136, 175, 191, 194, 209, 210. E. C. 

Canzona francese. See ♦Canzona (5). 

Canzonet, canzonetta. Diminutive of 
♦canzona; denotes in the late i6th century 
short vocal pieces in a light vein, much 
in the character of a dance song [see *631- 
letto]. The term was used by Quagliati 
(1588), Vecchi (various publications be- 
tween 1580 and 1600), Monteverdi (1584), 
H. L. Hassler [cf. DTB 5], and several 
of the English madrigalists [see ♦Editions 
X, vols. 1, 3, 20, 26, 28]. 

Caoine [pronounced Keen]. An Irish 
dirge of ancient tradition. Cf. the article 
in GD. See also ♦Coronach. 

Capelle, Capellmeister [G.]. Old 
spelling for ♦Kapelle, Kapellmeister. 

Capotasto [It., master fret; perverted 
forms are: capod astro, capo taster, Kapo- 
daster, F. barre\. A mechanical contriv- 
ance used with guitars, lutes, etc., to 
shorten the vibrating length of all the 
strings simultaneously. It consists of a 
small piece made from hard wood or metal 
which can be fixed across the finger board. 


[ 120] 



CAPPELLA 


CARILLON 


By setting the capotasto across, e.g., the 
first fret, a piece in C-sharp can be played 
with the same fingering as if it were in C. 
See ’•‘'Barrer. 

Cappella [It.]. Chapel. See *A cap- 
pella. 

Capriccio. [It.; F. caprice\ from L. ca- 
pra, goat], (i) A term used by various 
19th-century composers, for instance Men- 
delssohn and Brahms, for short piano 
pieces of a humorous or capricious char- 
acter. They are usually in ternary form. 
It also appears as a title of ^potpourris or 
fantasias [cf. Saint-Saens, “Caprice sur 
les airs de ballet d’Alccste de Gluck”]. — 
(2) In the 17th century, capriccio is one 
of the four important prcfugal forms [see 
*Ricercare, *Canzona (5), ^Fantasia]. 
The capriccio, as the name suggests, is 
less restrained than the others and fre- 
quently involves certain peculiarities, such 
as the use of special themes. This is espe- 
cially true in the case of Frcscobaldi (Ca- 
priccio sopra il cucu; Capriccio sopra Jt 
re mi fa sol la; Capriccio sopra la Berga- 
masca). Froberger’s 18 capriccios are 
scarcely different from his canzonas, both 
being based upon the principle of Fresco- 
baldi’s variation-canzona |cf. AdHM i, 
543 ]. Earlier examples of fugal capriccios 
for instruments (I) or for kc) hoard (K) 
are found in the publications of Lodovico 
Balbi (1586; I), Francesco Stivori (1594; 
I), Giovanni Maria Trabaci (1603; K), 
Biagio Marini ( 1626; I), etc. Later pieces, 
such as )ohann Kaspar Kerll’s Capriccio 
sopra il Cucco (r. 1680) and Bach’s Ca- 
priccio sopra la lontananza scl suo jratcllo 
dilettissimo (r. 1705), arc of the nature of 
free fantasias, the latter being a piece of 
program music picturing “the departure 
of his beloved brother.” 

Carcelera [Sp.]. A type of *cante Hon- 
do y describing prison scenes. 

Caricature. See ^Satire in music. 

Carillon [F., from L. qtiadrilioy a set of 
four]. A set of bells (originally four) 
hung in a tower of a church and played 
by means of a keyboard or by a clockwork 
mechanism. As early as the 13th century 


sets of bells were operated mechanically. 
The use of a keyboard in connection with 
bells can be traced back to the early i6th 
century (Audenarde, 1510). Carillons be- 
came extremely popular and achieved 
high perfection in the Netherlands, Bel- 
gium, and Northern France from the 15th 
through the i8th centuries. In the 19th 
century they spread to England and, more 
recently, to America. A modern carillon 
consists of 30 to 50 bells with a clapper 
inside, tuned chromatically from C or G 
through three or four octaves. The clap- 
pers are connected by wires to long wood- 
en keys, arranged like those of a manual 
and a pedal of an organ. The manual 
keys are struck with the closed hand which 
is protected by a glove. The largest caril- 
lons are those at the University of Chicago 
Chapel and at the Riverside Church of 
New York. The Curtis Institute, Phila- 
delphia, offers instruction in carillon play- 
ing. Modern carillon players make ample 
use of tremolos, full chords, rapid pas- 
sages, and other effective devices. There 
is, however, in certain circles, a tendency 
towards a more reserved style of playing 
which is certainly worthy of support. 

Early composers of carillon music were 
Matthias van der (iheyn (1721-85), and 
Potthoff (b. 1726). Pieces by the former 
were published in 1 862 by X. van Elewyck 
(cd. Schott). Old organ pieces called 
“Carillon” are found in O. Chilcsotti, A/«- 
sica dd passato^ and in Louis Couperin, 
Oeuvres completes (ed. P. Brunold, 1936). 
Probably these were played by means of 
an organ glockenspiel such as is used also 
in Bach’s cantata “Schlage doch, gewiin- 
schte Stunde.” For a lute piece “Carillon 
d’Anvers” cf. DTOe xxvi.2, 64; also *Edi- 
tions III, 8. Recent composers of pieces 
for carillons are Josef Denijn (b. 1862) 
and J. A. F. Wagenaar. 

Lit.: J. Blavignac, La Cloche (1877); 
X, van Elcwijk, ^Anciens Clavecinistes 
llamafjdes (1877; contains two pieces by 
van der Gheyn); W. G. Rice, Carillon 
Music (1926); F. P. Price, The Carillon 
(1933); 1 ^'- Rizi^ardi, Les Carillons de 
Belgique (1938); G. W. Rice, in MQ i; 
J. St. Archer, in ML xviii, no. 2; W. W. 
Starmer, in PMA xxxi; /W., in ZIM vi; 



CARMAGNOLE 


CAROL 


E. Buhle, “Das Glockenspiel in den Mi- 
niaturen des friihen Mittelalters’* (Fest- 
schrift ftir Uliencroriy 1910). 

Carmagnole. A song of the French 
Revolution (1792), of unknown author- 
ship. It was sung to a rather vigorous 
dance of the same name. 

Carmen [L., pi. carmina\ song], (i) A 
14th- and 15th-century name, chiefly used 
by theorists, for the upper part (*cantus) 
of accompanied songs. — (2) Around 
1500, name for instrumental polyphonic 
pieces in imitative style, usually (always?) 
without cantus firmus. They are fore- 
runners of the *ricercare. Examples exist 
in the Glogauer Liederbuch [see *Lieder- 
buch], in Isaac (DTOe xiv.i), in Hof- 
haimer (H. J. Moser, 9/ gesammelte Ton- 
s'dtze Paul Hofhaimers, 1929), in Senfl, 
in Kotter’s tablature of 1513, etc. Cf. H. J. 
Moser and Piersig, '\Carmina (Nagel's 
Musi\‘Archiv), 

Carmen. Opera in four acts by Georges 
Bizet (1838-75), composed in 1875 (li- 
bretto by Meilhac and Halevy, after a 
story by Merimce). The central figure is 
the passionate gypsy Carmen (Soprano) 
who fascinates the sergeant Don Jose 
(Tenor), leads him to mutiny, lures him 
to join a band of smugglers, abandons him 
in favor of the toreador (bull fighter) 
Escamillo (Bass), and is finally stabbed 
to the heart by Don Jose in the moment 
when the victorious Escamillo emerges 
from the bull fight. 

To this concise and exciting plot Bizet 
has written a music which, although in a 
“popular” vein, rises to greater heights of 
artistic perfection than hundreds of more 
ambitious and more “serious” operas. Al- 
though the music has been attacked as 
being “pseudo-Spanish” (which, in a way, 
it is). Carmen stands before the musical 
world as the inimitable incorporation of 
what the Spanish call ^flamenco. It is in- 
teresting to note that the opera was far 
from being a success at its first perform- 
ances, and that its most fascinating piece, 
the Habanera, is not by Bizet [see *Ha- 
banera; alsp *Polo; *Seguidilla]. 

Carmina Burana. Sec *Goliard songs. 


Carnaval. A piano composition by Ro- 
bert Schumann (op. 9, 1834) consisting 
of 20 short pieces which describe various 
scenes and characters of a masked ball. 
The subtitle: “Scenes mignonnes sur qua- 
tre notes” (Tiny Scenes Based on Four 
Notes), refers to the use of the word Asch 
(a Bohemian town where a lady friend of 
Schumann’s lived) as a musical motive, 
the “translation” into notes being A-S- 
(i.e., Es, Gertnan for E-flat) C-H (Ger- 
man for B). These four notes, A-Eb-C-B, 
occur in the initial subjects of most of the 
pieces. Another interpretation of the same 
word is As-( German for A-flat) C-H (Ab- 
C-B) which is used in the pieces 10 to 18. 

Carnival of Venice. An Italian pop- 
ular melody of the 19th century which has 
been chosen by a number of composers 
(Paganini, SchulhofI, Herz, Benedict) as 
a theme for variations. It also occurs as the 
main theme (followed by variations) of 
Liszt’s Rhapsody no. 9, called “Carnival 
of Pesth.” 

Carnival songs. See ’^^Canti carnascia- 
leschi. 

Carol [F. noel\ G. Weihnachtslied^. A 
traditional song for the celebration of 
Christmas; occasionally the term is used 
also for other devotional songs of a joyful 
character (Easter carol; May carol). The 
name is evidently derived from the medi- 
eval French word *carole for a round 
dance, the assumption being that this term 
was associated in English with the early 
pagan dance-songs performed in celebra- 
tion of the winter solstice, a ritual which 
later merged with that of Christmas. The 
earliest preserved examples, in two or 
three parts, date from the first half of the 
15th century [SchGMB^ no. 32 a, b]. Nu- 
merous carols of the 1 6th- 1 8th centuries 
have been published in collections which 
also include French and German Christ- 
mas songs. See *Noel. 

Lit.: P. Dearmer, '^The Oxford Boo\ of 
Carols (1928); id,y The Story of the Carol 
(1911); E. B. Reed, Christmas Carols 
printed in the i 6 th century (1932); Ful- 
ler-Maidand, English Carols of the i^th 


[ 122] 



CAROLE 


CATCH 


Century (1891); H. J.Mass^, “Old Carols” 
(ML ii, no. i). 

Carole. Medieval French name for round 
dances, danced in a closed circle. The 
name is derived from L. chorea^ dance, 
which was transformed into choreola^ 
caroluy car ole [cf. the explanation: “cho- 
rea, gallice charole” given in the 13th- 
century Dictionarius Johannes de Gar- 
landtag cf. Collection des documents in- 
edits sur Vhistoire de France^ i. 603]. No 
specific music for such dances has sur- 
vived. Possibly the ’••‘virelai in its original 
monophonic form was sung in connec- 
tion with the carole. See *Dance Music 
II. Cf. T. Lacroix-Novaro, “La Carole” 
(RdM, no. 53). 

Carree [F.]. The double whole note, or 
breve. 

Carrure [F.]. The symmetrical con- 
struction of musical phrases in measures 
of 2, 4, 8, etc., as occurs particularly in 
dances. See *Vierhebigkeit. 

Cassa fit.]. Drum. See ^Percussion in- 
struments B 2, 3. 

Cassation [probably from It. cassarey to 
say farewell; or from new Latin gassatim^ 
street-like]. An instrumental form of the 
1 8th century, designed for outdoor per- 
formance, which includes elements of the 
symphony as well as of the suite; hence, 
practically identical with the ^divertF- 
mento and the ^serenade. Mozart wrote 
three cassations (K.V. nos. 62, 63, 99). 

Casse-Noisette. Original title of 
Tchaikovsky’s ballet The Nutcracl^er. See 
’•‘‘Nutcracker Suite. 

Castanets [F. castagnettes\ G. Kastag- 
netten ] . Clappers consisting of two pieces 
of hard wood in the shape of a shell, 
hinged together by a string which passes 
over the thumb and first finger of the 
player. They are used by Spanish dancers 
as an accompaniment for the bolero, fan- 
dango, etc., usually in pairs (one in each 
hand). Similar instruments were used in 
ancient Rome and appear on pictorial 
representations contained in medieval 
manuscripts [see under Cantigas], The 


castanets of the modern orchestra (c.g., in 
Bizet’s Carmen) are provided with con- 
trivances such as springs or handles which 
greatly facilitate the playing, but take 
away much from the fascination of true 
Castanet playing. 

Castrate. The castration of singing boys 
was frequently practiced in Italy from the 
1 6th through the i8th centuries, in order 
to preserve the boyish character of the 
voice. The singing apparatus of the cas- 
trato (also called evirato) combines the 
larynx of a youth with the chest and lungs 
of an adult. Hence, it combines an un- 
usually wide range with a sound of great 
power and of a special timbre which ex- 
ercised great fascination upon the hearers. 
Famous castrati were F. Senesino (1680- 
c, 1750), G. Caffarelli (1703-83), and 
Carlo Farinelli (properly Carlo Broschi, 
1705-82). 

Lit.: F. Habbck, Die Kastraten und 
ihre GesangsJ{unst (1927); id,^ Carlo 
Broschi (1923); G. Monaldi, Cantati 
evirati celebri (1921); id.y in RMl xxvi; 
F. Rogers, in MQ v; AdHM, 1221. 

Catalectic [Gr., incomplete]. In poetry, 
a line is called catalectic if a syllable is 
missing in the last foot, for instance, in 
iambic meter w'v->>'w"orw'w'w'v^ 
instead of : w ' w ' '. 

Catch. English ^rounds of the 17th and 
18th centuries. The first publication, the 
Pammelia (1609), was followed by a long 
series of collections, among which Hilton’s 
Catch That Catch Can (1652-58) is the 
most famous. Catches were most in vogue 
in the reign of Charles II, and it was 
mainly in this period that the catches 
acquired that peculiarity which has rele- 
gated them to the “poison chest” of mu- 
sical literature, namely, the indecent char- 
acter of their texts. Numerous catches of 
the Restoration, including some of Pur- 
cell’s, are so clearly obscene that their texts 
had to be altered or completely replaced 
in modern editions. A number of catches 
are so constructed that, owin^ to the pres- 
ence of lengthy rests in their melody, a 
*hocket-like effect of alternation is pro- 
duced by the voices singing in canon, as is 


[ 123 ] 



CATHEDRAL MUSIC 


CAUDA 


illustrated by our example (from Pam- 
melia). Occasionally this device was used 
to bring about a special meaning, indecent 
or comical, resulting from the interlacing 


—Aa ^ • 1 I 

1 




\A 


Ed 


^ My <litne lioa ^ hutd) S home A tttl 

La 



hey, bey. Vt^a 

dog 




arrangement of the words or phrases 
(catches ^ double entente^ cf. HAMy no. 
325). A complete list of the publications 
containing catches is given in GD. Mod- 
ern publications (with revised texts) are: 

E. F. Rimbault, The Rounds, Catches and 
Canons of England (1864); H. Purcell, 
Complete Worlds, vol. 22. 

Cathedral music. Music written for 
the choirs of the English cathedrals, con- 
sisting chiefly of *Services*and ^anthems. 
Important early collections are: J. Bar- 
nard, The First BooJ{ of Selected Church 
Music (1641; contents cf. GD i, 226); 
W. Boyce and J. Kent, Cathedral Music 
(3 vols., 1760-78; new ed. by Novello; 
contents cf. GD i, 441); Samuel Arnold, 
Cathedral Music (4 vols., 1790; reprinted 
by Rimbault in 1847; contents cf. GD i, 
1 17). The present-day cathedral choirs 
still draw on the repertory of these books 
which include among their authors prac- 
tically every English composer from Tye 
and Tallis to Samuel Arnold and his con- 
temporaries. However, numerous new 
compositions have been added by more 
recent composers, such as S. S. Wesley 
(1810-76), Th. A. Walmisley (1814-56), 

F. A. Ouseley (1825-89), John Stainer 
(1840-1901), Ch. V. Stanford (1852- 
1904), and many others. See also ^Service. 

Lit.: J. S. Bumpus, A History of Eng- 
lish Cathedral Music, i^ 4 g-i 88 g (2 vols., 
1908); E. H. Fellowes and C. H. Stewart, 
A Repertoire of Cathedral Music (1922). 

Catholic church music. See ^Church 
music; ^Gregorian chant; *Mass; *Psalm 
tones; *Psalmody. 


Catholica. A name given by Glareanus 
\Dode\achordon, 1552] to contrapuntal 
pieces which are so designed that they 
may be sung in various church modes. 
The most famous example is Ockeghem’s 
Missa cujusvis toni (Mass in Any Mode). 
Just which modes are admissible and 
which accidentals will have to be used in 
each single mode is a problem to which 
perhaps too much attention has been giv- 
en by numerous scholars. At any rate, it 
is most unfortunate that this piece should 
have been reprinted in practically all the 
books on music history, thus perpetuating 
the popular misconception regarding 
Ockeghem and early Flemish music. See 
^Flemish School. Cf. J. S. Levitan, in 
MQ xxiii; also RiHM i.2, 233. 

Cat’s fugue. Popular name of a piece 
in fugal style by Domenico Scarlatti, so 
called because the subject consists of some 
irregular wide steps in ascending motion 
such as might have been produced by a 
cat stepping over the keyboard. 

Cauda [L., tail], (i) In mensural nota- 
tion, the vertical dash attached to certain 
notes (maxima, longa, minima, etc.) or to 
ligatures. 

1=1 ^ i i fb 4, 

With ^ligatures, the presence or absence 
of the cauda determines the proprietas, 
i.e., the value of the initial note. In the 
early 14th century numerous note forms, 
called semibreves caudatae (or signatae), 
were derived from the semibrevis by up- 
ward and downward dashes, with or with- 
out flags, etc. They form the basis of the 
Italian notation of the 14th century [cf. 
ApNPM, 37ofI]. 

(2) In 13th-century composition, a vo- 
calizing cadenza at the end of a piece or a 
section thereof. Particularly *conductus 
were provided with such cadenzas (con- 
ductus habens caudam) and if so, were 
considered superior to the — probably 
earlier — conductus non habens caudam 
[Ex. in ApNPM, 239; HAM, nos. 38, 39]. 
Cadenzas in free rhythm are also frequent 
in the organa of the 13th century [cf. 
ApNPM, 240]. Short cadential passages 


[ 124] 




CAVALLERIA RUSTICANA 


CEMBALO 


in downward scalar motion were called 
^copula. 

Cavalleria Rusticana (“Rustic Chiv- 
alry”). Opera in one act by Pietro Mas- 
cagni (b. 1863), composed in 1890. The 
setting is a Sicilian village on Easter morn- 
ing. The young farmer Turiddu (Ten- 
or), lover of Santuzza (Soprano), is turn- 
ing to his former love Lola (Mezzo- 
Soprano), now married to Alfio (Bari- 
tone). A trifle (Turiddu’s entrance into 
the church at Lola’s side) suffices to con- 
stitute a “break of the honor code,” result- 
ing in a duel between Alfio and Turiddu 
in which the latter is killed. 

This opera, which was Mascagni’s only 
success, owes its appeal to the concise 
and dramatic plot as well as to the realistic 
musical approach. Widely welcomed as 
a relief from the numerous imitations of 
Wagner, it inaugurated the musical move- 
ment known as ^verismo; and was re- 
sponsible for a mushroom crop of one-act 
operas. 

Cavata [from L. cavare, to hollow out, 
to engrave]. An inscription or an epi- 
grammatic sentence in which an impor- 
tant thought is concisely expressed. In 
18th-century music the term is used occa- 
sionally for short epigrammatic ariosos to 
be found at the end of a lengthy recitative 
{recitativo con cavata). Many examples 
of this method occur in Bach’s choral 
works, e.g., in the recitativo no. 3 of his 
cantata “Ein feste Burg” [see * Arioso]. 
The cavatas in Traetta’s operas [qL DTB 
14.1] approach the ‘‘•‘cavatina. See also 
’•^Soggetto cavato. 


Figaro, while the “Se vuol ballare” from 
the same opera shows an unusually de- 
veloped type similar to an aria. Other 
examples occur in Rossini’s Barber of 
Seville (1816), in Weber’s Freischiitz 
(1821), in Gounod’s Faust (1859). The 
name has also been applied to instrumen- 
tal pieces of a song-like character [e.g., 
Beethoven, Quartet op. 130]. 

C.B. Abbreviation for col basso or for 
contrabasso. 

C.d. Abbreviation for [It.] colla destra, 
i.e., with the right hand. 

Cebell. Old English name for the ga- 
votte, used by H. Purcell and others. 

Cecilian movement. A 19th-century 
movement for the reform of the Roman 
Catholic church music, initiated by 
K. Proske, Ratisbon choirmaster (1794- 
1861), and named after St. Cecilia, the 
patron saint of music. The movement 
aimed at the reinstallment of Palestrina’s 
a cappella music instead of the pompous 
and rather worldly church music for choir 
and instruments that had come into use 
during the i8th century (e.g., Haydn’s 
and Mozart’s masses). It led, in 1867, to 
the foundation of the Allgemeiner Deut- 
scher Caecilienverein (F. X. Witte, 1834- 
88), which was sanctioned by the Holy 
See in 1870. The term Cecilianism is used 
to denote the puristic and generally rather 
reactionary tendencies of this society. 

Cefaut, ce fa ut. See *Hexachord III. 

Celere [It.]. Quick. 


Cavatina [It., dimin. of *cavata\. In 
1 8th- and 19th-century operas and ora- 
torios, a short solo song simpler in style 
than the aria and without repetition of 
words or phrases. The proper form for 
the cavatina would seem to be in one sec- 
tion without repetition (except for a short 
instrumental anticipation of the beginning 
of the song), in other words, just a “sen- 
tence” set to music [see *Cavata]. Exam- 
ples of this type are the two cavatinas in 
Haydn’s The Seasons as well as “Porgi 
amor” and “L’ho perduta” from Mozart’s 

[ 


Celesta. See *Percussion instruments 
A, 4. 

Cello. Contraction of ^violoncello. 

Cellone. See ^Violin family (i). 

Cembal d’amour. ^Clavecin d’amour. 

Cembalo [It., abbr. of clavicembalo]. 
The Italian and German name for the 
^harpsichord. According to C. Sachs 
(SaRM, 75) the word is not derived from 
Gr. \ymbalon (hollow vessel, bell; see 
^cymbal), but from tympanon (same root 

125] 



CENTITONE 

as tip, zip, G. zupjen^ to pluck). There- 
fore the name does not point to a simi- 
larity of the sound of the instrument to* 
that of bells, but to the plucking of the 
strings. 

Centitone. See under ^Intervals, Cal- 
culation of, V. 

Cento [L.], centone [It., a patchwork 
quilt J. The term and its derivatives “cen- 
tonization,’* “to centonize” are used with 
reference to literary and musical works 
formed by selections from other works. 
The liturgical book compiled by St. Greg- 
ory {c. 670) was as early as the 9th century 
called “antiphonarius cento,” on account 
of the theory (probably erroneous) that it 
was a combination of three earlier books 
written by Pope Gelasius [cf. P. Wagner, 
Einfuhrung in die Gregorianischen Me- 
lodien, i, 199-214; O. Ursprung, Katho- 
lische KirchenmusiJ{y 21 ]. In poetry, cento 
denotes a poem consisting only of refrains 
[see ^Refrain]. The term also applies to 
musical melodies pieced together from 
pre-existent fragments (a procedure not 
infrequent in Gregorian chant and in 
Oriental music) as well as to operas of the 
1 8th century put together by several com- 
posers. See ^Ballad opera and, in par- 
ticular, ^Pasticcio; also *Quod libet. 

Central America. Lit.: J. Castillo, 
“Autochthonic Music” [of Guatemala] 
{Bull, of the Fan American Union, vol. 62, 
no, 4); F. Densmore, Music of the Tule 
Indians of Panama (1926); N. Garay, 
T radiciones y Cantares de Panama (Brus- 
sels, 1930); R. Gonzalez Sol, Datos histo- 
ricos sobre el arte de la music a en FA Salva- 
dor (San Salvador, 1940); N. Slonimsky, 
“Viewing a Terra Incognita of Music” 
{Musical America, 1941). See also gen- 
eral bibliography under Latin American 
music. G. C. 

Cents. The unit of a scientific and exact 
method of measuring musical intervals 
which was introduced by A. J. Ellis (1814- 
90) and which has been widely adopted 
in acoustics as well as in ^comparative 
musicology. The cent is one one-hun- 
dredth of the semitone of the well-tern- 


CHACONNE AND PASSACAGLIA 

pered scale; thus, the semitone equals 100 
cents, and the octave contains 1200 cents. 
The various tones of the chromatic scale 
are represented by the multiples of 100, 
as follows: 

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 
c c# d d# e f f# 

700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 
g g# a a# b c 
This scale can be conveniently used for 
diagrams showing the exact position of 
other intervals, e.g., those of the Pythag- 
orean scale, of just intonation, of exotic 
scales, etc. [see ^Javanese music]. For 
readers familiar with the elements of 
arithmetic it may be remarked that cents 
are a logarithmic measurement; see *In- 
tervals. Calculation of, IV. 

Cephalicus. See *Neumes. 

Cercar la nota [It., to seek the note] 
indicates in vocal technique a slight 
anticipation of the following note, e.g., 
d-(c)-c. It may also occur in the form of 
a passing note, e.g., e-(d)-c. 

Ces, ceses [G.]. See *Pitch names. 

Cesolfa(ut), ce sol fa (ut). See 
*Hexachord III. 

Cetera, cetra [It.], (i) ^Zither. — 
(2) Cittern [see ^Guitar family]. 

C.f. Abbreviation for *cantus firmus. 

Chace [F.]. See under *Caccia. 

Chaconne and passacaglia. Two 
closely related forms of Baroque music, 
each in the character of a continuous vari- 
ation [see * Variation IJ in moderately 
slow triple meter. An additional feature 
is a slow ^harmonic rhythm, changing 
generally with the measure. The terms 
are interesting not only on account of the 
many futile attempts that have been made 
to explain their derivation and original 
meaning, but also on account of the at- 
tempts, equally numerous and futile, to 
make a clear distinction between them. 
As is shown subsequently. Baroque com- 
posers used the terms indiscriminately. 
This does not necessarily mean that they 


[126] 



CHACONNE AND PASSACAGLIA 


CHACONNE AND PASSACAGLIA 

could not be put to better use in mod- defined above) belong the “Passacaglia” 
ern terminology. Unfortunately, modern of Bach (for organ) and that of Louis Cou- 
writers have been entirely unsuccessful in perin (for harpsichord) as well as “cha- 
this matter, and the music histories as well connes” of Buxtehude, J. K. Kerll [ TaAM 
as reference books are full of contradictory vii, 104] (both for organ), and Pachelbel 
and frequently arbitrary statements as to (for harpsichord; TaAM ix, 59). To the 
the distinction between a chaconne and a same class belong numerous vocal com- 
passacaglia. The only distinction which positions contained in 17th-century operas 
can and should be made is that between and cantatas, e.g., Monteverdi’s famous 
continuous variations with or without a duet Pur ti tniro \SchGMB, no. 178; see 
basso ostinato (Aground). In order to also *Aria III]. To the class of chaconne 
conform with the titles of the two most belong Frescobaldi’s “Cento partite sopra 

famous examples, those composed by il passacaglio” [TaAM v, ii] and Georg 

Bach, the former type will have to be called Muffat’s “Passacaglia” [ cf . HAM, no. 240 ] 
passacaglia, the latter chaconne. A pas- as well as Bach’s “Chaconne.” The in- 

sacaglia, then, is a continuous variation terpretation, frequently given, of Bach’s 

based on a clearly distinguishable ostinato chaconne as an ostinato composition is 

which normally appears in the bass erroneous. Although, with a reiterated 

(ground) but which may also be trans- scheme of harmonies, it is always possible 

ferred occasionally to an upper voice, as is to reconstruct to some extent a ground 

the case in Bach’s passacaglia. A chaconne bass from the bass notes of these harmo- 

is a continuous variation in which the nies [cf. RiML, 295], such a procedure 

“theme” is only a succession of chords leads, in the case of Bach’s chaconne, to a 

which serves as a harmonic basis for each decidedly poor melody, such as Bach 

variation. The difference between these would never have chosen as a point of 

two types may be illustrated by the accom- departure. Well-known 19th-century ex- 

panying examples, the first two of which amples of chaconne are Beethoven’s C 

minor Variations (1807), and the closing 
movement of Brahms’s Symphony no. 4. 
More recent examples occur in F. Busoni’s 
Toccata: Preludio, Fantasia, Ciaccona 
(1921) and in E. Krenek’s Toccata und 
Chaconne, op. 13. 

Finally it should be noticed that French 
Baroque composers usually applied the 
terms chaconne and passecaille to pieces 
in an entirely different form, i.e., that of 
the rondeau with reiterated refrain and 
several couplets [see ^Rondeau (2)]. Ex- 
amples are a Chaconne by Chambonnieres 
[HAM, no. 212], a Chaconne-rondeau by 
[Ex. I, 2] show a very frequent ground, d’Anglebcrt [TaAM vii, 135; HAM, no. 
the descending tetrachord in its diatonic 232], and a Passecaille by Fr. Couperin 
form and in its chromatic modification, [Pieces de clavecin iij. 
while Ex. 3 shows the use of a (related) There is reason to believe that the cha- 
scheme of harmonies, without ground, conne originally was a wild and sensual 
For a 16th-century adumbration of passa- Mexican dance which was imported into 
caglia, see under ^Ostinato (Dump and Spain during the i6th century. In 1599 
Hornepype). we read about “an invitation to go to 

As has been mentioned previously, no Tampico in Mexico and there dance the 
clear distinction between passacaglia and chacona.” Queveda calls it the “chacona 
chaconne exists in the praxis of Baroque mulata,” and Cervantes the “Indiana 
composers. To the class of passacaglia (as amulatada” [cf. C. Sachs, A World His- 

[ 127] 




CHALEUREUX 


CHAMBER MUSIC 


tory of the Dance ( 1941 ) ] . Once imported 
into Europe it lost its unbridled character 
entirely, as did also the *sarabande and, 
300 years later, the ’•^tango. The passa- 
caglia (possibly from Sp. *pasacalley street 
song) also was originally a dance. 

Chaleureux [F.]. With warmth. 

Chalumeau [F., from L. calamellus, 
pipe], (i) Seventeenth-century name for 
(a) an early oboe (shawm), (b) an early 
clarinet. The chalumeau in Gluck’s Or- 
pheus is probably a real clarinet (with 
keys). — (2) The lowest register of the 
modern clarinet. 

Chamber music. I. General. Instru- 
mental ensemble music performed by one 
player to the part, as opposed to orchestral 
music in which there are several players 
to the part. According to the number of 
players (or parts), chamber music is clas- 
sified as follows: *trio (three players), 
•quartet (four), •quintet (five), •sextet 
(six), *septet (seven), •octet (eight). 
String trios (quartets, etc.) are for stringed 
instruments only [see *String quartet]; 
if one of the strings is replaced by another 
instrument, names such as pianoforte trio 
(pianoforte and two strings) or horn 
quintet (horn and four strings) are used. 
The violin (violoncello) sonata, for violin 
(violoncello) and pianoforte, is sometimes 
not considered as chamber music, on ac- 
count of the markedly solistic character of 
the parts. In true chamber music, em- 
phasis lies on the ensemble, not on the 
single player. 

The present-day repertoire of chamber 
music begins with the late string-quartets 
(written after 1780) of Haydn and Mo- 
zart. In these works the basic principles 
of form and style were established to 
which practically all composers of cham- 
ber music have adhered: the form is that 
of the •sonata in four movements; the 
style is characterized by individual treat- 
ment of the parts and exclusion of virtu- 
oso-like elements. Naturally, there exist 
examples in which these principles are not 
observed, a notable exception being Bee- 
thoven’s string quartet in C-sharp minor, 
op. 13 1 with its extremely free form. Yet 


the fact remains that in chamber music 
composers have shown a greater respect 
for tradition than in other fields, the ob- 
vious reason being that the relatively lim- 
ited and fixed resources of, e.g., a string 
quartet prohibited the introduction of 
novel features comparable to those of con- 
temporary orchestral or piano music. 

The chamber music works (chiefly 
string quartets) of Haydn, Mozart, Bee- 
thoven (opus numbers below 100), and 
Schubert represent the classical period of 
chamber music. In his late quartets (op. 
127, 130-133, 135, written between 1824 
and 1827) Beethoven has created an en- 
tirely singular type of chamber music, a 
type which is too personal to be called 
classic, and yet too transcendental to be 
considered as Romantic. The Romantic 
period of chamber music embraces Schu- 
mann, Brahms, Dvorak, and Franck (to 
name only the most important compos- 
ers), with Brahms ranking first among 
them. While Debussy, Ravel, and others 
(e.g., Schonberg, String Sextet Verklarte 
Nacht, op. 4) tried to exploit the impres- 
sionistic and coloristic resources of cham- 
ber music, there has been more recently a 
return to a purer and more appropriate 
style, as the result of the contemporary 
revival of the contrapuntal approach to 
musical composition, and of the adoption 
of a more objective and sober type of ex- 
pression than prevailed in the late Ro- 
mantic and in the Impressionistic schools 
[see •Neo-classicism]. For more details, 
see the entries for the different species of 
chamber music, particularly •string quar- 
tet. 

II. History. Chamber music, in the 
widest sense of the word, already existed 
in the late Middle Ages. Instrumental en- 
semble pieces such as occur in the Glo- 
gauer Liederbuch {c. 1470; see •Lieder- 
buch) or the •carmina of Obrecht, Isaac, 
Hofhaimer bear all the characteristic 
marks of true chamber music. So do the 
16th-century ensemble ricercares [see 
•Ricercar I (a)] by Adrian Willaert, 
Buus, Padovano, as well as the instru- 
mental canzonas [see •Canzona (5), I] 
from the end of this century. (Regarding 
the claim that a canzona by Allegri was 


[128] 



CHAMBER OPERA 

the “first string quartet,” see under 
^String quartet II.) Naturally, all these 
pieces were not written for, nor restricted 
to, specific instruments, but were per- 
formed on whatever instruments were 
available, viols, recorders, cornettos, or 
mixed ensembles. The chief type of Ba- 
roque chamber music is the *trio sonata 
in its two varieties, the sonata da chiesa 
and the sonata da camera. It developed in 
Italy and spread, around 1675, to France, 
Germany, and England where it replaced 
the earlier *fancy. Around 1750 there 
emerged a new type of chamber music, 
the string quartet, with its associates, the 
string quintet (Boccherini), and the string 
trio (Haydn); see ^String quartet II. 

An extended list of chamber music as- 
sociations is found in Pierre Key’s Music 
Year Bool^. 

Lit.: W. W. Cobbett, Cyclopedic Sur- 
vey of Chamber Music (2 vols., 1929); id., 
in PM A xxxviii; T. F. Dunhill, Chamber 
Music (1913); N. Kilburn, Chamber Mu- 
sic (1932) ; G. Stratton and A. Frank, T he 
Playing of Chamber Music (1935); H. S. 
Drinker, The Chamber Music of Brahms 
(1932); W. Altmann, Kammermusih^- 
Literaturverzeichnis seit 1841 (2d ed. 
1931); N. Ruet, Musique de chambre 
(1930); LavE ii.5, 3144 (repertoire and 
bibliography); S. Laciar, “The Chamber 
Music of Schubert” (MO xiv); H. Mers- 
mann, “Beitriige zur Aufiiihrungspraxis 
der vorklassischen Kammermusik in 
Deutschland” {AMW ii); L. de la Lau- 
rencie, “Les Debuts de la musique de 
chambre en France” {RdM, nos. 49-52). 

Chamber opera. An opera of small di- 
mensions, of an intimate character, and 
for small orchestra (chamber orchestra). 
The reaction against the great Wagnerian 
opera led to works such as R. Strauss’s 
Ariadne auf Naxos (second version, 
1924), Hindemith’s Cardillac (1926), 
C. Douglas Moore’s White Wings (1935). 

Chamber orchestra. A small orchestra 
of about 25 players. Prior to 1800 orches- 
tras usually were of this size, and recent 
composers have again written for such 
groups (chamber symphony). 


CHANSON 

Chamber pitch fG. Kammerton^. See 
^Pitch. 

Change ringing. The ringing of a set 
(peal) of church bells by individual men 
and in a methodical order, the turn of the 
men being prescribed not by a musical 
melody, but by certain schemes of arith- 
metic permutation. For instance, a set of 
five bells: i, 2, 3, 4, 5 may be played in the 
order: 45231 or 3514 2, etc. In actual 
performance, usually a limited selection of 
such permutations is played in succession, 
the main principle being the exchange of 
two numbers. For instance, in a peal of 
five bells, the first “change” would be 
12345, the second: 21345, third: 
23145, etc. Certain standard selections 
are known under traditional names such 
as “Grandsire Triple,” “Treble Bob,” etc. 
The history of change ringing goes back 
to the 1 6th century. An important land- 
mark was the publication of Tintinnalogia 
by F. Stedman (1688). Change ringing 
is still widely practiced in England. In 
fact, it is a typically English sport in which 
healthy exercise is combined with a small 
but gratifying amount of mental effort. 

Lit.: E. Morris, The History and Art of 
Change Ringing (1931); J. Stainer, in 
PM A xlvi [cf. the article in GD i, 602]. 

Changing note. See *Nonharmonic 
tones III. 

Chanson [F.]. (i) The French term 
for song, hence, the counterpart of the 
German *lied. However, while in the 
German lied emphasis lies on the artistic 
production, the chanson is usually of a 
more popular nature. Throughout the Iasi 
two centuries there has been an enormous 
output of popular chansons, short strophic 
songs mostly of an amorous character, 
which are frequently written, set to music, 
sung on the streets, and sold by one and 
the same man. It was not until the end of 
the 19th century that the chanson was 
cultivated as an artistic form [see *Song 
III]. 

The virtual non-existence of French 
art-songs in the i8th and 19th centuries 
is in striking contrast to the picture pre- 


[ 129 ] 



CHANSON 


CHANSON 


sented in earlier periods. In fact, the early 
history of the chanson (i.c., of songs with 
French text) is more ancient, fertile, and 
musically important than that of any other 
nation’s song literature. The earliest pre- 
served example, a Provcngal song “Hora 
VOS die vera raizun” [cf. P. Aubry, Les 
plus ancients monuments de la musique 
Fran^aise (1905), pi. I], dates from the 
nth century. The nth and 13th centuries 
are the era of the ^troubadours and *trou- 
veres whose melodies, usually cast in one 
of the formes fixes (^ballade, ♦rondeau, 
♦virelai), constitute an unparalleled treas- 
ure of early secular song. The 14th cen- 
tury sees the rise of accompanied songs, in 
the same forms, under G. de Machaut and 
his successors [see ♦Ars nova]. As an 
antithesis to the rhythmic and contra- 
puntal complexity of the late 14th century 
there developed, in the ♦Burgundian 
School of the 15th century (Dufay, Bin- 
chois, also Ockeghem, Obrecht), a new 
style of unsurpassed charm and beauty, 
perhaps the artistic high-point in the en- 
tire history of the French song. [For mod- 
ern editions of 15th-century chansons see 
under ♦Burgundian School and ♦Chan- 
sonnier (2).] A limited number of popu- 
lar melodies of the 15th century, especially 
the famous ^Uhomme arme^ survive in 
masses and motets for which they served 
as a cantus firmus. Around 1500 we have 
the beginning of another important era, 
that of the so-called polyphonic chanson, 
characterized by the abandoning of the 
formes fixes in favor of free composition, 
and by the adoption of the imitative coun- 
terpoint as the basic principle of style 
(Isaac, Josquin, Jannequin). It is this 
type to which the name chanson or French 
chanson usually refers in historical writ- 
ings [see below under (3)]. With the 
early 17th century and the rise of the mo- 
nodic style, the polyphonic chanson disap- 
peared and, strangely enough, the creative 
activity in the field of art-song ceased 
abruptly. The interest turned to ♦vauxde- 
villes, ♦pastourelles, *bergercttes, and 
♦brunettes, i.e., to the more popular types 
which dominated throughout the i8th and 
19th centuries [see also ♦Air dc court]. 
Extensive collections of such chansons 


were published by Ballard, e.g.. Airs sen- 
eux et h boire (16 vols., 1627-54). 

(2) In trouvere music, chanson is the 
equivalent of the Provencal (troubadour) 
*vers (not of the *canzo)y i.e., a through- 
composed song, in contradistinction to 
the repetition- and refrain-types (formes 
fixes) : ballade, virelais, rondeau. 

(3) The chanson of the i6th century, 
frequently called polyphonic or French 
chanson, is written in the imitative style 
of the contemporary motet, but with such 
modifications as were required by the 
different nature of purpose and text, i.e., 
quicker and more pungent rhythm, a 
leaning towards homophonic texture, 
sectional construction in relatively short 
phrases ending simultaneously in all the 
parts, and frequently repetition of a sec- 
tion for another line of the poem. A char- 
acteristic feature of the chanson (as well 
as of its derivative, the instrumental ♦can- 
zona) is the use of repeated notes in the 
initial subject, as is illustrated in the 
accompanying example (Jacotin, Je suis 
d 6 sheritee\ cf. SchGMB, no. 117). 


1 B ' 

ir m-ibbbm^hhbbi 

II 

mm 

m m^wmmmwmmmm 
ir mmTmmmmmmmmm 


■■■BUMBt-'-B 

herLte- 

I , 

s* 

r mmr m 

IHESEBSS 

PHRE! 

**955BSS55 

J — J- 

~ e, 



suisdesheii - 

-te-c, 

j — 

puis 

rlf. 


The earlier polyphonic chansons (Oc- 
keghem, Obrecht, Isaac, Josquin, La Rue) 
show an elaboration of style and dignity 
of expression which are still in the best 
Flemish tradition [cf., e.g., Ockeghem s 
“Ma bouce rit” in HAM, no. 75, or the 
chansons of Josquin; see ♦Editions V, no. 
3; see also ♦Odhecaton]. With Clement 
Jannequin (d. c, 1560 ?), Claude dc Ser- 
misy (c, 1490-1562), Pierro Certon (d. 
1^72)9 and numerous followers, the chan- 
son changed its character from the Flem- 
ish into the typically French, from re- 
served intimacy into nimble elegance and 
frivolity. Jannequin’s chansons are re- 


[ 130] 


CHANSON DE GESTE 


CHANT 


markable for their frequent use of *ter- 
nary form: A B A. A type of some special 
interest, though of very mediocre artistic 
value, is the program chanson of Janne- 
quin [see ’’^Program music]. The popu- 
larity of the new chanson found its proper 
expression in a vast number of contempo- 
rary publications as well as in the many 
hundreds of ’*^Intabulierungen of French 
chansons which fill the German and 
Italian lute tablatures and keyboard books 
of the 1 6th century. Pierre Attaingnant 
alone printed 35 books of chansons be- 
tween 1535 and 1549 [cf. RiML, 298]; 
simultaneously Jacques Moderne pub- 
lished the ten books of his Parangon des 
chansons (1538-43). See also ^Sonata 
B, I. 

Lit.: LaMWC, 215; AdHM^ 373; L. 
Laloy, “La Chanson frangaise au xvie 
siecle” (RMC i), J. Tiersot, “Ronsard et 
la musique de son temps” (SIM iv), D. v. 
Bartha, “Probleme der Chansongeschichte 
im 16. Jahrhundert” (ZMW xiii). For 
publications of music see ^Editions XVI 
and XIX; M. Cauchie, '\Quinze chansons 
jran^ais du XV le si^cle (1931); L. de la 
Laurencie, '\Chansons au luth et airs de 
cour du xvie siecle (1931). Examples in 
HAM, nos. 91 (118), 107, 145; SchGMB, 
nos. 116-118. 

Chanson de geste [F., song of deeds]. 
The French epic poems of the Middle 
Ages, such as the Roman de Roland (nth 
century). They were of great extension 
(over 10,000 lines of nearly equal meter), 
and fell in sections of various lengths ( 20 
or 50 lines) called laissc, each of which 
contained one continuous “thought” of 
the poem. They were probably sung to a 
short melodic formula which was re- 
peated for every line of a laisse, with the 
exception of the last, for which a new 
melody with a more definite close was 

chosen (a a a a b). Only one such 

melody survives, in a late quotation in- 
serted in Adam de la Halle’s play Le Jeu 
de Robin et Marion [cf. ReMMA, 204]. 
See *Rotrouenge; *Chanson de toile. 

Lit.: F. Gennrich, Der musihalische 
Vortrag der altjranzosischen Chansons 
de geste (1923); Raoul de Cambrai, 


Chansons de geste du Xlle siecle (1932); 
GeHMy 25811. 

Chanson de toile [F., spinning song]. 
The “female counterpart” of the ’^‘‘chanson 
de geste. The chief character is always a 
woman, an ill-mated wife or a love-sick 
girl. The musical recitation was prob- 
ably similar to that of the chanson de 
geste. 

Chanson mass. See *Mass B, II (b). 

Chanson mesuree. See *Vers mesure. 

Chansonnier. (i) Medieval (13th- 
century) manuscripts containing the 
songs of the troubadours and trouveres. 
Most of these have been published in fac- 
simile editions, some of them with tran- 
scriptions [see ^Trouveres; AdHMy 192; 
RcMMAy 448]. — (2) Fifteenth-century 
manuscripts containing polyphonic chan- 
sons, e.g., the Chansonnier cordiforme 
(the pages have the form of a heart), or 
the Copenhagen chansonnier (publ, by 
K. Jeppesen, 1927). 

Lit.: G. Raynaud, Bibliographic des 
chansonniers jranqais du xiiie au xive 
siecle (1884); K. Jeppesen, '\Der Kopen- 
hagener Chansonnier (1927); E. Droz, 
'\Trois Chansonniers franqais du xve 
siecle (1927); G. Thibault, “Le Chan- 
sonnier . . . de Copenhague” (RdM 
1927); M. F. Bukofzer, “An Unknown 
Chansonnier of the 15th Century” (MQ 
xxviii). 

Chant. General denomination for litur- 
gical music in the character of plainsong, 
i.e., monophonic, unaccompanied, and in 
free rhythm. Music of this type exists in 
many Oriental and exotic cultures. In 
particular, the term applies to the liturgi- 
cal melodies of the Christian Churches, 
e.g., ^Byzantine chant, Russian chant, 
and the four branches of Western chant, 
namely, * Ambrosian (Milanese), ♦Gal- 
ilean, *Mozarabic, and Roman chant, the 
last being usually known as ♦Gregorian 
chant or ♦plainsong. More specifically, 
the term refers to the traditional method 
of singing the psalms [see ♦Chanting]. 
In the ♦Anglican chant the monophonic 


[ 131 1 



CHANTANT 


CHARACTER PIECE 


recitations of the Gregorian psalmody are 
replaced by settings in four-part harmony. 

Chantant [F.]. In a singing style. 

Chanter. See *Bagpipe. 

Chanterelle [F.]. See *Cantino. 

Chantey. See *Shanty. 

Chanting. The ecclesiastical singing of 
the psalms and canticles in the daily offices 
of the Roman Catholic and, in particular, 
of the Anglican Church. It is character- 
ized by the use of a melody, called psalm 
tone, which is repeated with every verse 
of the psalm but which can be adapted to 
the different lengths of the verses by the 
iteration of the same tone, the recitation 
tone. The psalm tones of the Latin, Gre- 
gorian, rite are monophonic and in free 
rhythm. The “Anglican” chants are har- 
monized and in strict meter. The Angli- 
can Church, however, makes frequent use 
of the Gregorian chant also. See *Psalm 
tones; ^Anglican chant. 

Chanty. See *Shanty. 

Chapel [F. chapclle\ G. Kapelle\ It. 
cappella]. The term, which is derived 
from It. cappella, i.e., cape or cloak, orig- 
inally denoted a building in which re- 
vered cloaks or other relics of saints were 
housed. It was later extended to denote 
private churches of sovereigns, popes, 
bishops, as well as the entire staff attached 
to these churches and, in particular, the 
musicians and singers employed there. 
The connotation of “private body of mu- 
sicians” survives in the Chapel Royal of 
the English kings, an institution which 
played a valuable part in the development 
and cultivation of the English music [cf. 
GD i, 606; W. H. Gratton Flood, in ML 
v]. See also *Kapelle. 

Characteristic note. Leading note. 

Character piece [G. Characterstucl^]. 
A term rarely used, yet much to be recom- 
mended, to cover an important branch of 
19th-century music (chiefly for the piano- 
forte) which includes a large repertoire 
of short pieces published under many dif- 
ferent fancy names, such as Bagatelle, 


Impromptu, Moment musical, Capriccio, 
Fantasia, etc., aside from special titles of 
a more or less programmatic nature, such 
as: Albumblatt, Der Dichter spricht 
(Schumann), Jeux d’eau (Ravel), The 
Maiden’s Prayer, etc. The last title has 
been deliberately included here in order 
to hint at the vast production of third- 
class literature which, of course, deserves 
no further mention here. However, all 
the great composers of the 19th century 
have made contributions in this field, first 
of all Beethoven, who opens the repertoire 
with his Bagatelles. Schubert followed 
with his Impromptus and Moments mu- 
sicaux (musical moments), Mendelssohn 
with his Songs Without Words and Kin- 
derstiicke (Children’s Pieces), Chopin 
with his Nocturnes, Preludes, Ltudes, Im- 
promptus, etc. While these composers usu- 
ally included a number of pieces under 
one collective title, R. Schumann went a 
good deal further toward individualiza- 
tion and programmatic thought by choos- 
ing separate names for each piece, for in- 
stance, in his Kinderszenen op. 15 or in 
his Fantasiestiicke op. 12. New collective 
names introduced by him are: Noveletten, 
Nachtstiicke (Night Pieces), Bunte Blat- 
ter (Colored Leaves), Albumbliitter (Al- 
bum Leaves). Brahms followed with Bal- 
laden, Rhapsodien, Capriccios, Inter- 
mezzi. Briefly, the character piece is the 
favored and characteristic form of Ro- 
mantic piano music, where it serves as 
the vehicle of expression for every con- 
ceivable mood, thought, vision, or emo- 
tion. 

Naturally, no general statements can 
be made with regard to so diversified and 
so markedly personal a repertory. How- 
ever, the great majority of these pieces 
are written in the ternary form A B A, a 
form which proved especially suitable for 
the expression of two contrasting moods, 
the first dramatic (A), the other lyrical 
(B), or vice versa. 

Interesting precursors of the 19th-cen- 
tury character piece are found in the harp- 
sichord suites by Couperin who would 
seem to be the inventor of an important 
technique of this genre, i.e., the use of a 
certain “pianistic figure” as the basic mo- 


[132] 



CHARIVARI 


CHIARENZANA 


tive of the entire piece (cf., e.g., “Les Bar- 
ricades mysterieuses” from the Sixieme 
Ordre). Many pieces by Rameau and 
Domenico Scarlatti fall under the same 
category. Cf. W. Kahl, ‘‘Das lyrische 
Klavierstiick Schuberts . . .” (AMW iii). 

Charivari [Am. Shivaree]. A French 
term, of unknown origin, which signifies 
a deliberately distorted and noisy per- 
formance, as is given in provincial towns 
before the homes of unpopular or objec- 
tionable people, or as a mock serenade for 
a newly married couple. A German word 
is Katzenmusi\ (cat music), an Italian, 
scampata. There exists — believe it or 
not — a book on the history of the chari- 
vari from its origins to the 4th centu- 
ry (!): G. Feign ot, Histoire morale^ civile^ 
politique et literaire du charivari^ depuis 
son origine vers le IV ^ siecle (1833). 

Charleston. See *Jazz III. 

Chasse, La [F., the hunt], (i) Nick- 
name for Haydn’s Symphony in D, no. 
73, referring to the last movement; also 
for his Quartet in Bb, no. 2. — (2) Name 
of instrumental pieces (sonatas, etc.) of 
the 1 8th and 19th centuries, written in 
imitation of hunting scenes. 

Chaunter. See ^Bagpipe. 

Check. A part of the action of the 
^pianoforte. 

Chefs d’Oeuvre Classiques de FOp- 
era. See ^Editions IV. 

Chef d’orchestre [F.]. Conductor. 
Chef d*attaque, concertmaster. 

Cheironomic. See *Chironomic. 

Chekker. See *Echiquier. 

Chelys [Gr., turtle], (i) Greek name 
for the *lyre, the body of which was fre- 
quently made from the shell of a turtle. 
— (2) Sixteenth-century humanistic name 
for the lute. See *Testudo. 

Cheng, (i) A Chinese string instru- 
ment, similar to the *Ch’in. — (2) Incor- 
rect spelling for the Chinese mouth or- 
gan *sheng. 


Chest of viols. A set of six or more 
viols, usually including two trebles, two 
tenors, and two basses, which, in the 17th 
century, were kept in a chest with several 
partitions. Cf. Th. Mace’s Music 1 (s 
Monument (1676), 245. See*Consort. 

Chest voice. The lowest register of a 
voice [see *Register (2)]. 

Cheute [F.]. French name for orna- 
mental tones in the character of a pass- 
ing tone (such as occur in the arpegement 
figure; see ’“'Arpeggio) or of an anticipa- 
tion (^Nachschlag). 

Chevalet [F.]. Bridge of violins, etc. 
See *Bowing (k). 

Cheve system. A system of musical 
notation, invented by the French doctor 
E. Cheve (1804—64), and much used in 
France for teaching purposes. It com- 
bines the principle of the Movable Do 
with the old idea of indicating notes by 
figures (Spanish keyboard tablature of 
Cabezon, 1572 [see ^Tablature II]; Jean 
Jacques Rousseau, 1742; Pierre Galin, 
1817). The figures i to 7 represent the 
tones of the scale (in any given key); 
lower or higher octaves are indicated by 
a dot under or above the figures. A rest 
is indicated by 0. Cf. E. Cheve, Methode 
clementaire de la musique vocale (1846); 
WoHN ii, 403. 

Cheville [F.]. Peg of stringed instru- 
ments. Chevillefy peg-box. 

Chevrotement [F., from chhvre^ goat]. 
Unsteadiness in singing, like the bleating 
of a goat. See also under *Tremolo (3) 
and *Vibrato (2). 

Chiamata [It., call; F. chamade\. In 
Venetian operas of the 17th century, 
pieces written in imitation of the “call” 
after the finish of the hunt. See H. Kretz- 
schmar, in VMW viii. 

Chiaramente [It.]. Clearly, distinctly. 

Chiarenzana. A rare 16th-century lute 
dance in quick triple meter. Examples 
occur in Marcantonio de Pifaro, Intabu- 
latura de lauto (1546). 


[ 133] 



CHILEAN MUSIC 


CHIAVE 


Chiave [It.]. Clef. 

Chiavette, chiave trasportata [It.]. 
A late- 16th-century system of writing 
vocal music with all the clefs moved up 
or down from their normal position, usu- 
ally a third (e.g. the F-clef on the third 
or the fifth line). The chiavette might 
be considered the vocal analogon to the 
transposing instrument of the orchestra. 
Ex. I meant to the singer: c-c-g; how- 



simply mean a change of clef [see Ex. 4]. 
Others (Kroyer) have insisted upon the 
transposing interpretation (i.e., change 
of pitch), at least as a possibility. In a 
way the whole question is futile since it 
depends entirely upon the absolute pitch 
of the 1 6th century about which nothing 
is known, and which, for that matter, 
probably did not exist. At any rate, the 
importance of the chiavette has been 
greatly exaggerated in scholarly studies 
as well as in books for instruction. 

Lit.: Th. Kroyer, Der vollkommene 
Fartitur spieler (1931); /W., in Adler- 
Festschrift (1930); id.y in ZMW xiii; 
A. Schering, in ZMW xiii; E. Ehrmann, 
in StM ix. 


Chiavette 

ever, the conductor gave the pitch a third 
lower (a, or ab), so that the actual sound 
was: A-c#-e, or Ab-c-eb. (It will easily 
be noted that ’’•'absolute pitch would have 
been a severe handicap to the a-cappella 
singers of the Palestrina period.) The 
just mentioned notation is called “high 
chiavette,” because the notation is higher 
than the actual sound. An example of 
the “low chiavette” (which is much more 
rarely used) would be as illustrated under 
Ex. 2 (actual sound: e-gif— b). The tran- 
scription into modern notation of pieces 
written in chiavette is very simple; the 
notes remain in the same position on the 
staff, the clef is moved to its normal posi- 
tion, and the proper signature (A or A- 
flat for high chiavette; E or E-flat for low 
chiavette) is added [see Ex. 3]. 

Examples of pieces notated in the chia- 
vette (i.e., with all the clefs moved down 
or moved up) are frequent between 1550 
and 1600 (Palestrina, Missa Papae Mar- 
celli; Tavernor-Tye, motet O splendor; 
Josquin, De profundis, cf. RiHM ii.i, 
258). According to the above interpreta- 
tion such pieces would actually be in the 
key of A or of A-flat. It should be noted, 
however, that recent scholars (Ehrmann) 
have denied the transposing effect of the 
chiavette, contending that the clefs were 
moved down only in order to avoid the 
use of ledger lines. According to this in- 
terpretation, the chiavette notation would 


Chiesa [It., church]. In Baroque music, 
da chiesa indicates instrumental pieces 
(sonatas) or vocal pieces with instrumen- 
tal accompaniment (cantatas) which arc 
designed for use in the church, in contra- 
distinction to similar pieces for domestic 
use, designated da ^camera. See ’••'Sonata 
B, 11 . 

Chifonie [F.]. Medieval (i2th-i5th 
centuries) corruption of ’••'symphonia, i.e., 
’••'hurdy-gurdy. 

Chilean music. During the colonial 
period music in Chile was cultivated less 
as an art than as an adjunct of social, civil, 
and religious functions. There was no 
outstanding musical figure during this 
period. In the era of Independence, the 
first composer worthy of note was Man- 
uel Robles (1780—1837), who composed 
the original national anthem of Chile, 
the so-called Cancion Nacional (1820). 
Though this song enjoyed wide popular- 
ity, it was displaced as the official national 
anthem by the Himno Patridtico (1828), 
written by the celebrated Spanish com- 
poser Ram6n Carnicer at the request of 
the Chilean ambassador in London, 
where Carnicer was then living as a po- 
litical exile. This Himno Patridtico re- 
mains the official anthem of Chile. The 
best-known Chilean composer of the 19th 
century was Jose Zapiola (1804-85), clari- 
netist and bandmaster, who in 1 839 com- 
posed a highly popular patriotic song. 


[ 134] 



CHILEAN MUSIC 

Himno de Yunguay, In 1842 he founded 
a symphony orchestra in Santiago and in 
1864 was appointed choirmaster of the 
cathedral there. Other important musi- 
cal pioneers were Federico Guzman 
(1837-85), pianist and composer of over 
200 works in Romantic style; Guillermo 
Frick (1813-96), amateur composer and 
founder of the Club Musical of Valdivia; 
and Francisco Oliva, from i860 director 
of the National Conservatory (founded 
in 1850). 

Chile occupies a prominent place in the 
contemporary musical scene of South 
America, thanks to a notable group of 
composers born in the i88o’s and ’90*s. 
Most of these composers, while not neg- 
lecting “pure” or abstract music, have 
imbued their works with national traits 
derived largely from Chilean folk music. 
The dean of this nationalist school is 
Humberto Allende (b. 1885), who stud- 
ied at the National Conservatory in San- 
tiago and has been active as a teacher of 
violin and composition. Among his 
major compositions are the symphonic 
poems Escenas Campesinas Chilenas and 
La Voz de las Calles^ and Tres Tonadas 
for soli, chorus, and orchestra. Among 
his piano works, the Tonadas de cardeter 
popular chileno have been widely played. 
He has also written a violin concerto, 
chamber music (inch a String Quartet, 
1926), songs, etc. His younger brother, 
Adolfo Allende (b. 1892), is also esteemed 
as a composer. Carlos Isamitt (b. 1885), 
who is both painter and composer, has 
written a notable orchestral work entitled 
Friso Araucano (the Araucanian Indians 
were the indigenous inhabitants of Chile), 
some chamber music (inch 3 string 
quartets), Childhood Scenes for piano, 
etc. Samuel Negrete (b. 1893), Hector 
Melo (b. 1899), Prospero Bisquerrt (b. 
1881), Alfonso Leng (b. 1884), Carlos 
Lavm (b. 1883), and Enrique Soro (b. 
1884) are other notable composers. Most 
promising of the younger composers are 
Jorge Urrutia (b. 1905), Ren^ Amengual 
(b. 1911), and Alfonso Letelier (b. 1912). 

Domingo Santa Cruz Wilson (b. 1899) 
is the leader of organized musical activ- 
ity in Chile as well as an outstanding com- 


CH’IN 

poser in the modern vein. A pupil of 
Soro in Chile and of Del Campo in Spain, 
he founded the Bach Society of Chile and 
in 1933 became dean of the faculty of fine 
arts of the University of Chile. He is also 
professor of composition and musicology 
at the National Conservatory, and since 
1940 president of the newly-created Insti- 
tute of Musical Extension, which central- 
izes and controls virtually the whole of 
Chile’s concert activity (orchestra, chorus, 
chamber music, and ballet). As a com- 
poser Santa Cruz has written a Suite for 
Strings, a string quartet, choruses, Cinco 
Poemas Trdgicos for piano, songs, etc. 
His music has depth and distinction, with 
polytonal tendencies. 

Chile’s principal conductor is Armando 
Carvajal (b. 1893), director of the Na- 
tional Symphony Orchestra. Claudio 
Arrau (b. 1904) is the best-known Chil- 
ean pianist, while the younger pianist 
Arnaldo Tapia-Caballero has gained 
favorable recognition. 

There is no indigenous influence in the 
popular music of Chile, since the descend- 
ants of the aboriginal inhabitants have 
remained in isolation, preserving their 
own arts and customs instead of mixing 
with the Spanish population. 

Chilean dances are the *cueca and the 
*esquinazo. 

Lit.: E. Pereira Salas, Los origenes del 
arte musical en Chile (Santiago, 1941); 
H. Allende, “Chilean Folk Music” {Bull, 
of the Pan American Union, vol. 65, no. 
9); N. Slonimsky, “Chilean Composers” 
{Musical America, vol. 63, no. 10); C. S. 
Smith, “The Composers of Chile” {MM 
xix, no. i). G. C. 

Chimes. See ♦Percussion instruments 
A, 5. The term is also loosely used for a 
set of bells (gongs, etc.) and for the or- 
chestral ^glockenspiel. Cf. W. W. Star- 
mer, in PMA xxxiv, xxxvi. 

Chiming. See under *Bell. 

Ch’in. An important traditional instru- 
ment of the Chinese and of the Japanese, 
who call it J(oto. It is frequently referred 
to as “Chinese lute,” although actually it 
is a long zither, consisting of a lengthy 


[ 135 ] 



CHINESE CRESCENT 


CHINESE MUSIC 


and slightly convex board over which 
seven silken strings are stretched. They 
are tuned: c d f g a c' d'. Underneath the 
lowest string 13 places for stopping are 
marked by inlaid studs in a very peculiar 
arrangement, that is, symmetrically dis- 
posed from the center to the right and to 
the left in the following distances: 

%> 3nd to one side, hence: 
%> '/s to the other. The 

resulting tones are as follows: 

Vibratory Length: i Z_ ^ JL A 

8654 

Frequency: i LA 

7 5 4 3 

Pitch: c cl* eb e f 

(The d* is higher than that of our scale.) 

Actually, the high notes of this series are 
not sounded, since the places to the right 
side of the above scheme are used only for 
the production of ^harmonics, similar to 
those of the violin. Since, with this sort 
of touch, stopping at produces the 
same pitch as ordinary stopping at %, 
the tones of the right half actually dupli- 
cate those of the left half, but with a dif- 
ferent timbre. The playing of the ch’in 
is a highly complicated technique, involv- 
ing many peculiarities such as glissando, 
vibrato, pulling of the strings toward the 
player or away from him, tapping, etc. 
The koto is a similar instrument, usually 
with 13 strings. [Illustration on p. 823.] 
Cf. R. H. von Gulick, “The Lore of the 
Chinese Lute” {Monumenta Nipponica, 
i, ii, iii, 1938-40); SaHMI, i87f. 

Chinese crescent. See ^Crescent. 

Chinese music. I. History, The music 
of China presents the singular picture of 
a traceable history of about 4000 years. 
Considering the — no less singular — tra- 
ditionalism and conservatism of Chinese 
culture in general, there is no reason to 
distrust reports according to which it 
reaches back into the third millennium 
B.C., although modern research has 
placed doubt on the legend that the sys- 
tem of Chinese music was established by 
Ling-Lun, at the time of the Yellow Em- 

[I 


peror, Huang-Ti, around 2700 B.C. One 
of the most remarkable characteristics of 
the Chinese system is the existence of a 
principal tone of absolute pitch, the so- 
called huang chung (yellow bell; see 
*Blasquinte), which was considered a 
cosmologic and sacred element of music 
as well as the very foundation of the state 
and the people. During several centuries, 
the extinction of a dynasty was invariably 
ascribed to their failure to secure the true 

2 3 I 2 I I I I I 

352534568 


■23 2 

g a c' e' g' c" e" g'' c"' 


huang chung; therefore, to new rulers it 
was a matter of prime concern to regain 
the exact measurement of the bamboo 
pipe of absolute pitch. The political and 
social importance of music was empha- 
sized particularly by Confucius (551- 
478 B.C.) whose teaching anticipates in a 
striking manner the Platonic theory re- 
garding the relationship between music 
and social order [see * Aesthetics of 
music II]. Numerical symbolism (e.g., 
the sacred number four, or the number 
twelve; see below) played a prominent 
part in Chinese musical theory, as in 
Chinese culture in general. In the centu- 
ries after Confucius the occupation with 
music, poetry, and other arts became so 
prevalent that the Emperor Shi Huang-ti, 
in 246 B.C., ordered all music books and 
instruments to be destroyed, in order to 
prevent a general neglect of practical af- 
fairs, agricultural, social, political, etc. 
This order caused the complete loss of 
innumerable priceless manuscripts as well 
as a severe setback of musical activity and 
development. Fortunately, the Emperors 
of the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-A.D. 220) 
again favored music, which reached its 
classical period under the T’ang Dynasty 
(618-907) and the Sung Dynasty (960- 
1279). It is in this period that huge or- 
chestras, numbering 300 or more instru- 
ments, were used for ritual and courtly 

5 ] 



CHINESE MUSIC 


CHINESE MUSIC 


music. The gamelang of present-day 
^Javanese music may well be a modest 
remainder and reminder of such perform- 
ances. Very little information regarding 
the recent development of Chinese music 
is available. One of the few data is the 
theoretical establishment of well-tempered 
tuning by the Prince Tsai-yu, in 1596 
[see ^Temperament III]. In general, 
however, musical development would 
seem to have been declining or stagnating 
during the past three centuries, sinking 
from its former level as a great spiritual 
and political factor to a cheap and some- 
what noisy entertainment for the masses 
[see below, mj. 

IL Tonal System, From the principal 
tone huang chung, represented subse- 
quently by f (the actual pitch was, accord- 
ing to recent studies, between D and Eb), 
others are derived by means of bamboo 
tubes, called lii, the length of which is 
alternately in the relation of 2:4 and 4:3 
to that of the preceding tube. Since 2:3 
gives the higher fifth, 4:3 the lower 
fourth, the following series of tones (also 
called lii) results [see also under *Pan- 
pipes (p’sai hsiao)]: 



8 


The result is a cycle of fifths, identical 
with that of the Pythagorean system. The 
first five lu’s, f-c'-g~d'-a, are the basis of 
Chinese music from the earliest eras to 
the present day. They lead to an anhemi- 
tonic penta-scale, f g a c' d', which was 
later (possibly as early as 1550 B.C.) 
broadened by the admission into actual 
music of the next two tones which form 
half-tones, called pien : 


kung 

shang 

chiao 

picn-chih 

f 

g 

a 

(b) 

chi 

yu 

pien-kung 

kung 

c' 

d' 

(e') 

f' 


Already in the earliest known writing on 
music, by Lii Pu Wei {c, 320 B.C.), the 
fifths are interpreted as pure fifths (3:2), 
possibly under Greek influence (Pythag- 
oras). In the first century A.D. the 
Pythagorean comma was discovered, and 
the scries of consecutive fifths was con- 


tinued up to 60 and even 360 lii’s until 
finally it became clear that this series 
never returns to its initial point. In the- 
ory, a very close approximation to the 
well-tempered 12-tone scale was estab- 
lished as early as the 5th century. 

In Chinese music (especially of the 
sacred and traditional type) the principle 
of transposition is of prime importance. 
Melodies are played in one or the other 
lii (i.e., key) according to the month and 
the hour, each numbering twelve (the 
Chinese hour is a double-hour). More- 
over, each melody belongs to one of five 
“modes,” according to its center tone 
which may be any of the five fundamental 
tones. 

III. Musical Practice. For a general 
survey, Chinese music may be divided 
into four classes: sacred music, chamber 
music, folk music, and operatic music. 
Music of the first type shows many fea- 
tures of an age-old tradition. A number 
of ancient hymns are preserved, all of 
which proceed in long-held tones of equal 
duration, usually in large intervals of the 
pentatonic scale [Ex. 2; cf. AdHMy 13]. 



Formerly, possibly already in the pre- 
Christian era, these hymns were accom- 
panied by a large orchestral body (120 
harps, 180 lutes, 200 mouth organs [see 
*s/jeng]y 20 oboes, drums, bells, and 
chimes are mentioned in a description 
referring to the Tang Dynasty, A.D. 618- 
907), probably with the employment of 
parallel fourths and fifths, as in the medi- 
eval organum, and with the percussion- 
instruments supplying a monotonous 
rhythmic background \LavE i.i, p. 124]. 
Rhythm, measures, and phrases almost 
invariably are arranged in groups of four. 
The Chinese chamber music, performed 
on the traditional instruments *ch*in (a 
zither) and *p'if a (a lute) is the most 
highly developed type of Chinese music 
I see Ex. 3 ]. The traditional opera, which 
goes back to the 14th century, is seri- 
ous and restrained [see Lit., Kwan-chi 
Wang]. Today it is largely replaced by a 


[ 137] 



CHINESE MUSIC 


CHIUSO 


popular type of opera which originated 
about 1850 and which is rather vulgar and 
noisy. Aside from this, music lives in 
China mainly as folk song and as cere- 




monial music for weddings, funerals, etc. 
Example in HAMy i. 

IV. Instruments. Chinese musical in- 
struments are traditionally classified into 
eight groups according to the material 
from which they are made: gourd (mouth 
organ, *sheng)\ bamboo (panpipe, *t'sai 
hsiao)\ wood {chu. a wooden percussion 
instrument in the form of a trough); silk 
(zither, *ch*in and she, both provided 
with strings from silk); clay (globular 
tlutes, hsuan)\ metal (bell, chung\ bell 
chimes, pien chung)\ stone (sonorous 
stone, cKing\ stone chimes, pien ch'ing ) ; 
and skin (drums, po fu). Particularly 
characteristic of the ancient and ritual 
music are the chimes made from stones 
(frequently in the shape of an L) or from 
bells of identical shape but differing in 
thickness. Such a chime usually consists 
of 16 stones or bells suspended in two 
horizontal rows from a rectangular stand. 
The upper row is tuned to the male, the 
lower to the female series of tones [sec 
the explanation under ^panpipes]. 

V. Finally it may be mentioned that 
the Chinese language belongs to the cate- 
gory of “tone-languages,” i.e., a language 
which depends on certain inflections of 


pitch for the conveying of the proper 
meaning of its words or syllables. The 
four basic inflections are a level, a rising, 
a falling, and a rising plus falling tone, 
and one and the same syllable has entirely 
different meanings according to whether 
one or the other of the above inflections 
is used for its pronunciation [cf. G. Her- 
zog, in Mp xx]. 

Lit.: Sophia Chen Zen, Symposium on 
Chinese Culture (1931; article “Music” 
by Y. R. Chao); J. H. Lewis, Foundations 
of Chinese Musical Art (1936); J. A. van 
Aalst, Chinese Music (1884, ^ 933 ) J 
Amiot, MSmoires . . . sur la musique 
chinoise (Peking, 1780); L. Laloy, La 
Musique chinoise (1914); G. Soulie, La 
Mustque en Chine (1911); E. Fischer, 
Beitrdge zur Erforschung der Chinesi- 
schen Musi\ (1910; also in SIM xii); 
Kwan-chi Wang, Ueber die chine sische 
f^lassische Oper (Diss. Bern 1934); Liu 
T’ien Hua, '\Selections from the Reper- 
toire ... of Mei Lan-fang (1929); 
Chung Sik Keh, Koreanische Musi\ 
(Diss. Basle 1934); AdHMy i3ff; LavE 
i.i, 77; A. Dechevrens, “Etude sur le 
systeme musical chinois” {SIM ii); J. Yas- 
ser, “Rhythmical Structure of Chinese 
Tunes” {Musical Courier 88, 1924); A. 
Tcherenine, “Music in Modern China” 
{MQ xxi); E. M. v. Hornbostel, “Ch’ao- 
t’ien-tze, eine chinesische Notation” 
{AMW i); R. W. Marks, “The Music and 
Musical Instruments of Ancient China” 
{MQ xviii). 

Chinese pavilion. See ♦Crescent. 

Chironomic [from G. rAe/r, hand]. A 
term used with reference to ncumes lack- 
ing clear indication of pitch, the inference 
being that such signs were interpreted to 
the choir by hand signs of the conductor 
[see ♦Neumes II]. See also *Conducting 
III. 

Chitarra. Italian name for guitar. Chi- 
tarrina is a smaller type, used in Naples. 

Chitarrone [It., great *chitarra\. Sec 
♦Lute III. 

Chiuso [It., closed]. In horn playing, 
same as stopped; see ♦Horn I. In 14th- 
century music, see ♦Ouvert and clos% 


[138] 



CHOIR 

Choir. A body of church singers, as op- 
posed to the secular chorus. The name is 
also used with reference to instrumental 
groups of the orchestra, e,g., the brass 
choir, the string choir, the wood- wind 
choir. 

Choir-book \G.Chorbuch\^ The large- 
sized manuscripts of 15th- and 16th-cen- 
tury polyphonic music which were placed 
on a stand and from which the whole 
choir (about 15 singers) sang. See the 
pictures in BeMMR, 234, 248. For choir- 
book arrangement [G. Chorbuch-anord- 
nung\ see under *Score II. See also *Can- 
tus lateralis. 

Choir-organ. Originally a small organ 
such as is suitable for the acompaniment 
of the choir. Today the name is usually 
applied to the third manual of the normal 
organ which is provided with stops use- 
ful for accompanying purposes. See *Or- 
gan III. 

Choir pitch. See *Pitch 2. 

Chomonie. See ’*^Anenaiki. 

Chor [G.]. A chorus or a choir. 

Choral, chorale. In view of the differ- 
ent meanings and of the confusing usage 
of these terms a few general explanations 
are needed. According to Webster, the 
word choral has two meanings, depend- 
ing upon its accentuation: cho'ral (adj.) 
means: pertaining to a chorus or a choir: 
choral' (noun) means a hymn tune, a 
sacred tune. For the latter meaning, the 
spelling chorale is given as second choice. 
Although, as a rule, this dictionary fol- 
lows the first choice of Webster, the spell- 
ing chorale is adopted here because it 
makes possible a written distinction be- 
tween the two meanings. Thus, a choral 
fantasia is a fantasia employing a chorus, 
whereas a chorale fantasia is a fantasia 
which is based on a hymn tune. Unfortu- 
nately, the situation is further compli- 
cated by the fact that the word chorale 
usually refers to the hymn tunes of the 
German Protestant Church which in Ger- 
man are called Choral (accent on the last 
syllable), while, on the other hand, the 


CHORALE 

equivalent of the English adjective choral 
is the German noun CAor- (united to the 
noun which it precedes). Thus, we have 
the following equivalents: E. choral fan- 
tasia — G. Chorfantasie; E. chorale fan- 
tasia — G. Choralfantasie, Similarly: 
choral cantata — Chorl{antate\ chorale 
cantata — Choral^antate, 

Choral [G.]. (i) The plainsong of the 
Catholic Church, usually called Grego- 
rianischer Choral [see ^Gregorian chant] . 
Derivatives are: Choralnotation (*plain- 
song notation), Choralnote (plainsong 
note), and Choralrhythmus (plainsong 
rhythm). — (2) The hymn tunes of the 
German Protestant Church [see *Cho- 
ralej. Derivatives are: *Choralbearbeit- 
ung (this term may also apply to the 
Gregorian Choral)^ Choralfantasie (cho- 
rale fantasia), Chor all^ant ate (chorale 
cantata), Choralpartita (chorale partita), 
Choralvor spiel (chorale prelude). 

Choralbearbeitung [G., chorale treat- 
ment, chorale composition]. Generic 
term for any composition based upon a 
Choral (chorale). The term chiefly refers 
to the various methods of composition 
applied to the Protestant chorales in the 
period from 1600 to 1750 [see ^Chorale 
cantata, ^Chorale fantasia, ^Chorale prel- 
ude, ^Chorale partita, *Organ chorale]; 
however, it also includes the 15th- and 
i6th'Century settings of Catholic hymns 
(vocal settings by Dunstable, Dufay, 
Adam von Fulda, Heinrich Finck; organ 
settings by Schlick, Cavazzoni, Cabezon, 
M. Praetorius, Titelouze). 

Choral cantata [G. Chor\antate\, A 
cantata which employs a chorus (as most 
cantatas by Bach do), in contradistinction 
to a solo cantata (the usual type of the 
17th-century Italian cantata). For the 
German term Choral ^antate see ^Chorale 
cantata. 

Chorale [G. Choral]. The hymn tunes 
of the German Protestant Church. The 
term ^Choral is also used to denote the 
Gregorian chant (Gregorianischcr Cho- 
ral), but this meaning is not generally 
accepted into English usage. The impor- 
tance of the Protestant chorale lies in the 


r 139] 



CHORALE 


CHORALE 


central position it holds in the German 
music of the Baroque, as the basis of nu- 
merous cantatas and the whole tradition 
of the organ chorale. 

The evolution of the Protestant chorale 
started with Martin Luther (1483-1546), 
the founder of the Protestant Church 
(1519). Luther, a rather accomplished 
musician himself, considered the chorale 
as one of the most important pillars of his 
reform movement and played a very ac- 
tive part in the building of a repertory of 
texts and melodies suitable for his purpose. 
In conformity with his principle of con- 
gregational participation, he favored ver- 
nacular texts and simple, tuneful melo- 
dies. In his search for suitable texts Luther 
chiefly resorted to the Catholic hymns, 
many of which he (or his collaborators) 
translated into German, e.g.: “Nun 
komm der Heiden Hciland” (“Veni re- 
demptor gentium”); “Herr Gott Dich 
loben wir” (“*Te deum laudamus”); 
“Der Tag der ist so freudcnreich” (“Dies 
cst laetitiae”); “Wir glauben all an einen 
Gott” (“Credo in unum deum patrem 
omnipotentem”), etc. The chief sources 
for his melodies were secular folk songs 
which he or his collaborators provided 
with new (sacred) texts [“geistliche Con- 
trafactur”; see ^Parody]. Examples of 
chorale melodies borrowed from folk 
songs are: “Durch Adams Fall ist ganz 
verderbt” (from the Pavia song: “Freut 
euch, freut euch in dieser Zeit”); “Von 
Gott will ich nicht lassen” (from a love 
song: “Einmal tat ich spazieren”); “Was 
mein Gott will, das g’scheh’ allzeit” (from 
the chanson: “II me sufEt de tous mes 
maulx,” published by Attaingnant, 1529); 
“Auf meinen lieben Gott” (from Reg- 
nart’s “Venus du und dein Kind”). 

The earliest sources of Protestant cho- 
rales are three publications of Luther’s 
friend and collaborator Johann Walther 
(1496-1570), all from 1524: the so-called 
“Achtliederbuch” (containing 8 poems 
to four melodies; original title: Etlich 
christlich lider Lobgesang . , . in der Kir- 
chen zu singen) and two volumes En- 
chiridion Oder eyn Handbuchlein . . . with 
25 poems to 15 melodies. In these books 
as well as in those published by Klug 


(Wittenberg, 1529, 1535, 1543), Blum 
(Leipzig, 1530), Schumann (Leipzig, 
1530), and Babst (I^ipzig, 1545, 1553), 
only melodies are given and these were 
sung by the congregation in unison. Many 
of the most beautiful chorales still sung 
today are found in these early books. It 
should be noted, however, that their origi- 
nal form shows a much less conventional- 
ized and, for that matter, a much more 
impressive rhythmic form than that of the 
present day. Especially interesting is the 
irregularity of phrasing and meter [ex- 
ample in AdHM i, 448] . 

The year 1524 also marks the beginning 
of musical composition based upon the 
Protestant chorales. Joh. Walther’s GeysU 
liches Gesang\ Biichleyn [see ^Editions 
XXVI, 7] contains 38 polyphonic settings 
(three to six voices) of such melodies in 
the style of the Flemish motet, i.e., with 
the melody in the tenor and with occa- 
sional imitation in the contrapuntal voices 
[expl. in HAMy no. in; AdHM i, 449]. 
Similar publications are: G. Rhaw, Newe 
deudsche geistliche Gesenge . . . (1544; 
DdT 34) and Spangenberg, Kirchengc- 
senge Deudtsch . . . ( 1545). The involved 
polyphonic texture of these pieces natu- 
rally excludes the possibility of congrega- 
tional performance or even participation. 
A decisive step toward fuller realization 
of Luther’s ideal was made by Lukas 
Osiander (1543—1604) in his Funffzig 
geistliche Licder und Psalmen (1586). 
Here the melody was placed in the discant 
and a simple homophonic style was adopt- 
ed for the accompanying parts. His ex- 
ample was followed by Sethus Calvisius 
\Harmonia cantionum ecclesiastic arum 

(1597) ] j Hans Leo Hassler {Kirchen- 

gesdnge, Psalmen und geistliche Lieder 
. . . simpliciter gesetzt ( 1608) ] , and Sam- 
uel Scheldt \Tabulaturbuch hundert 
geistlicher Lieder (1650) ] . 

The 17th century shows continued ac- 
tivity in the creation of chorale melodies 
(monophonic as well as polyphonic or 
with ^figured bass), although generally 
with inferior results. The tunes do not 
possess the originality and forcefulness of 
the earlier ones, becoming more senti- 
mental and conventionalized. Nonethe- 


[ 140 ] 



CHORALE 

less, the tradition of the chorale was suffi- 
ciently strong to prevent it from becoming 
subdued by the superficialities of the oper- 
atic maelstrom, and composers such as 
Johannes Criiger (1598-1662), Johannes 
Schop (d. 1664), Johann Georg Ebeling 
(1637-76), Jakob Hintze (1662-1702), 
Johann Rudolph Able (1625-73), con- 
tributed many fine tunes to the texts of 
Paul Gerhardt, Johann Rist, and others. 
From the artistic point of view, however, 
the activity in the field of *Choralbear- 
beitung attracts the chief interest. The 
cantatas, oratorios, and passions of the 
late 17th and early i8th centuries (espe- 
cially those of Bach) contain numerous 
examples of vocal chorale composition in 
a simple homophonic style as well as in 
elaborate contrapuntal texture. Simul- 
taneously, there developed the no less im- 
pressive repertoire of the *organ chorale, 
or, as it is usually called, chorale prelude. 

To the present-day musician the cho- 
rales are best known in their harmoniza- 
tion by Bach. It is interesting to compare 
Bach’s settings with, e.g., those of Samuel 
Scheldt, his predecessor of 100 years (b. 
1587). The accompanying example (Je- 
sus Christus unser Heiland\ a. Scheldt, b. 



Bach) shows that all the elements of 
Bach’s method arc already present in 
Scheldt. See *Organ chorale. Examples 
in HAM, nos. in, 167 b, 190. 

Lit.: J. Zahn, Die Melodien der evange- 
lischen Kirchenlieder (6 vols., 1889); 
Johann Westphal, Das evangelische Kir- 
chenlied in geschichtlicher Entwic\lung 
(1911); C. Bohm, Das deutsche evange- 


CHORALE FANTASIA 

Use he Kirchenlied (1927); see also the 
books on Bach by Spitta, Schweitzer, and 
C. S. Terry; G. R. Woodward, ‘‘German 
Hymnody . . (PM A xxxii); additional 
bibliography in MoML, 396. 

Chorale cantata [G. Choral\antate], 
A term used, usually with reference to 
Bach‘s cantatas, to denote those in which 
chorale texts (and, as a rule, chorale mel- 
odies also) are used for movements other 
than the final one which is nearly always 
a harmonized chorale. The following 
types may be distinguished [cf. W. G. 
Whittaker, Fugitive Notes on Church 
Cantatas and Motets of /. S. Bach 
(1923)] : (a) those in which chorale texts 
are used for all the movements; (b) those 
in which some of the chorale verses arc 
recast in free poetry in order to allow for 
aria-like treatment; (c) those in which 
chorale texts are used in some movements 
whilst the others arc free recitatives or 
arias. The only example of (a) is his early 
cantata: “Christ lag in Todesbanden”; an 
example of (b) is: “Ach Gott vom Him- 
mel”; of (c), “Wachet auf,” “Ein feste 
Burg.” C. S. Terry’s book, /. S, Bach, 
Cantata Texts (1925), affords an excellent 
insight into this question since the chorale 
texts are distinguished from the free texts 
by being printed in italics. Bach’s prede- 
cessors in the use of chorale texts and mel- 
odies for cantatas were: Franz Tunder 
(1614-?; DdT 3)5 Johann Kindermann 
(161^55; DTB 13);' Johann Rosenmiil- 
ler (1620-84); Wolfgang Briegel (1626- 
1712); Johann Ph. Kricger (1649—1725; 
DdT 53/54); Johann Pachelbel (1653- 
1706; DTB 6), and Johann Kuhnau 
(1660-1722; DdT 58/59). 

Chorale fantasia. An organ composi- 
tion in which a chorale melody is treated 
in the free manner of a fantasia or even an 
improvisation. Samuel Scheldt’s Fantasia 
super Ich ruf zu Dir, Herr Jesus Christ 
[DdT i; also in K. Straube, Alte Or gel- 
Meister (1904)], his greatest organ com- 
position, is actually a ^chorale motet. True 
chorale fantasias occur in the works of 
Buxtehude, e.g., “Nun freut euch lieben 
Christen g’mein,” and in some early com- 
positions of Bach (“Christ lag in Todes- 


[ 141 ] 




CHORALE FUGUE 


CHORAL SYMPHONY 


banden”; “Ein feste Burg”) which show 
the influence of Georg Bohm (i66i- 
1733), particularly in the peculiar frag- 
mentary treatment of the chorale melody 
[cf. Georg Bohm, Sdmtliche Wer\e^ ed. 
by J. Wolgast (1927), 132, “Vater unset 
im Himmelrcich”]. See *Organ chorale 
IL 

Chorale fugue. See under ^Chorale 
motet. 

Chorale motet. A composition in which 
a chorale melody is treated in motet 
style [see *Motet II], i.e., as a succession 
of fugal sections, each based on one of the 
successive lines of the chorale. Examples 
abound in vocal music (first movements 
of Bach’s Cantatas nos. 16, 27, 58, 60, 73, 
95, etc.) as well as in organ music where 
the chorale motet forms one of the prin- 
cipal types of organ chorale. Compositions 
of the described kind are often referred to 
as “chorale fugue” [G. Choralfuge], 
Since, however, the basic structure is that 
of the 16th-century motet rather than that 
of the Baroque fugue, the former term 
would seem to be more appropriate. Ex- 
amples of true chorale fugues based on 
one theme only (usually the opening mo- 
tive of the chorale) occur among Bach’s 
organ chorales (e.g., “Gottes Sohn ist 
kommen”). On account of their shortness 
they are also called fughettas. See * Organ 
chorale IL 

Chorale partita. Variations [see *Par- 
tita] for organ on a chorale melody. 
Bach wrote several such sets which are 
among the most remarkable compositions 
of his pre-Leipzig period. In fact, their 
style is sufficiently mature to raise doubts 
as to whether they belong to his period of 
“friihestc Jugendzeit,” as Spitta and 
Schweitzer have contended. Many exam- 
ples of the same type occur in the organ 
works of Buxtehude, Pachelbel, Georg 
Bohm (1661-1733), Johann Gottfried 
Walther (1684-1748), and others [cf. 
their complete works; also K. Straube, 
Choralvorspiele alter Meister], The num- 
ber of variations is usually that of the 
number of stanzas of the chorale; some- 
times the character of a variation expresses 


the textual meaning of the corresponding 
stanza. A recent example of chorale par- 
tita is E. Krenek’s variations on “Ja ich 
glaub an Jesum Christum” {Toccata und 
Chaconne, op. 13) in which the chorale is 
treated as an Allemande, Sarabande, Ga- 
votte, Walzer, Fugue, and Foxtrot {sicl'). 
The impression of sacrilege conveyed by 
this procedure may be somewhat lessened 
by the reference to what may have been 
Krenek’s model, namely, Buxtehude’s 
variations on “Auf meinen lieben Gott,” 
which consist of an Allemande, Sarabande, 
Courante, and Gigue, thus forming one 
of the numerous examples of the 17th- 
century fusion of variation and suite [see 
* Variations IV(b) ] . 

Chorale prelude [G. Choralvorspiel]. 
An organ composition based on a Prot- 
estant chorale and designed to be played 
before the chorale is sung by the congrega- 
tion. Because of the close historical con- 
nection between the Protestant chorale 
prelude and the earlier organ hymns of 
the Catholic service — which cannot be 
considered as “preludes” — the whole 
matter is treated under the heading ’’•'or- 
gan chorale. 

Chorale variation. See ’•‘‘Chorale par- 
tita. 

Choralfuge, Choralmotette [G.]. 

See ^Chorale motet. 

Choralis Constantinus. A cycle of 
liturgical compositions for the entire ec- 
clesiastical year, written by H. Isaac (c. 
1450-1517) for the Cathedral of Constanz 
(Switzerland). The first part [DTOe 5.!] 
contains compositions of the Proper of the 
Mass [see ’•^Mass B, I], the second [DTOe 
i6.i], compositions for the Office of the 
main feasts and of special saints. Cf. A. 
zur Nedden, in ZMW xii; P. Blaschke, in 
K], 1931. 

Choralrhythmus [G.]. The rhythmic 
interpretation of the “Gregorian chorale,” 
i.e., of Gregorian chant [see ^Gregorian 
chant VI]. 

Choral Symphony. Popular name for 
Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony in D mi- 


[142] 



CHORBUCH 


CHROAI 


nor, op. 125, composed in 1823/24. The 
name refers to the use of a chorus for the 
last movement which begins with an in- 
strumental introduction leading through 
a recitative: “O Freundc, nicht diese 
Tone’* to a gigantic composition for cho- 
rus and orchestra of Schiller’s poem: 
Freude, schdner Gdtterf unken. The orig- 
inal title is: Sinfonie mit Schlusschor iiber 
Schiller’s Ode: “An die Freude,” fiir 
grosses Orchester, 4 Solo- und 4 Chor- 
stimmen. 

Chorbuch [G.]. See *Choir-book. 

Chord. The simultaneous occurrence of 
several tones, usually three or more. The 
chords can be divided into two main 
classes, consonant and dissonant chords. 
To the former belong the major and mi- 
nor *triad and their ^inversions, i.e., the 
*sixth-chord and the *six-four-chord; to 
the latter all the others, e.g., the *seventh- 
chord, the *ninth-chord, the augmented 
sixth-chord, and the numerous strongly 
dissonant formations of recent music, 
many of which are derived from the 
*fourth-chord [see also *Mystic chord]. 
The study of the chords, their relation- 
ships and functions, forms an important 
field of music theory called ^harmonic 
analysis. Sec also ^Consonance and dis- 
sonance II. 

Chordal style. A style in which chords 
play a prominent role; see ^Texture. In 
strict chordal style there is a given number 
of parts, usually four (e.g., a hymn tune); 
in free chordal style there is no such re- 
striction (e.g., Chopin’s Prdude no. 20). 
See also ^Familiar style; ^Homophonic. 

Chorea [Gr., dance]. In medieval writ- 
ings, a dancing song [}oh. de Grocheo, c. 
1300; Robert de Handlo, 1326, cf. CS i, 
402]. In the late i6th century, chorea is a 
generic term for dance; it is used for the 
^allemande [cf. Besardus, Thesaurus 
Harmonious (1603): “Choreae quas Al- 
lemande vocant germanico”], for the 
*pavane [B. de Drusina, 1556], and other 
dances. 

Chorister. A boy singer of an English 
choir. Cf. GD i, 641, 


Chorlied [G.]. Choral song, particular- 
ly without accompaniment (Schumann, 
Mendelssohn, and others). 

Chororgel [G.]. Choir organ. 

Chorton [G.]. See *Pitch (2). 

Chorus. ( I ) A large body of singers, not 
connected with a church [see ’•^Choir]. 
Also music for such a body. — (2) Me- 
dieval Latin name for the *crwth or for 
the ’"'bagpipe [cf. SaRM, 80]. 

Chorwerk, Das. See ^Editions, His- 
torical, V. 

Christmas Oratorio [G. Welhnachts- 
oratorium\. Bach’s Christmas Oratorio, 
composed in 1734, consists of 6 church 
cantatas, not intended to be performed in 
immediate succession, but on six different 
days, from Christmas Day to Epiphany. 
Most famous is the Pastoral Symphony 
from the second day and the aria “Schlafe 
mein Liebster” following upon it. A num- 
ber of the pieces contained in the oratorio 
are borrowed from earlier cantatas. An 
important forerunner of Bach’s work is 
H. Schiitz’s Christmas Oratorio, entitled: 
Historia der jreuden- und gnadenreichen 
Geburt Gottes und Mariens Sohn Jesu 
Christi (1664). The edition by Spitta in 
vol. i of Schiitz’s complete works was com- 
pleted (on the basis of newly discovered 
material) by A. Schering who also edited 
a score for practical use. 

Chroai [Gr., colors]. In ancient Greek 
theory, the microtonic modifications of 
the two movable tones of the tetrachord. 
Aristoxenos mentions, in addition to the 
enharmonic tetrachord which divides the 
three whole tones of the fourth (a to e 
downwards) into the steps 2 + ^ 
divisions such as i^/4 + % + ^4 (vari- 
ant of the diatonic tetrachord i -j- 1 + 34 ) 
and 1% + Ys + Ys or 1% + Ys + Ys 
(variants of the chromatic tetrachord 
1 34 + 34 + 34)* These schemes prob- 
ably represent attempts on the part of 
theorists to rationalize microtones such as 
occur in Oriental melodies, or in the play- 
ing of the ^aulos. Cf. RiHM i.i, 218; 
Th. Reinach, La Musique grecque ( 1926), 
p. 20 (“Nuances”). 


[ 143 ] 



CHROMATIC 


CHROMATICISM 


Chromatic. The adjective is used in the 
following connections: (i) chromatic 
scale [see ^Chromaticism]. — (2) Chro- 
matic tetrachord or genus [see *Greek 
music 11 (b)]. — (3) Chromatic instru- 
ments are instruments capable of produc- 
ing all (or nearly all) the tones of the 
chromatic scale. Thus, chromatic horn is 
the name of the valve horn, as distinct 
from the natural horn. For chromatic 
harp see *Harp. — (4) In the i6th cen- 
tury the word cromatico refers occasion- 
ally, not to the use of semitones, but to the 
employment of the black notes, minima^ 
semiminima, jusa (or croma)^ semifusa 
(or semicromd)^ i.e., of the smallest val- 
ues, corresponding to our 8th, i6th notes, 
etc. The term madrigale cromatico there- 
fore simply means: madrigal in quicker 
movement (quicker than the earlier type, 
written in motet-like style). Occasionally, 
the term refers to the use of blackened 
notes instead of the normally white shapes 
{hreviSy semihrevis] see ^Coloration). This 
manner of writing was but an affectation 
meant to portray in “eye-music” such 
words as “night,” “dark.” Cf. A. Einstein, 
in ZIM xiv. 

Chromaticism (from Gr. chroma, col- 
or]. The use of tones extraneous to the 
diatonic scale, e.g., in C major: c-d-dif-e 
or c-dJ^-e, instead of the ^diatonic pro- 
gression: c-d-e. The chromatic or diatonic 
character of a tone is frequently condi- 
tioned by harmonic considerations. For 
instance in the progression: c-e-fjf-g the 
tone f# is chromatic if the harmony stays 
on C, diatonic if it modulates to G. The 



introduction of all the chromatic tones 
leads to the chromatic scale [see Ex.], 
with twelve tones to the octave. 

History, Chromaticism appeared first 
in Greek music (chromatic tetrachord, 
a-fW-e; see *Greek music 11 (b)) prob- 


ably as the result of Oriental influence 
[see *Aulos, *Chroai]. It is practically 
absent in European music prior to 1550. 
This statement is not contradicted by the 
fact that such tones as bb, eb, f# already 
occur in the 8th century Musica Enchiri- 
adis [cf. WoHN i, 33], or that in the early 
part of the 14th century the full chromatic 
scale was not only discussed by theorists 
(Marchettus de Padua), but also found on 
organs (at least in the middle octave); 
actually, all these “chromatic” tones were 
not used for chromaticism but for “trans- 
posed diatonicism.” True chromaticism 
was introduced by Adrian Willaert {c, 
1480-1562) and his pupil Cypriano de 
Rore (1516-65), who, in his madrigal 
Calami sonum ferentes (1561), starts out 
with a chromatic subject (b-c-cjj^d-dlt- 
e-fjf-g) [cf. RiHM ii.i, 414]. Luca de 
Marenzio (c. 1560-99) and particularly 
Gesualdo (c. 1560-1614) exploited the 
new material harmonically (succession of 
chords such as A minor followed by F- 
sharp majoi , cf. HAM, no. 161 ; SchGMB, 
nos. 165, 167), experiments which had 
only temporary importance. In the Ba- 
roque period chromaticism is usually me- 
lodic, chromatic progressions being used 
mainly for two purposes: (a) for fugal 
subjects (Sweclinck, Frescobaldi, Kerll, 
and others; SchGMB, no. 158), particu- 
larly for counter-subjects (frequent in 
Bach: Wt. Cl, ii, no. 18; Harpsichord 
Fugue in A minor; the theme *B-A-C-H 
of the ♦Art of Fugue); (b) for program- 
matic and pictorial purposes to indicate 
grief or lament (very frequent in cantatas, 
operas, oratorios, and in instrumental 
program pieces; cf. SchGMB, nos. 177, 
190, 197, 213, etc.). 

In the classical period of Haydn, Mo- 
zart, and the early Beethoven chromat- 
icism is comparatively rare, aside from 
the use of rapid chromatic scales in colo- 
raturas, cadenzas, etc. It is not until Bee- 
thoven’s latest works (e.g., the short slow 
movement of his Piano Sonata in A ma- 
jor, op. loi) that we find passages remi- 
niscent of those from Bach’s Chromatic 
Fantasia [see also ♦Harmony, Ex. 8, 9]. 
After Beethoven, however, a new era of 
chromaticism began, characterized by the 


[ 144 ] 




CHROMATIC SCALE 


CHURCH MODES 


exploitation of chromatically altered har- 
mony. To describe this phase of chro- 
maticism would be tantamount to writing 
a study on Romantic harmony. The ex- 
amples given under ^Harmony will suf- 
fice to show to what an extent chromat- 
icism changed the appearance of music 
in the period from 1850 to 1900. After 
1900 chromaticism lost its former conno- 
tation as a “color-modification’^ of dia- 
tonicism, and established itself as a tonal 
province in its own right, based on the 
equivalence of the twelve tones of the 
chromatic scale. This idea is clearly ap- 
parent in Debussy’s ’"'whole-tone scale. 
A. Schonberg, through his ’"‘twelve-tone 
technique, attempted a more radical solu- 
tion by denying any pre-established rela- 
tionship between the twelve tones or, in 
other words, by admitting any chordal or 
melodic combination of these tones as 
building material. 

Around 1920, there began a reaction 
against the excessive chromaticism, 
whether romantic, impressionistic, or 
atonal (expressionistic). It found its most 
conspicuous manifestation in the ’"‘pan- 
diatonicism of composers such as Stravin- 
sky, Poulenc, and others who were influ- 
enced by Satie, the whimsical antipode of 
Debussy [see ’"‘Six, les]. 

Chromatic scale. See ^Chromaticism. 

Chronos, or chronos protos [Gr., 
time, “first” time]. The temporal or 
rhythmic unit of ancient Greek music, 
comparable in a way to our beat, but dif- 
fering from this in the fact that it cannot 
be divided into smaller values and there- 
fore constitutes a “first” or smallest unit. 
While the modern beat is a unit of multi- 
plication as well as division, admitting of 
multiples as well as fractions of almost 
any note value, the chronos is a unit of 

Crctic Meter 

multiplication only, or, more properly, of 
addition, since irregular groupings in 
varying numbers are possible and typical, 
particularly in the Cretic meter. 


The chronos protos^ or, as it is called by 
French scholars, “premier temps,” is also 
the basis of rhythm in many Oriental 
cultures, particularly of the Near East 
(Arabia, India; see ’"‘Rhythm 11 (b)). It 
also plays a fundamental part in the dis- 
cussions of the rhythm of Gregorian chant 
[see ’"‘Gregorian chant VI). 

Chrotta. See under *Crwth. 

Church modes. I. The Church modes 
(ecclesiastical modes, or, simply, modes) 
are the tonal basis of the ’•^Gregorian chant 
and of early music (till about 1600) in 
general. A church mode is an octave- 
segment of the diatonic (C major) scale, 
with one of its tones playing the role of a 
center tone (comparable to the tone C of 
the C major scale). The range of the 
octave is called ambitus, the center tone, 
finalis. In the complete system of modes 
there are six finales: d, e, f, g, a, c'. To 
each of these finales belong two modes, 
one whose ambitus starts with the finalis 
and ends at the higher octave, and another 
whose ambitus starts with the fourth be- 
low the finalis and extends to the fifth 



above it. The former group of six modes 
is called authentic, the latter plagd. In 
the former group, the single names are: 
Dorian (finalis d; ambitus d-d'); Phryg- 
ian (e; e-e'); Lydian (f; f-F); Mixo- 
lydian (g; g-g'); Aeolian (a; a-a'); Io- 
nian (c; c-c"); in the latter the prefix 
hypo- is added: Hypodorian (d; A-a); 
liypophrygian (e; B-b); Hypolydian 


[ M5 ] 



CHURCH MODES 

(f; c-c'); Hypoinixolydian (g; d-d'); 
Hypoaeolian (a; e-c'); Hypoionian (c; 
g-g'). It must be remembered that all 
these octaves are diatonic, that is, make 
use of only the white keys of the keyboard. 
The accompanying Ex. i serves as an illus- 
tration of Dorian and Hypodorian. The 
bracketed notes of this example designate 
an additional tone which was frequently 
admitted, the so-called subfinalis or sub- 
tonium modi. The fermatas indicate sec- 
ondary center tones, called dominant. As 
a rule, the dominant is a fifth above the 
finalis in the authentic modes, a third 
above it in the plagal modes. However, 
the tone b which was not used as a finalis 
[see below. III] was also avoided as a 
dominant, and was replaced by c' in the 
Phrygian and in the Hypomixolydian. 
Another exception occurs in the Hypo- 
phrygian the dominant of which is a 
(instead of g). Other so-called “charac- 
teristics” of the modes, such as mediant^ 
participant, modulation, are of subordi- 
nate and even questionable importan(ie 
[cf. GD i, 482] . Ex. 2 illustrates the main 
characteristics of the twelve modes. 

II. In the various periods of the modal 
system different designations were used. 
TTiese are shown below in a table; the 


Dorian 

Primus tonus 

Hypodorian 

Sccundus t. 

Phrygian 

Tertius t. 

Hypophrygian 

Quartus t. 

Lydian 

Quintus t. 

Hypolydian 

Sextus t. 

Mixolydian 

Septimus t. 

Hypomixolydian 

Octavus t. 

Aeolian 

Nonus t. 

Hypoaeolian 

Decimus t. 

Ionian 

Undecimus t. 

Hypoionian 

Duodccimus t. 


nomenclature of the third column is the 
earliest (8th-i3th centuries). The des- 
ignation of the authentic modes as 
“Ambrosian” and of the plagal modes as 
“Gregorian” is entirely without historical 
foundation. Particularly discreditable is 
the frequendy repeated story that Am- 
brose “invented” the authentic modes 
and that Gregory “added” the plagal 
modes. Its inference, that the establish- 

[i 


CHURCH MODES 

ment of the theoretical system preceded 
the actual writing of melodics, is in con- 
tradiction to the fundamental principles 
of musical development. Very likely the 
system of the modes did not originate 
until the 8th century, as an attempt to 
codify the large repertory of chants which 
had accumulated during the preceding 
centuries, and there is reason to believe 
that numerous chants were modified to 
conform with the theoretical system. 

III. The above system of twelve modes 
appeared first in Glarean’s *Dodekachor- 
don (1552). In modern writings it is 
sometimes enlarged by two more modes, 
the Locrian and Hypolocrian, based on 
the tone b as the finalis. However, these 
modes are entirely fictitious since they 
would involve a diminished fifth (b-f') 
above the finalis. On the other hand, it is 
important to notice that prior to Glarean, 
that is, throughout the main period of the 
modal system {c. 800-1500) only the first 
eight of the above modes were known (cf. 
the terminology in the third column of 
our table). In fact, for the study of Gre- 
gorian chant — the most important exem- 
plification of the church modes — only 
these eight modes are needed [sec *Gre- 
gorian chant V]. The eight-mode system 

Fin. Amb. Dom. 

Protus auth. d d-d' a 

“ plag. d A - a f 

Dcutcrus auth. c c - e' c' 

“ plag. c B - b a 

Tritus auth. f f - f' c 

“ plag. f c-c' a 

Tetrardus auth. g g - d' 

“ plag. g d-d' c' 

a a - a' c' 

a c-c' c' 

c' c' - c" g' 

c' g-g' c' 

is particularly evident in the various reci- 
tation tones (*psalm tones, tones for the 
♦Magnificat, etc.), for which eight differ- 
ent formulae, one in each mode, are pro- 
vided. It is interesting to note that, e.g., 
the psalm tones do not in every respect 
conform with the scheme of the modes, 
since the finalis frequendy differs from 
the theory; only ambitus and dominant 
(or, as it is called here, repercussio, red- 

46] 



CHURCH MODES 


tation^tone^ tenor^ tuba) are strictly ob- 
served. In fact, there is reason to believe 
that in the early days of plainsong {c. 500- 
900) the dominant, v^hich is frequently 
touched in the melodies, was more deci- 
sive than the finalis. In order to accom- 
modate certain melodies of Gregorian 
chant which were found to exceed the 
ambitus proper of the basic schemes, the 
mixed mode {tonus mixtus) was intro- 
duced, i.e., a mode which has the same 
finalis and dominant as the authentic 
mode, but the combined ambitus of the 
authentic and the plagal (e.g., mixed 
Dorian has the ambitus from A to d'). 

In the 17th century, French musicians 
adopted a new terminology for the 12 
modes, applying thet erms Dorian, Phryg- 
ian, etc., to the scale degrees beginning 
not with D, but with C. This practice is 
fully explained in Ch. Guillet, 24 Fantai- 
sies . . . dispose selon Vordre des douze 
modes (1610; new ed, in Monumenta 
Musicae Belgicae IV, 1938). It is also ob- 
served in Denis Gaultier's Lm Rhetorique 
des Dieux (new ed. by A. Tessier; see also 
O. Fleischer, in VMW 1886). [For other 
modifications of passing importance (Zar- 
lino) cf. RiMLy 889.] 

IV. It has become customary in modern 
studies to treat the church modes together 
with the “Greek modes,” considering the 
former as the derivatives of the latter. 
Such a procedure is not to be recom- 
mended. What are usually called “Greek 
modes” represent a phenomenon of such 
a complexity and one involving so many 
historical changes (many of which are 
still obscure) that summary statements 
are likely to be misleading rather than 
clarifying [see ’“‘Greek music II(c),(d)]. 
The most striking (though by no means 
the essential) difference between the 
Greek and the medieval systems is that in 
the former the names Dorian, Phrygian, 
Lydian, and Mixolydian (D,P,L,M) are 
associated with a descending series of 
tones, namely, e, d, c, b, while in the latter 
they occur in an ascending order (d, e, f, 
g). A (somewhat simplified) explanation 
of this change is that the Greek octave- 
segments had all one and the same “ton- 
ic,” i.c., the tone a (mese) and that, by 


CHURCH MODES 

transposing the descending segments into 
one and the same octave (e.g., a-a'), these 
“tonics” appear in an ascending order, as 
is shown below: 

Crttk 



For a fuller discussion of this problem 
cf. ReMMAy 153®. 

V. As regards the use of the modes as 
the tonal basis of polyphonic composition, 
there is no evidence of methodical treat- 
ment prior to the later part of the 15th cen- 
tury when the ^Flemish School brought 
about a renewed interest in the Gregorian 
tradition and in sacred music. Particularly 
the compositions of the 14th century are 
remarkably free in their tonality, as al- 
ready appears from their liberal use of 
accidentals [see *Music ficta IV]. In this 



^ -11 — 0 ' 0 "11 — rr*" 

- H 0": 0 





^ r. ^ 

0 

^ .ii.-— 



zyL. a . M.- — „ 


u — 

iirnitiLTti 


respect it is interesting to note that not 
until after 1500 did composers begin to 
write polyphonic settings of, e.g., the 
Magnificat in the various modes {Mag- 
nificat primi toniy etc.), and that designa- 
tions such as Toccata primi toni do not 
occur prior to 1550 (Andrea Gabrieli). 
No less interesting is the fact that Glare- 


1 147! 




CHURCH MUSIC 


CHURCH MUSIC 


anus, in his brilliant analyses of the com- 
positions of Josquin and others {DodeJ^a- 
chordon) never investigates the mode of 
a polyphonic composition as such, but 
only those of the different voice parts [cf. 
W. Apel, Accidentien und Tonalitdt . . . 
(1937), p. 63, footnote]. The table 
on p. 147 illustrates characteristic har- 
monic progressions of the six authentic 
modes. For the role of the church modes 
in modern music, see ^Modality (also 
♦Mode). See also the special explanations 
of *Dorian, ♦Lydian, *Mixolydian, and 
♦Phrygian. 

Lit.: A. M. Richardson, The Medieval 
Modes (1933); books on Harmony, etc.; 
list of special studies in ReMMAy 442!. 
O. Ursprung, “Die antikcn Transposi- 
tions-skalen und die Kirchentone” (AMF 
v); H. E. Wooldridge, “Studies in the 
Technique of 16th-Century Music’* (MA 
iii, iv); O. Gombosi, “Studien zur Ton- 
artenlehre des friihen Mittelalters” (AM 
xi, xii). 

Church music. The music of the 
Christian Churches consisted originally 
of ♦Chant. In the Eastern Churches 
(Byzantine, Armenian, Coptic, Syrian) 
it did not essentially develop beyond a 
stage reached in the Middle Ages, about 
1000. In striking contrast to this con- 
servatism, which eventually resulted in 
deterioration, is the development of music 
in the Roman Catholic Church which, as 
early as the 9th century, began to embrace 
polyphonic treatment, thus laying the 
foundation for the entire development of 
Western music. Following is a brief con- 
spectus of the evolution of music of the 
Roman Catholic, the Anglican, and the 
German Protestant Church. 

1 . The music of the Catholic Church is 
rooted in the tradition of the Jewish lit- 
urgy, as already appears from the fact 
that the oldest portions of the Catholic 
service were the *psalms and the ♦canti- 
cles. A certain influence of Greek tradi- 
tion appears in the hymns of St. Ambrose 
[sec * Ambrosian hymns] which differ 
from the psalms and canticles by the 
strictly metrical structure of the text and 
by the syllabic rather than mclismatic 


style of the music. During the ensuing 
centuries a vast repertory of chants ac- 
cumulated which, around 600, was stand- 
ardized and made authoritative by St. 
Gregory [see ♦Gregorian chant] . Around 
800, we find the first attempts to enlarge 
the Gregorian repertory by newly in- 
vented texts and melodies, an activity 
which is generally known as troping. This 
led to the monophonic ♦sequences, 
♦tropes, and ♦liturgical dramas as well as, 
around 900, to the “polyphonic tropes,” 
the ♦organa and their derivatives, the 
♦clausulae and ♦motets of the 13th cen- 
tury. In the later part of the 13th century 
the motet, though still retaining its Gre- 
gorian ancestry in the cantus-firmus mel- 
ody of the tenor, adopted secular (French) 
texts and occasionally even secular melo- 
dies [see ♦motet ente] for the upper parts, 
thus showing a first influence of elements 
which, from the standpoint of the 
Church, had to be condemned. This and 
other abuses of a similar nature led to the 
decree of Pope John XXII, issued from 
Avignon in 1322, by which the use not 
only of the sacrilegious French motets, 
but of all kinds of polyphonic music was 
forbidden, with the exception of the 
archaic organum in parallel fourths or 
fifths. It would appear that this decree 
had far-reaching results which, although 
advantageous to the aims of the Church, 
were detrimental to music. Indeed, the 
almost complete absence of sacred com- 
positions in the French and Italian sources 
of the ♦Ars Nova may well be explained 
by the restrictions resulting from the 
edict; even as late as 1408, polyphonic 
music (discant) was forbidden in the Ca- 
thedral of Notre Dame in Paris [see also 
♦fauxbourdon (i)]. The edict also in- 
terrupted the development of another 
type of Church music, namely the poly- 
phonic ♦mass, the earliest examples of 
which, the Mass of Tournai (c. 1300) and 
that of Machaut (c, 1325?), are separated 
by nearly 100 years from those following 
next. 

II. A new era of Church music began 
around 1425. After an interruption of 
100 years, the center of musical activity 
again shifted back to the Church. Masses 


[ 148] 



CHURCH MUSIC 


CHURCH MUSIC 


and motets became the chief forms of ^Chorale cantata]. Alongside the cantata 
composers such as the English Dunstable there grew the ^oratorio and the ^passion, 
(d. 1453), the Burgundian Dufay ( 1400— represented by a number of composers 
74), and the long series of ’•‘‘Flemish mas- from Schiitz (1585-1672) to Bach, 
ters from Ockeghem (1430-95) and IV. In 17th-century Italy the tradition 
Obrecht (1430-1505) to Lasso (1532- of Palestrina was continued by the *Ro- 
94). Around 1550, Italian (Andrea Ga- man school. More important than the 
brieli, 1510-86; Palestrina, 1525-94) and activity of this conservative group was 
Spanish (Morales, c. 1500-53; Vittoria, the development of instrumental church 
1540-1611) composers appeared in sue- music, particularly the *sonata da chiesa 
cessfdl competition with the Flemish (Biagio Marini, 1597-1665; Legrenzi, 
masters,.'thus leading to an unparalleled 1626-90; Corelli, 1653-1713) which, 
acme of Catholic church music. There around 1685, spread to England, Ger- 
also started, around 1500, a remarkable many, and France. Bach’s singular uni- 
development of ecclesiastical organ music, versality makes him the crowning high- 
designed to supplant the choral perform- point of Protestant (cantata, passion, or- 
ance of hymns, psalm-verses [see *Ver- gan chorale) as well as Catholic (Mass, 
set], of the Ordinary of the Mass [see Magnificat) church music of the Baroque. 
*Organ Mass] and of certain chants of V. In the period after 1750 the pro- 
special importance, particularly the ^Mag- duction of great church music became 
nificat and the ^antiphons B.M.V. [see more scarce, and the ensuing history is a 
*Salve regina]. Composers such as Arnolt somewhat thinly spread succession of iso- 
Schlick (r. 1450-1527), John Bedford lated masterworks rather than a continu- 
(c. 1480-?), Girolamo Cavazzoni (e. ous development. The oratorio, which 
1500-?), Antonio de Cabezon (1510- found one of its greatest masters in Han- 
66), made outstanding contributions in del, is perhaps the only type of religious 
this field. music which can boast of an almost un- 

III. At the same time, however, the interrupted line of composers, English as 
universal authority of the Roman Church well as German. More and more, how- 
was broken by the Reformation which, ever, it became music for the concert hall 
by 1550, led to the establishment of new rather than for the church. As a comple- 
bodies of church music, chiefly in Eng- tion of our survey, it suffices to mention 
land [see * Anglican chant] and in Ger- such outstanding compositions as Pergo- 
many. While the English movement lesi’s Stahat mater (r. 1735), Mozart’s 
found a somewhat limited artistic expres- Requiem (1791), Beethoven’s Missa so- 
sion in the ^anthem and in the ^Service lemnis (1823), Rossini’s Stahat mater 
(Tallis, 1505-85; Byrd, 1543-1623; Pur- (1832), Brahms’s Deutsches Requiem 
cell, 1658-95; Handel, 1685-1759), the (1868), its stylistic antipode, the 
German Reformation (Luther, 1483- by Verdi (1874), and Bruckner’s Masses 
1546) proved to be an event of the great- (1864-67) and Te Deum (1881). Cf. 
est consequence in music, owing chiefly also the examples by Perez and Jommelli 
to the establishment of the Protestant in HAM, nos. 301, 306. 

^chorale as a source of musical creation Lit.: E. Dickinson, Music in the His- 
and inspiration, similar in character and tory of the Western Church (1902); 
significance to the Gregorian chant. The O. Ursprung, Die \atholische Kirchen- 
chorale not only brought about the great musi\ (BiiHMy 1932); K. G. Fellerer, 
wealth of *organ chorales (Scheldt, 1587- Geschichte der \atholischen Kirchen- 
1654; Tunder, 1614-?; Buxtehude, 1637- musi\ (1939); F. Blume, Die evange- 
1707; Pachelbel, 1653-1706; Bach, 1685- lische Kirchenmusi\ (BiiHMy 1932); 
1750), but also won a lasting — though A. T. Davison, Protestant Church Music 
gradually decreasing — influence on the in America (1933); H. W. Davies and 
’•“cantata, the chief type of German church H. Grace, Music and Christian Worship 
music in the Baroque period [sec also (1934); G. Gardner and S. Nicholson, 

f 149] 



CHUTE 

Manual of English Church Music (1923); 
Dom A. Hughes, “16th-Century Service 
Music'* (ML V, no. 2); A. Cocuroy, “Les 
formes actuelles de la musique religieuse*' 
{RM vi); H. B. Collins, “Byrd*s Latin 
Church Music for Practical Use in the 
Roman Liturgy” (ML iv, no. 3); K. G. 
Fcllerer, “Die vokalc Kirchenmusik des 
17/18. Jahrhunderts , . .*' {ZMW xi). 

Chute [F.]. See *Cheute. 

Ciacona [It.]. Sec *Chaconnc. 

Cialamello [It.]. *Shawm. 

Cimbalom. A large ^dulcimer used by 
the Hungarian gypsies and recently 
adopted by dance bands. Cf. A. Hart- 
mann, in MQ ii. 

Cinelli [It.]. ♦Cymbals. 

Cinfonie. See *Hurdy-gurdy. 

Cinque-pace [from F. cinque pas^ five 
steps]. The name, which also occurs in 
the versions Sin^-a-pace, Sinqua-paccy 
SincopaSy is used by writers of the Eliza- 
bethan period for the ♦galliard which had 
five steps. Cf. GD iv, 772; suppl. vol., 123. 

Ciphering. In organ building, the con- 
tinued sounding of a pipe, due to some 
defect of the mechanism. 

Circle canon. See *Canon (i), I (h). 

Circle of fifths [G. Quintenzirl^el], 
The term refers to the fact that a succes- 





(6H 


Cirdc of Fifths 


CLAQUEBOIS 

sion of fifths (c— g-^i' . . .) leads back 
after 12 steps to the initial tone, if octaves 
arc disregarded. Thus, the fifths can be 
arranged in a circle which, simultane- 
ously, shows the progression from one key 
to the next higher one, with one more 



sharp in the signature. If the circle is 
passed through in the other direction 
(i.e., of descending fifths: c'-f-Bb . . .), 
the keys follow each other with one more 
flat in the signature. At one point of the 
circle the transition from the sharp keys to 
the flat keys must be made, for instance, at 
G-sharp = A-flat (*enharmonic change). 
The scheme of signatures might also serve 
for the minor keys, by starting from A, 
instead of from C. The series of fifths 
“closes” only in well-tempered tuning 
[Ex. ij. If Pythagorean (pure) fifths are 
considered, the 12th of these fifths is 
higher by the *Pythagorean comma 
(about one-eighth of a tone) than the 
starting tone. Here, a “spiral of fifths” 
would give an adequate picture of the 
unending series of ascending and descend- 
ing fifths [Ex. 2]. 

Circular canon. See *Canon (i), I 

(h). 

Cis, cisis [G.]. See *Pitch names. 

Cister, cistre, cither, citole, cittern. 
Sec under ♦Guitar family. 

Civettando [It.]. Coquetting. 

Cl. Short for ♦clarinet. 

Clairon [F.]. Bugle [see ♦Brass instru- 
ments IV]. 

Claquebois [F.]. ♦Xylophone. 

[ 150] 



CLARINBLASEN 


CLARINET FAMILY 

Clarinblasen [G.]. See *Clarin trum- acteristic and most troublesome portion 
pet. ^ ^ of their range is, to the average player, at 

Clarinet family. The term is adopted the top of the first twelfth, i.e., as in Ex. 2 , 
here as a convenient collective designa- 
tion for a large group of wind instruments 
characterized by the use of a single reed 
[see *Reed]. This group forms the con- 
trast to the *oboe family which includes 
the wind instruments with a double reed. 

The Clarinet, The clarinet, an or- the so-called “break” or throat register, 
chestral wood-wind instrument, consists The register below the break is termed 
of an end-blown cylindrical pipe made of chalumeau^ that above it, clarion or cla- 
wood or ebonite (recently also of metal) rino. All clarinets are notated as ♦trans- 
with a characteristic mouthpiece (beak), posing instruments, 
which looks as if it were pinched to form II. Present Forms, The most common 
a sharp edge at the top, and which has a form is the clarinet in i5b, which sounds 
single reed (made from a thin piece of a whole tone lower than written. Next 
cane) fixed to its back. The clarinet has in importance is the clarinet in A, the 
the acoustical properties of a “stopped” part for which sounds a minor third lower 
pipe, thus overblowing at the twelfth, than written. The former instrument is 
i.e., the second partial — the octave — more brilliant than the latter without sac- 
and the even-numbered partials in gen- rificing any perceptible fullness. The 
eral cannot be obtained by overblowing, clarinet in A is sometimes preferred for 
a fact which also has a bearing on the parts in the sharp keys which are, of 
•timbre of the clarinet. At a distance the course, easier to play on this instrument 
clarinet is frequently confused with the than on the other. The bass instrument 
similar-looking oboe from which, how- of the clarinet family is the bass clarinet 
ever, it is easily distinguished by the in i5b, the range of which is an octave 
mouthpiece. While the oboe produces a lower than the clarinet in Bb, plus an ad- 
“pastoral,” slightly quaint and nasal ditional semitone provided by a low Eb 
sound of a rather unchanging quality, key, thus rendering possible the perform- 
the clarinet is not only fuller and more ance of music written for the now obso- 
“creamy” in timbre, but also shows a dis- letc bass clarinet in A. To avoid a some- 
tinct variation of timbre in its various what unwieldy length the lower end of 
ranges (registers). It lends itself to the the instrument is curved upward in a 
expression of love and passion as well as metal bell, while the upper end, likewise 
of fury and parody. On the whole, it is of metal, is curved downward, thus bring- 
a much more “modern” (and, in fact, a ing the mouthpiece within reach of the 
much more recent) instrument than the player’s mouth. The bass clarinet has less 
oboe. marked differences of register than the 

Owing to the fact that only the odd- higher instruments and its top register is 
numbered partials can be obtained by relatively weak. Its lower tones arc of re- 
overblowing (e.g., c-g'-c"), a number of markable richness and have the advan- 
holes and, consequently, a complicated tage, as opposed to those of the bassoon, 
key mechanism are necessary to obtain of a very wide dynamic range, 
the tones in between. The •Boehm sys- Additional types arc the clarinet in Eb, 
tern is popular in America, but has not a small instrument pitched a perfect 
been universally adopted. All clarinets fourth above the clarinet in Bb; the alto 
have a written range as shown in Ex, i, clarinet in Eb, pitched a fifth below the 
although the higher members of the fam- clarinet in Bb; and the double-bass clari- 
fy occasionally exceed this upwards, and net in Eb (pedal clarinet, contrabass 
the lower members become somewhat clarinet), pitched an octave below the bass 
weak in their top octave. The least char- clarinet. They arc commonly found in 

[ 151 1 





CLARINET FAMILY 


CLARINET FAMILY 


bands, but are occasionally demanded in 
orchestral scores. Parts for the Eb clarinet 
are found in Strauss’s Ein Heldenleberiy 
in Stravinsky’s Sucre du PrintempSy and 
in Ravel’s Daphnis et Chloe\ for the 
double-bass clarinet in d’Indy’s Fervaal^ 
in Strauss’s Legend of Josephy and in 
Weingartncr’s Orestes, There are three 
obscure modern instruments, related to 
the clarinet only in that they possess a 
single reed, which have been invented 
for the sole purpose of playing the solo 
English horn part in Act III of Tristan, 
They are the *Hec\el-clarinay the Holz- 
trompetey and the *Tarogato, The music 
in question is generally played by the 
English horn. 

III. Obsolete Forms, During the 19th 
century a great many other clarinets were 
built, e.g., the clarinet in C, the clarinet 
in D (called for in Liszt’s “Mazeppa” 
and Strauss’s “Eulenspiegel”; now re- 
placed by the clarinet in Eb), the bass 
clarinet in C or A (Liszt, *‘Mazeppa”), 
the bathy phone (constructed by E. 
Skorra, 1839), etc. More interesting is 
the basset horny an alto clarinet with a 
narrower bore, a thinner wall, and four 
semitones beyond the low E (which 
sounds A in the usual F pitch). Origi- 
nally (c. 1770) it was crescent-shaped and 
in this form was used by Mozart singly 
or in pairs in Clemenzo di Tito, Nozze 
di FigarOy ZauberflotCy 11 SeragUOy the 
Requiemy and in various instrumental 
works (e.g., K.V. 41 1). At about 1800 
the crescent shape was replaced by a 
model which was sharply bent at nearly 
right angles and, somewhat later, it was 
given a straight form in which it is con- 
structed nowadays. Beethoven used it 
only in PrometheuSy and Mendelssohn 
wrote two concerted pieces for clarinet 
and basset-horn with piano (op. 1 13, 1 14). 
Rare modern examples, generally played 
on the alto clarinet in Eb, arc to be found 
in Salome and Electra of Strauss, in Con- 
verse’s The Pipe of Desirey and in the 
Violin Concerto of Roger Sessions. Fi- 
nally, the clarinetto d'amore might be 
mentioned, a larger clarinet in G or Ab, 
with the pear-shaped bell of the oboe 
d’amore. 


IV. History and Repertory, In early 
periods and in exotic cultures singlc-rced 
instruments are much rarer than double- 
reed instruments (oboes). Double clari- 
nets (in pairs) were known in ancient 
Egypt, but scarcely at all in the Far East. 
To the present day a triple clarinet, called 
launedduy is used in Sardinia [cf. SaHMly 
91]. A primitive European instrument is 
the *pibgorn (also called stockhorn, horn- 
pipe), which was originally made of the 
shin bone of a sheep, with a part of a cow 
horn attached as a bell [cf. GD iv, 172; v, 
141]. The forerunner proper of the clari- 
net is the chalumeau [the single-reed type; 
in addition there also existed a chalu- 
meau with double reed, more properly 
called *shawm], a small keyless cylindri- 
cal pipe. In the 17th century there ex- 
isted a number of strangely shaped instru- 
ments of this type, especially for the bass 
size [cf. W. Heinitz, lnstrumenten\unde 
(in BuHM)y p. 57]. The change from 
the chalumeau to the clarinet took place 
between c, 1690 and 1720, owing to the 
activity of Johann Chr. Denner and his 
son Johann Denner who added finger 
keys and a speaker key [cf. SaHMly 
41 if]. These early clarinets had the 
timbre of oboes rather than of the mod- 
ern clarinet, owing chiefly to the use of 
small reeds. Thus, Johann Walther says 
in his Lexicon of 1732 (first mentioning 
of the name clarinet): “From a distance 
it sounds rather like a trumpet.” This 
explains the name clarinet [cf. *Clarin 
trumpet; *Clairon]. 

Chalumeaus, whether in their primi- 
tive or improved form, were used in 
Reinhard Reiser’s operas Croesus (1711) 
and Serenata (1716), and are still pre- 
scribed in Gluck’s Orfeo (1767). Ra- 
meau, J. W. Stamitz, and Gossec are the 
composers associated particularly with 
the early appearance of the real clarinet 
in the orchestra. Mozart used it in some 
of his later symphonies, notably that in 
Eb (K.V. 543), in which prominent parts 
covering a wide range are given to the 
pair of clarinets. From that time, two 
clarinets are to be found in every normal 
orchestra. Berlioz was among the first to 
use various sizes of clarinets for their 


[ 153] 



CLASSICISM 


GLARING 


particular tonal quality, a practice con- 
tinued by Liszt, Strauss, and Mahler. 
From the time of Wagner the number of 
clarinets in the orchestra is often increased 
— in Salome and Electra Strauss uses one 
clarinet in Eb, two in Bb, two in A, one 
bass clarinet, and two basset horns, prac- 
tically the entire family. Composers since 
Mozart have provided the instrument 
with a repertory which in quality and 
variety is equaled by that of no other wind 
instrument. Outstanding compositions 
are: clarinet concerto by Mozart, K.V. 
622, Weber, op. 73, 74, Spohr, op. 26, 57, 
and two in F and E minor; clarinet so- 
natas by Brahms, op. 120, nos. i and 2; 
clarinet quintets by Mozart (K.V. 581), 
Brahms, op. 115, Reger, op. 146; clarinet 
trios by Beethoven, op. ii, Brahms, op. 
1 14. 

The clarinet family, as defined above, 
also includes among its members the 
saxophones. Since, however, these instru- 
ments deviate in important particulars 
from the clarinet, they arc usually treated 
as a separate family. See *Saxophone. 

Lit.: R. Dunbar, Treatise on the Clari- 
net (1939); LavE ii.3, 1436, 1545; O. W. 
Street, in PM A xlii; F. G. Rendall, “ . . . 
the Clarinet in England . . {PM A 

Ixviii); P. Gradenwitz, “The Beginning 
of Clarinet Literature” (ML xvii); L. de 
la Laurencie, “Rameau ct Ics clarinettes” 
{SIM ix); G. Cucucl, “La Question des 
clarinets dans Tinstrumentation du xviiic 
siklc” {ZIM xii). I to III by W. D. D. 

Clarino. See *Clarin trumpet. The 
name is also used for the high register of 
the clarinet [see ♦Clarinet family I]. 

Clarin trumpet. The natural trumpet 
of the 17th and i8th centuries, a low-pitch 
and long-tube instrument, but played by 
trumpeters trained specially and exclu- 
sively in the art of producing the highest 
harmonics {Clarino hlasen)^ i.e., from the 
third octave onward, where they form a 
continuous scale. It was this training that 
enabled the trumpeters of the Bach epoch 
to play (without valves!) those rapid pas- 
sages in high position which have been 
bafBing the most outstanding trumpet 
virtuosos of modern times [sec Ex., from 


Cantata 75, B.-G. xviii, 183]. The mod- 
ern Bach trumpet (a short and straight 
3-valve trumpet) which has been designed 



for the rendering of such passages is only 
a poor substitute, owing to its unsatisfac- 
tory tone quality. 

Lit.: N. Bessaraboff, Ancient European 
Musical Instruments (1941), 1 ^ 2 . 0 . and 
413; W. F. H. Blandford, in Monthly 
Musical Record y July, 1931 and March to 
June, 1935; H. Eichborn, Das alte Cla- 
rino-Blasen (1894); C. Sachs, in AMW ii; 
R. Hofmann, in B/, 1916. 

Clarion. An ancient English trumpet 
in round form [cf. SaRM ] . 

Clarone [It.], (i) Bass clarinet. — 
(2) Older name for the *basset horn 
(Mozart). 

Clarsech, clairseach, clarseth. The 
Irish harp [see *Harp III]. 

Classici della Musica Italiana, I. 
See *Editions VI. 

Classicism. In ordinary usage, the term 
means [cf. Webster] : “of or relating to 
the first class or rank; in particular, to the 
ancient Greeks and Romans and their 
culture.” In music the word is used in 
various connotations. Most commonly it 
denotes an antithesis to Romanticism and 
is, therefore, applied to periods prior to 
the Romantic school, cither to its im- 
mediate predecessors Haydn, Mozart, and 
Beethoven (Viennese classics), or to what 
the amateur considers to be “all music 
before the Romanticism,” i.e., from Pales- 
trina to Beethoven. To others, the word 
denotes music of established value and 
fame, as distinguished from ephemeral 
works which quickly disappear from the 
programs. For still others, usually the 
less educated people, it has the somewhat 


[154] 





CLAUSULA 


CLAUSULA 


deterrent meaning of “art-music” or high- clausula is a polyphonic composition us- 
brow music, in contradistinction to “pop- ing as a cantus firmus a short melisma of 
ular music” or music for entertainment, a chant (gradual, alleluia), in contrast to 
The latter connotations are, of course, de- the *organa which use the entire chant 
teriorations which do not deserve serious (i.e., the entire soloist section thereof), 

consideration. The term should be used Accordingly, there is no complete text in 

in one (or either) of the following mean- the tenor of a clausula, but only one or 

ings: (a) to denote only the “Viennese two words, sometimes only a syllabic [see 

classics,” that is, Haydn, Mozart, Beetho- *Incipit], which indicate from which 

ven, and, to some extent, Schubert; (b) in chant the tenor is borrowed. For instance, 

a more general way, to denote any period the clausula GO (of which there exist a 

which gives the impression of greater sta- great number, with identical tenor, but 

bility, repose, clarity, balance, self-reliance, different upper parts) is taken from the 

objectiveness, traditionalism, than those gradual Benedicta es et venerabilisy the 

preceding and following it. If the latter verse of which begins with the words: 

meaning is adopted, the entire evolution F/r- go Dei genetrix. Accompanying is 

of music might be understood as an in- the beginning of this verse in plainsong 

cessant shift from the classical to the Ro- [G/J (99)] together with the beginning 

mantic, with Romanticism adopting the 
meaning of unrest, exaggeration, experi- 
mentation, ostentation, diffusion, subjec- 
tivism, etc. Typically classical periods are 
those of the 13th century (Perotinus, 

Franco), the Flemish era (1450-1600), 
the period of Bach and Handel, and that 
of the Viennese classics, whereas the 14th 
century (Machaut and his successors) as 
well as the 17th (Frescobaldi, Froberger; 
see ^Tombeau, *Courante) and the pe- 
riod of C. P. E. Bach show features more 
characteristic of Romanticism. 

The period of the Viennese classics em- 
braces the decades from 1770 to 1830 [see of a clausula GO [cf. ApNPMy passim], 
^German music V] . Its forms and style It goes without saying that all the parts of 
evolved in a very complex development a clausula are sung in vocalization, in the 
which started around 1740 and to which present example to the vowel o. 
various groups of composers in south- A great number of such clausulae (well 
western Germany (Mannheim), Vienna, over 500; about a dozen in three parts, the 
Italy, and Bohemia contributed. See others in two) are preserved in the sources 
*Mannheim School; ^Sonata; ♦Sonata of Notre Dame. They were written in the 
form; ♦Symphony; ♦Quartet. period of Perotinus of whom Anon. IV 

(C 5 i) says: “fecit clausulas sive puncta 
Clausula [L., close], (i) Cadence, par- plurima meliora” (he wrote many beau- 
ticularly the cadential formulae of i6th- tiful clausulae or puncta). The clausulae 
century polyphonic music, usually pro- were intended to serve as substitutes (Er- 
vided with (improvised) ornamental satzl^lausel, substitute clausula) for the 
notes. An elaborate system of classifica- corresponding sections (in the above case, 
tion and terminology, of little interest to- the section GO) in the organa of Leoni- 
day, has been worked out by the 17th- and nus which form the ♦Magnus liber organi. 
18th-century theorists [cf. GD i, 527f; see These organa consist, in alternation, of 
also reference under ♦Glosa]. “organal” sections in a relatively free 

(2) In the repertory of the School of rhythm, and of “discant” sections [see 
Notre Dame (c, 1200; see *Ars antiqua), ♦Discant] in strictly measured counter- 

[ 155 1 




CLAVECIN . 


CLAVICHORD 


point. It is the latter sections for which 
Perotinus and his collaborators provided 
substitutes, frequently shorter in length 
and more precise in rhythm [cf. HAM, 
nos. 28 and 30]. Occasionally, the origi- 
nal discant sections of the Leoninus or- 
gana are also spoken of as clausulae. 

Although the clausulae were originally 
designed as alternative sections of the or- 
gana, they were also (possibly at a some- 
what later period) used independently, 
though, of course, always in connection 
with plainsong. The following scheme 
for the Easter Alleluia [cf. GR, 223] illus- 
trates such a method of performance 
which could well be revived by a modern 
choir [capital letters indicate clausulae 
(in two parts), ordinary letters plain- 
song] : 

NOSTRUM 

Alleluia, alleluia. (V) Pascha NOSTRUM 
LATUS 

immo- LATUS est Christus. 

[See also *Motet A, L] It may be noticed 
that such a clausula-execution takes only 
a fraction of the time required for an or- 
ganum-cxecution in which the entire vers 
would be sung polyphonically. 

No less important than the backward 
reaching connection of the clausulae with 
organum and plainsong is another one, 
pointing towards the later development, 
that is, with the *motet. In fact, most of 
the early motets are directly derived from 
clausulae by retaining their music, but 
underlaying a full text to the melisma of 
the upper part. For the identification of a 
clausula (such as GO, *IN SECULUM, 
NOSTRUM, LATUS) the complete list 
given in F. Ludwig, Repertorium orga- 
norum recentioris et motetorum vetusUs- 
simi still (1910), pp. 25-29 and, particu- 
larly, pp. 79-95, is indispensable. [For an 
explanation of Ludwig’s somewhat cryp- 
tic terminology, cf. ApNPM, 238.] Cf. 
also ReMMAf 298!!; AdHM 2i8fl. 

Clavecin, clavessin [F.]. ♦Harpsi- 
chord. 

Clavecin d’amour, cembal d'amour, 
cembalo d’amore. A clavichord (not 
a cembalo, i.e., harpsichord), built by G. 


Silbermann in 1721, in which the strings 
arc double the normal length. They are 
plucked in the middle so that both sec- 
tions sound the same tone, with a highly 
desirable result of increased volume of 
tone. Accordingly, this instrument had 
no damping-cloth woven between the 
strings such as are indispensable in the 
ordinary clavichord in order to dampen 
the shorter section of the string. In spite 
of its various advantages, the instrument 
did not gain popularity. It is described in 
Mattheson’s Critica musica (1722-25), 
and in Adlung’s Musica mechanica 
(1768), III, 123. Cf. E. van der Straeten, 
in Musical Times^ Jan., 1924. 

Clavicembalo [It.]. *Harpsichord. 

Clavichord [G. Klavichord; It. clavi- 
cordo; earlier names are manichord, mani- 
cordion^ monachord]. The earliest type 
of stringed keyboard instrument. It prob- 
ably developed in the 12th century from 
the ♦monochord (or the ♦psalterium) by 
the addition of a keyboard. The clavi- 
chord consists of a wooden oblong box, 
varying in length from two to five feet, 
and resting on legs (earlier instruments 
were frequently without legs, being put 
on a table). The strings as well as the 
keyboard run parallel to the long side. 
The strings are put in vibration by small 
brass wedges, called tangents [from L. 
tangercy to touch], which are fastened to 
the rear of the lever. The tangents, by a 
sort of pressure-stroke from below, not 
only cause the string to vibrate, but also 
terminate their vibrating length, by divid- 
ing them in two parts the smaller of which 
is damped by a piece of cloth woven 
through the strings [see, however, ♦Clave- 
cin d’amour]. The production of sound 
is therefore similar to that of a violinist 
merely “fingering” on a string. The tan- 
gent, in striking the string, also serves 
to terminate its vibrating length. This 
fact makes it possible to use one and 
the same string for several tangents and 
keys, though only for those which would 
never be used simultaneously, for in- 
stance, C and C-sharp. In fact, in all the 
clavichords prior to 1720 use is made of 
this possibility, the number of strings be- 



CLAVICHORD 


CLAVICYTHERIUM 


ing considerably smaller than that of the 
keys. Such instruments arc called fretted 
[G. gebundenes Clavichord], The intro- 
duction of unf retted instruments [G. 
bundjreies Clavichord] y i.e., clavichords 
in which there is a different string to each 
key, is ascribed to Daniel Tob. Faber 
(around 1720). 

The tone of the clavichord is very soft 
and usually disappointing at first hearing. 
However, after becoming accustomed to 
the pianissimo-quality of the instrument, 
one is delighted with the subtleness and 
tenderness of its sound. Unlike the harp- 
sichord, the clavichord admits dynamic 
modifications of intensity which are pro- 
duced in a way similar to the technique of 
the pianoforte, by modifying the pressure 
of the fingers. A peculiar effect is the 
*Bebung, whose importance, however, is 
usually overrated. 

History. Johannes de Muris, in his 
Musica speculativa {c, 1325), describes an 
instrument, called monocordumy which 
doubtless is a clavichord [cf. SaHMly 
331]. The earliest record of the name is 
found in a poem Der Minne Regel by 
Eberhard Cersne (1404), in which men- 
tion is made of clavicimbaluniy monocor- 
diurriy clavichordiurriy and *schachtbret. 
In 1477 William Horwood taught the 
“clavychord’' at Lincoln Cathedral. Oth- 
er records from the late 15th century are 
mentioned in GD i, 661. The first clear 
description occurs in Virdung’s Musica 
getutscht of 1511. The French name 
manicordion appears on the tide of At- 
taingnant’s publications: Magnificat avec 
te deum et deux prSludeSy le tout mis en 
tabulature des orgueSy espinettes et mani- 
cordions . . . (1530) or: Dix-neuf chansons 
musicales reduictes en la tabulature des 
orgues espinettes manicordions et telz 
semblables instruments musicaux . . . 
(1530). An Italian publication referring 
to the instrument is: Intabulatura nova di 
varie sorte di balliy da sonar e per arpichor- 
diy clavicembaliy spinette e manachordi 
(1551). In the 17th century the clavichord 
fell into oblivion everywhere except in 
Germany, where it continued in use as a 
vehicle of expressiveness and sensitivity. 
The customary German name was C/a- 

[> 


vier. To judge from the appearance of 
this name on title pages, quite a number 
of important keyboard publications of the 
century would appear to have been written 
expressly for the clavichord, e.g., Johann 
Kuhnau’s Neue Clavierubung (1689, ’95) 
or Bach's * Clavierubung. Such a conten- 
tion, however, is not borne out by the con- 
tents of these books [see the discussion of 
this question under *Klavier]. On the 
other hand, to classify the clavichord as a 
mere “practice instrument,” as has been 
done by various writers, is equally wrong. 
It holds an important place in the musical 
life of the Baroque period as a domestic 
instrument of an intimate charm such as 
was foreign to the harpsichord as well as 
to the organ. A late revival of the clavi- 
chord took place in the period of the 
Empfindsam\eit [see *Empfindsamer 
Stil], owing chiefly to the strong interest 
which Ph. Em. Bach ( 1714-88) took in it. 
His Versuch uber die wahre Art das Cla- 
vier zu spielen (1753; new ed. by W. 
Niemann, 1906, 1921) is an eloquent 
apotheosis as well as a most thorough 
study of the instrument and its technique. 
His Probestiicke zum Versuch . . . (1753; 
new ed. by E. Doflein, Ed. Schott) is per- 
haps the most idiomatic clavichord music 
ever written, and contains practically the 
only pieces in which the *Bebung is clear- 
ly indicated. Not without interest is the 
attempt made by F. W. Rust in a sonata 
from 1792 [see *Editions XII B (n)] to 
exploit still other resources of the clavi- 
chord. See also *Keyboard music. 

Lit.; F. A. Goehlinger, Geschichte des 
Klavichords (Diss. Basle 1930); C. Auer- 
bach, Die deutsche Clavichordl^unst des 
18. Jahrhunderts (1910); G. Le Cerf, 
“Notes sur le clavicorde et le dulce mclos 
du ms. lat. 7295” {RdMy nos. 37, 38); E. 
Harich-Schneider, Fray Tomis de Santa 
Mariay Anmut und Kunst keim Clavi- 
chord spiel (1937; transl. from L'Arte de 
taner fantasiay 1565); iW., in AMF ii; C. 
Parrish, in BAMS iii. 

Clavicymbal. ^Harpsichord. 

Clavicytherium. A harpsichord with 
a vertical body (like the upright piano) 
[see ♦Harpsichord II] . It was in use dur- 

57] 



CLAVIER 


CLEF 


ing the i6th and 17th centuries. The ear- 
liest record is a reproduction contained in 
Virdung's Musica gctutscht (1511). Cf. 
SaRMy 217; N. BcssarabofI, Ancient Eu- 
ropean Musical Instruments (1941), pp. 
325 f. 

Clavier. ( i ) Pronounced kla'-vi-cr, i.e., 
keyboard. — (2) Pron. kla-ver', i.e., any 
stringed keyboard instrument, in modern 
times usually the pianoforte. — (3) For 
the German word, see *Klavier. — (4) 
The French word clavier has the meaning 
indicated under (i). 

Clavier Hans. See *Keyboard III. 

Clavieriibung [G., Study for key- 
board] . A title used by J. S. Bach for four 
publications of keyboard music. Clavier- 
ubung i (1731) contains the six ^partitas; 
ii (1735), the Italian Concerto and the 
French Overture; iii (1739), a number of 
organ chorales preceded by the Prelude in 
Eb, and closed by the Fugue in Eb (*St. 
Anne’s Fugue); iv (1742), the ♦Goldberg 
Variations. See remark under ♦Klavier. 
The title was adopted by Bach from for- 
mer publications, such as Johann Kuh- 
nau’s Clavieriibung aus 14 Partien . . . 
(1689), containing suites. 

Clavilux. An instrument invented by 
Thomas Wilfrid, around 1920, for the 
performance of ♦color music [see ♦Color 
organ]. 

Clavis [L., pi. claveSy key] . (i) A key of 
a keyboard [cf. the terms clavicembalo, 
clavier, Klaviatur, Klavier]. — (2) In 
medieval theory, claves are the pitch 
names a, b, c, . . . ; they were frequently 
written on the keys [cf. CS i, 214, 257] . — 
(3) In medieval theory, claves signatae are 
the clef signs (letters c, f, g). 

Clef [from L. *clavisy key; G. Schlussel\ 
It. chiave\, A sign written at the begin- 
ning of the staff in order to indicate the 
pitch of the notes. There arc three such 
signs (sec Example a). 

These severally represent the tones g', c', 
and f, hence, the names G-clef, C-clef, and 
F<lef. The G-clef, also called violin clef, 
is used on the second line of the staff; it 


indicates that the note on the second line 
is g'. The F-clef, also called bass clef, is 
used on the fourth line; it indicates that 
the note written on the fourth line is f. 
The C-clcf is used in two positions, on the 
third line (alto clef or viola clef), or on 
the fourth line (tenor clef) (see ^). The 
G-clef is used for the upper staff of piano- 
forte music and for all high instruments 
(violin, flute); the F-clef is used for the 
lower staff of pianoforte music and for 
all low instruments (cello, double bass). 
The alto clef is used for the viola and in- 
struments of a similar range; the tenor 
clef for the high range of the cello, the 
bassoon, the tenor trombone, etc. 

History, The above signs are evolution- 
ary modifications of the letters they stand 
for. Example c shows early shapes, illus- 
trating the gradual corruption of the let- 
ters c, f, and g. In music prior to 1750 
each of these signs occurs in various posi- 
tions. See Example d which also shows 
the position of middle C (c') in each clef. 

“4 N = 9^ 



Idlll I rrM I gsA i ii l 



CLEFS 

a. The G-cIef; three forms of the C-clef; the 
F-clcf. 

b. Position of the clefs on the staff. 

c. Early forms of the clefs. 

d. Positions of the clefs in music prior to 1750; 
(i) French violin clef; (2) Violin clef, G-clef, 
treble clef; (3) Soprano clef, descant clef; (4) 
Mezzo-soprano clef; (5) Alto clef, C-clef; 
(6) Tenor clef; (7) Bariton clef; (8) Bariton 
clef; (9) Bass clef, F-clcf; (10) Sub-bass clef. 

The great variety of clef-positions en- 
countered in old music results from the 
desire to avoid ledger lines. Whenever 
the range of a voice exceeded the five-line 
staff, the position of the clef was changed 
or another clef was introduced. In mod- 


[158] 




CLIMACUS 


COLLECT 


ern musicological publications of 15th- 
and 16th-century music the old clefs arc 
largely retained, a method which, al- 
though justifiable on historical and schol- 
arly grounds, has definitely been detri- 
mental to the furthering of studies and 
to the revival of early music. It is very 
gratifying to see that in some of the most 
recent publications only the F-clef and the 
G-clef are used, the latter also in a modi- 
fication indicating transposition an octave 
below (see ^). 



As a matter of fact, this transposed clef is 
very well suited to replace the alto clef as 
well as the tenor clef since its range is 
practically the same as that of the other 
two (see /). For reforms of clefs cf. 
WoHN ii, 339. See *Chiavette. 

Climacus. See *Neumes I (table). 

Clivis. See *Neumes I (table). 

Cloches [F.]. *Bells, especially those of 
the orchestra. 

Clocking. See under *Bell. 

Clock Symphony. Haydn’s Symphony 
no. loi (4) in D major, composed 1794 
in London. The name refers to the tick- 
ing motive to be found in the Andante. 

Clockwork instruments. See ♦Me- 
chanical music instruments. 

Clog box. A percussion instrument used 
in jazz bands and consisting of a block of 
wood, 7 or 8 inches long, with slots cut in 
it. It is struck with a drumstick. 

Clos [F.]. See *Ouvcrt and clos. 

Close. ♦Cadence. 

Close harmony. Chords in close posi- 
tion, i.e., with all the four notes within an 
octave or a twelfth. See ♦Spacing. 

Clubs, Musical. See ♦Societies. 

Clutsam keyboard. See ♦Keyboard III. 


C.O. [It.]. Co//’ i.e., with the high- 
er octave. C.o./>, colV ottava bassa, i.e., 
with the lower octave. 

Coda [It., tail]. A section of a composi- 
tion which is added to the form proper as 
a conclusion. Practically all fugues close 
with a shorter or longer coda which is fre- 
quently based on a pedal point (e.g., Bach, 
Wt. C/. i, C major). Bach’s organ fugue 
in A minor closes with a coda in brilliant 
toccata style. Likewise in sonatas, sym- 
phonies, etc., a coda is found at the end of 
each movement. In slow movements it 
usually serves as an epilogue, whereas in 
fast movements it often leads to a final 
climax, frequently combined with quick- 
ening of tempo (*stretto). In movements 
in sonata form the coda frequently takes 
on considerable dimension, and occasion- 
ally becomes a second development sec- 
tion [cf. the first movement of Beetho- 
ven’s Fifth Symphony]. A short coda is 
sometimes called codetta. However, this 
term commonly applies to the closing 
passage to be found at the end of sections, 
such as the exposition in sonata form or 
the first section (A) of a slow movement 
in ternary form (ABA). Beethoven’s 
pianoforte Sonata op. 2, no. 3 may be rec- 
ommended for a study of the coda in its 
various manifestations. Here even the 
Scherzo ends with a coda to be played aft- 
er the repetition of the Scherzo (“Scherzo 
da capo e poi la coda”). 

Codetta. See ♦Coda. 

Codex Bamberg, Burgos, etc. Sec 

♦Sources. Codex Calixtinus^ see also ♦St. 
Martial, School of. 

Colascione, colachon. See *Lute II. 

Colla, coir [It.]. “With the.” Colla 
destra, sinistra^ with the right, left hand. 
Colla parte ^ colla voce (with the part) is 
an indication directing the player of the 
accompaniment to “follow along” with 
the main part, which is to be performed 
in free rhythm. ColV arco, “with the bow,” 
after a passage in pizzicato. Colla punta 
d'arcOy “with the point of the bow.” 

Collect. In the Catholic rite, the prayer 
of the day at Mass and Offices, so called 


[ 159 1 



COLLEGES 


COLOMBIA 


because it originally “collected** the pray- 
ers of the people. It is sung to special reci- 
tation tones, called Toni Orationum [cf. 
ARy 49*; GR, 109*; L 17 , 98]. 

Colleges. See *Music education IV, IX; 
♦Profession 1 (c); *Degrees. 

Collegium musicum. The term prop- 
erly signifies musical associations con- 
nected with a university. A collegium 
musicum flourished at the university of 
Leipzig during the 17th and i8th centu- 
ries. For an American 18th-century in- 
stitution, see T. M. Finney, in PAMS, 
1937. The movement was revived by H. 
Riemann who established, around 1900, 
the first modern collegium musicum at 
the university of Leipzig. Today, every 
German university has its collegium mu- 
sicum. At Harvard University a collegium 
musicum was established by this writer 
in 1938. These associations generally em- 
phasize the amateur point of view and 
give preference to old or little played mu- 
sic. The performance is non-public or 
semi-public. An important step of the 
German movement was the introduction 
of old instruments, such as recorders, viols, 
gambas (W. Gurlitt, University of Frei- 
burg, 1920). See M. Gondolatsch, in 
ZMW iii; M. Seiffert, in SIM ii. 

Col legno [It., with the wood]. In vio- 
lin playing, the striking of the strings 
with the bow-stick, instead of with the 
hair. 

Coir ottava [It.]. With the octave. 

Colombia. The following were the out- 
standing musicians of Colombia during 
the 19th century: Enrique Price (1819- 
63), of English birth, who lived in New 
York for a time and then settled in Bogotd, 
where in 1846 he founded the Sociedad 
Filarmdnica, out of which all subsequent 
musical organizations in Colombia de- 
veloped. In 1847 he founded a School of 
Music in conjunction with the Philhar- 
monic Society. Juan Crisdstomo Osorio y 
Ricaurte (1863-87) composed *zarzuelas 
(comic operas) and other light stage- 
works. Julio Quevedo Arvelo (1829-97) 
was primarily a composer of church music, 


while Jose Maria Ponce de Le6n (1846- 
82) has the distinction of having written 
the only two Colombian operas to have 
reached the stage. Ester and Florinda, 
Orestc Sindici (1837-1904) won fame 
above all as composer of the National 
Hymn. The patriarch of Colombian mu- 
sic is Jorge W. Price (b. 1853), who in 
1882 founded the Academia Nacional de 
Musica, now known as the National Con- 
servatory of Music. Prominent as peda- 
gogue and composer was Andres Martinez 
Montoya (1869-1933), among whose 
works is a Rapsodia Colombtana for band. 
Santos Cifuentes (1870-1932) was a pro- 
lific composer of orchestral works, cham- 
ber music, operettas, etc. Among these 
may be mentioned the Sinfonta sobre aires 
tropicales and a Concerto for piano and 
orchestra. He was also the author of 
widely used theoretical works. 

The most notable of contemporary Co- 
lombian composers, and one of the lead- 
ing musical figures of Latin America, is 
Guillermo Uribe-Holguin (b. 1880). From 
1910 to 1933 he was director of the Na- 
tional Conservatory at Bogota; he was also 
founder and conductor of the Sociedad de 
Conciertos Sinfdnicos del Conservatorio. 
Possessing a solid technical equipment, he 
has produced numerous works in many 
forms, including a quantity of chamber 
music. Among his orchestral works are 
a Symphony in F minor, Sinfonta del Te- 
rrunOy and Tres Danzas, He has written 
a Requiem, a Te Deum, and other church 
music. From the viewpoint of musical 
nationalism, his most significant composi- 
tions arc the 300 Trozos en el sentimiento 
popular, for piano. Other noteworthy 
contemporary composers are Jesus Ber- 
mudez-Silva (b. 1884), Emilio Murillo 
(1880-1942), Jose Rozo Contreras (b. 
1894), Carlos Posada Amador (b. 1908), 
Adolfo Mejia (b. 1909), and Guillermo 
Espinosa (b. 1905), conductor of the Or- 
questa Sinfdnica Nacional, which he 
founded in 1936. 

Lit.: J. I. Perdomo Escobar, “Historia 
de la musica en Colombia** {Boletin latino- 
americano de musica, IV); F. C. Lange, 
“Guillermo Uribc-Holgum** {pp. cit,), 

G.C. 


[ 160 1 



COLOPHANE 

Colophane, colophony. See *Rosin. 

Color [L.]. (i) In 13th-century theory 
the term color signified various special 
devices of composition and performance, 
such as the repetition of a melodic phrase, 
its imitation (in *Stimmtausch), quota- 
tions from other sources [see ^Refrain], 
or embellishments, especially the vocal 
*vibrato [cf. Joh. de Garlandia, CS i, 
115/116]. The first meaning survived in 
the color of the *isorhythmic motet; the 
last, in the present-day term ^coloratura. 
— (2) For color temporisy color prolatio- 
nisy see ^Mensural notation V. 

Color and music. The physical and 
psychological relationships between the 
colors and the sounds have been the sub- 
ject of numerous studies. From the physi- 
cal point of view a fundamental analogy 
between the two phenomena exists in the 
fact that the various pitches of the musical 
scale as well as the colors of the optical 
spectrum are conditioned by waves and 
can be determined by frequencies of aerial 
and ethereal vibrations respectively. The 
frequencies of (audible) sound range from 
about 16 to 40,000 per second; those of 
(visible) light, from about 450 to 780 
billions per second. Since the latter two 
figures are nearly in the relation of 1:2 it 
would seem reasonable to compare the 
visible spectrum from red to violet, not to 
the entire audible musical scale, but only 
to an octave or, more nearly, to a seventh, 
c.g., to the tones 450 to 780 (approximately 
a' to g"). This analogy seems to be sup- 
ported by the fact that the number of col- 
ors in the spectrum is the same as that of 
the diatonic tones, that is, seven. How- 
ever, various incongruities of this analogy 
can easily be pointed out: (a) Newton’s 
distinction of seven colors is arbitrary; in 
fact, his scheme was partly influenced by 
the preconceived analogy with the mu- 
sical scale, (b) In reality, there arc infi- 
nitely more colors in the spectrum than 
there are tones in the musical octave, since 
the former is a continuous, the latter, a 
discrete multitude. Only the violin porta- 
mento could be compared to the optical 
spectrum, (c) The most serious objection 
is that the spectrum lacks the phenomenon 


COLOR AND MUSIC 

of the musical ♦octave, i.c., the identity or, 
at least, similarity, of its lower and upper 
end. (d) In general, the laws relating to 
colors (e.g., complementary colors, such 
as orange and blue, red and green) arc of 
an entirely different nature from those 
governing the sounds (consonance and 
dissonance). The chief studies in the 
above field were made by I. Newton 
(1700), W. von Goethe (1810), and H. 
Helmholtz (numerous essays, 1860-80). 

Among musicians the psychological or 
synacsthetic approach to the question of 
color and sound has been more popular 
than the physical. It seems that a number 
of musicians, particularly among Russians 
and Englishmen, possess a peculiar mental 
faculty which produces in their minds a 
coordination between sounds and colors. 
This faculty appears to be of a highly sub- 
jective nature, as the various schemes of 
coordination differ widely. For instance, 
Rimsky-Korsakov interpreted the keys of 
C, D, A, F and F-sharp (all major) as 
white, yellow, rosy, green, and grayish- 
green, respectively, while according to 
Scriabin they represent red, yellow, green, 
red, and bright blue. 

Colors have also been associated with 
entire works — e.g., Tannhduserx blue; 
The Flying Dutchman: green (the “blue 
cave” of Venus and the “green sea”?) — 
and even with composers (Mozart: blue; 
Chopin: green; Beethoven: black). An 
example of a composition based on color 
impressions is Arthur Bliss’s Colour Sym- 
phony (1922) each movement of which 
represents the associations of a special col- 
or (e.g., purple: royalty, pageantry, and 
death). Oviously the whole matter of 
color-sound-synaesthcsia is a largely sub- 
jective experience, comparable to personal 
likes and dislikes of smells and flavors. 

More important are the synaesthetic 
analogies between the optical colors and 
the timbres (tone-“colors,” G. Klang- 
**farhen’) of instruments. The terms 
“orchestral colors” or “orchestral palette” 
are widely used to signify a musical tech- 
nique reminiscent of, and largely derived 
from, methods used in modern painting 
[sec ♦Impressionism]. However, it ap- 
pears that these terms signify only the 


[ 161 ] 



COLORATION 


COLORISTS 


general technique of modern orchestra- 
tion, without implying any specific anal- 
ogy between special colors and special 
instruments. In fact, any such specific co- 
ordination is of a no less subjective nature 
than that of color-key relationship. It is 
doubtful how many musicians would sub- 
scribe to the statement, made by Bosan- 
quet in 1876, that there exists a “remark- 
able agreement amongst musicians re- 
garding the ‘color of instruments,’ that is, 
black for strings and voices(!), red for 
brass and drums, blue for wood.” There 
is perhaps only one such association which 
is likely to meet with fairly general con- 
sent, that indicated by the expression : the 
silvery tone of the harpsichord. It is ob- 
vious, however, that in this expression 
reference is made, not to the “color silver,” 
but to the “sound silver” (dropping of a 
silver coin). Color associations are fre- 
quent in Oriental musical cultures, China, 
India, Egypt, etc. Here they are pact 
and parcel of a cosmologic symbolism 
which is far removed from the subjec- 
tive and psychological approach of West- 
ern music [see Lit., Wellek]. See *Color 
organ. 

Lit.: A. B. Klein, Colour Music — the 
Art of Light (1926; bibl.); O. Ortmann, 
Theories of Synesthesia in the Light of a 
Case of Color-Hearing (1933); A. W. 
Rimington, Colour Music (1912); T. F. 
Karwosli and H. S..Odbert, Color-Music 
(1938); F. Suarez de Mendoza, L Audi- 
tion colors (1899; bibl.); G. Anschutz, 
Kurze Einfuhrung in die Farbe-Ton- 
Forschung (1927); WoHN ii, 460; L. 
Sabaneew, in ML x, no. 3; E. Whomes, 
in PMA xiii; A. Wellek, in ZMW xi. 

Coloration. See ^Mensural notation V. 

Coloratura [It.]. Rapid passages, runs, 
trills, and similar virtuoso-like material, 
particularly in vocal melodies of the i8th- 
and 19th-century operatic arias: aria di 
coloratura^ aria di bravura^ Koloraturarie. 
A famous example is the aria of the Queen 
of Night in Mozart’s Magic Flute, Also 
used for the stereotyped ornamentation 
formulae of 16th-century keyboard and 
lute music [see *Colorists]. 


Colorists [G, Koloristen], A name in- 
troduced by A. G. Ritter [see Lit.] and 
widely adopted to signify a group of Ger- 
man organ composers of the late i6th 
century, including Elias Nicolaus Am- 
merbach (1530-97), Bernhard Schmid the 
older (c, 1520-90), Jacob Paix (1556- 
1617), B. Schmid the younger (154^?), 
and others. Although the name serves as 
a convenient designation, it is rather mis- 
leading in its literal interpretation as well 
as in its implied pejorative side meaning. 
It is true that the musicians of this group 
made abundant use of stereotyped and 
meaningless *coloraturas, particularly in 
their Hntabulierungen of motets and 
chansons. However, this method was 
internationally used by organists and lu- 
tenists throughout the i6th century; it 
occurs in the keyboard and lute books of 
Attaingnant {c, 1530) and in the lute 
books of Hans and Melchior Neusidler 
(1535, ’75), as well as in A. Gabrieli’s key- 
board arrangements of French chansons 
{c, 1550) and in those of the Fitz william 
Virginal Boo\ (c, 1600). The harsh 
judgment imposed on the “colorists” by 
Ritter is all the more unjust since these 
composers actually made outstanding 
contributions in another field, i.e., dance 
music. It should also be noted that B. 
Schmid the older in his publication of 
1577 expressly says that he would prefer 
to leave the “art of the composer un- 
changed,” and that his “modest” colora- 
turas are added only for the benefit of the 
young and inexperienced players [cf. 
Frotscher i, 154]. To include Johannes 
Woltz (tablature of 1617) in this group, 
as Ritter does, is not correct, since Woltz 
renounces the addition of coloraturas al- 
together. Even more misleading is the 
inclusion of Arnolt Schlick [cf. AdHM i, 
385] who is not only much too early but 
also much too great a composer to be 
grouped with the above. 

Lit.: A. G. Ritter, Zur Geschichte des 
Orgelspiels (1884); G. Frotscher, Ge- 
schichte des Orgelspiels und der Orgel- 
composition (1935); W. Apel, “Early 
German Keyboard Music” [MQ xxiii, 
231]; W. Merian, fDer Tanz in den 


[ 162 ] 



COLOR ORGAN 

deutschen T abulaturbiichern (1927; tran- 
scriptions). 

Color organ. The keyboard of the or- 
gan, harpsichord, pianoforte, has been 
frequently used as a medium of coordi- 
nating sound and color [see *Color and 
music]. In 1720 a Jesuit priest, L. B. 
Castel (1688-1757), constructed a “Clave- 
cin oculaire” in which the keys were me- 
chanically connected with colored tapes; 
similar contrivances were devised fre- 
quently during the i8th and 19th cen- 
turies. While these apparatus were based 
upon the idea of an exact correspondence 
between a single sound and a single color, 
thus producing what might be called an 
“optical translation of a composition,” a 
more liberal attitude has been taken re- 
cently. Literal translation has been re- 
placed by “general coordination” between 
musical and optical impressions. Exam- 
ples are the color organ of Mrs. M. H. 
Green wait (exhibited in New York, 1921) 
and the Musichrome of G. L. Hall (Bos- 
ton, 1930), which was designed “to create 
a color accompaniment which coordinates 
with the music and helps to enhance the 
mood and spirit of the composition.” Still 
farther away from the idea of strict sound- 
color analogy is the Clavilux of Th. Wil- 
frid, which was exhibited in New York 
in 1922 and which, so far, has proved the 
most successful color organ, probably ow- 
ing to the fact that it altogether renounces 
the coordination of sound and light, and 
merely bestows upon optical phenomena 
the essential musical factors of time, 
rhythm, and changing combinations. It 
has no sound-producing apparatus and is 
designed only as a medium for a new art 
of color, in which optical phenomena 
(colored circles, squares, spirals, etc., pro- 
jected on a screen) move rhythmically in 
“crescendo,” “decresccndo,” “acceleran- 
do,” “ritardando,” etc. Mr. Wilfrid has 
created a number of “compositions,” c.g., 
a “Triangular Etude.” Performances of 
this type are occasionally shown in motion 
pictures, to the accompaniment of music. 

Among composers, Scriabin was the 
most outspoken protagonist of color mu- 
sic. In his Prometheus (op. 60, 1910) he 


COMBINATION TONE 

undertook to demonstrate the affinity, 
scientific and spiritual, that he believed to 
exist between tone and color. He pre- 
scribed a sf^cial instrument for it, a “cla- 
vier i lumiere” invented by Rimington. 
The only recorded performance of the 
composition with color accompaniment 
took place in Carnegie Hall, in 1914. For 
literature, see under *Color and music. 

Colpo d’arco [It.]. Stroke of the bow 
(of violins, etc.). 

Combination pedal, . . . stops. See 

♦Organ IV. 

Combination tone [resultant tone; G. 
Kombinationston], In musical acoustics, 
a tone of different pitch which is heard 
when two loud tones are sounded simul- 
taneously. Its frequency is the difference 
{differential tones) or the sum {summa- 
tion tones) of the frequencies of the two 
primary tones or of their multiples. For 
instance, if the two primary tones have the 
frequencies 1200 and 700, the following 
differential tones (D) and summation 
tones (S) can be heard: Di: 1200 — 700 = 
500; £>2- 2 X 1200 — 700 = 1700; D3: 
2 X 700 — 1200 = 200; Si: 1200+700 = 
1900; S2: 2 X 1200 + 700 = 3100; S3: 
2 X 700 + 1200 = 2600, etc. The combi- 
nation tones are frequently referred to 
as an acoustical phenomenon. Actually, 
however, they are a physiological phenom- 
enon. If the vibrations 1200 and 700 are 
produced, none of the vibrations 500, 
1700, etc., actually exist in the air; it is the 
inner ear {cochlea) which, owing to its 
“non-linear” organization, produces the 
aural sensations corresponding to the 
additive or subtractive frequencies. The 
term “non-linear,” roughly explained, 
means that the combination of two sounds 
with the intensities a and b is not deter- 
mined by the “linear” formula a + b, but 
by more complicated formulae, involving 
squares, etc. The “linear” formula is 
valid only for small intensities; as a matter 
of fact, combination tones are heard only 
if the original tones are sufficiently loud. 

The differential tones (which are more 
easily recognized than the summation 
tones) were discovered by G. Tartini in 

r 163 1 



COME 

1714, and described in his Trattato dei 
principii dell* armonia musicale of 1754 
(an earlier description appeared in a book 
of G. A. Sorge: Vorgemach der musu 
\alischen Composition^ 1745). The tone 
frequently referred to as “Tartini’s tone” 
[It. terzo suonOy “third tone”] is the first 
of the above combination tones, deter- 
mined by the difference of the original 
frequencies. The accompanying table 
shows this tone for various intervals (c' 
arbitrarily = 300). 



Tartini’s tone can easily be heard on the 
harmonium, the organ, and the violin. 
On the violin, .it was recommended by 
Tartini and other violinists (Leop. Mo- 
zart) as a means of controlling the correct 
intonation of double-stops, since a slight 
inaccuracy results in a more easily notice- 
able change of the low-pitched differential 
tone. The name “beat-tones” formerly 
applied to the differential tones is mis- 
leading. It is derived from the theory 
advanced by Th. Young (1773-1823) 
according to which the differential tones 
are quick *beats (more than 40 per sec- 
ond). This theory was refuted by Helm- 
holtz who discovered the summation tones 
by calculations based upon the principle 
of “non-linear superposition,” thus pav- 
ing the way for the modern theory. Re- 
cent research has brought about the star- 
tling result that certain well-established 
musical sounds, e.g., that of the G-string 
of the violin, are physically non-existent, 
being produced only aurally as the dif- 
ferential tones of their upper partials [see 
♦Timbre]. 

Practical application of the first differ- 
ential tone is made in the ♦acoustical bass 
of organs. For literature, sec the books 
listed under *Acoustics. 

Come [It.]. “As,” “like.” Come prima^ 
come sopra^ as at first, as previously; come 


COMIC OPERA 

sthy as it stands, i.c., without improvised 
additions. 

Comedie. A name occasionally used for 
operas in a light and slightly comical vein. 
For corned ie-ballet, see under ♦Ballet, also 
♦Entr’acte. 

Comes [L.]. See ♦Fugue; ♦Canon (i). 

Comic opera. I. Definition, General 
name for an opera or other dramatic work 
with a large admixture of music, on a 
light or sentimental subject, with a happy 
ending, and in which the comic element 
plays a certain part. The term thus com- 
prises a number of types, such as the 
♦operetta, ♦vaudeville, opera-bouffe, mu- 
sical comedy, etc., the distinctions between 
which are not always clearly marked. Un- 
til the middle of the 19th century comic 
operas (except for the Italian opera buff a) 
usually contained spoken dialogue; in 
more recent times this feature has tended 
to disappear, so that now the distinction 
on this basis is no longer generally valid. 
Incidentally, it should be noted that not 
all operas with spoken dialogue are “com- 
ic,” though in France the name “opera- 
comique” is traditionally applied to such 
works, even when they are serious or 
tragic in character, e.g., Bizet’s Carmen. 
The music of comic opera is always more 
“popular” in style than that of serious 
opera, generally easier both to perform 
and to comprehend, and appealing to less 
sophisticated audiences. Its function is 
relatively less important than in serious 
opera, and in some forms (e.g., musical 
comedy) it is confined to a series of “hit” 
songs or other musical specialties. The 
scenes and personages of comic opera are 
apt to be taken from everyday life; or if 
fantasy is present it is treated in a senti- 
mental or amusing fashion. Frequently 
there is satire of manners, allusion to cur- 
rent topics, or parody of the serious opera 
style. 

II. History, a. Comic scenes early made 
their way into serious opera, and the 
juxtaposition of serious and comic epi- 
sodes is a general feature of the 17th-cen- 
tury librettos. Examples may be found in 
Landi’s Morte d'Orfeo (1619) and San 
Alessio (1632), in Mazzochi’s Catena 


[164] 



COMIC OPERA 


COMIC OPERA 


d'Adone (1626), and Cornachioli’s Diana 
schernita (1629), all of the Roman school. 
L. Rossi’s Orjeo (Paris, 1647) is another 
instance. The same practice may be ob- 
served in Venetian opera, e.g., in Monte- 
verdi’s Incoronazione di Poppea (1642), 
Cavalli’s Giasone (1649), Cesti’s Porno 
d*oro (1667), and to an even greater de- 
gree in later Venetian works. The earliest 
independent comic operas are Mazzochi’s 
and Marazzoli’s Che soffre speri (1639) 
and Abbatini’s and Marazzoli’s Dal male 
il bene (1654), both to librettos by Giulio 
Ruspigliosi (later Pope Clement IX). The 
last-mentioned work is notable for its use 
of parlando-recitativc and for its ensemble 
finales, both of which features are promi- 
nent in the later comic opera style. An- 
other early example is Melani’s La Tancia 
(Florence, 1657), which contains a par- 
ody of the famous “Incantation scene” of 
Cavalli’s Giasone, In the second half of 
the 17th century Venice was the center of 
a considerable school of comic opera which 
has not yet been fully studied [cf. H. C. 
Wolf, “Die venczianische Oper,” in 
ZMIFxvi]. 

b. With the abolition of comic episodes 
in the “reformed” opera librettos of Zeno 
and Metastasio, the comic opera as a sep- 
arate genre took on renewed importance. 
Comic opera in the i8th century shows 
well-defined national types. The Italian 
opera buffa began early in the century to 
evolve out of ^intermezzi performed be- 
tween the acts of serious operas. The fully 
developed independent form, of which the 
most famous early example is Pergolesi’s 
Sert/a padrona (1733), retained traces of 
its origin in the designation “intermezzo” 
and in the customary division into two 
acts (as opposed to the three-act arrange- 
ment of the opera seria). The Italian buffo 
operas are remarkable for the liveliness 
and humor of their action, for the high 
development of comic characterization in 
their music, and for the use of ensemble 
finales. The leading composers were 
Logroscino, Galuppi, Pergolesi, Anfossi, 
Guglielmi, Piccini, Paisiello, Cimarosa, 
and Mozart. Toward the end of the cen- 
tury the Italian comic opera (like that of 
all other countries) tended to combine 

[ 


with the earlier farcical intrigue type of 
plot some elements of the semi-serious, 
sentimental drama; at the same time the 
character of its music changed accord- 
ingly, becoming on occasion more expres- 
sive, lyric, and dignified. Examples of 
this later type are Piccini’s Buona figliola 
(1760, libretto by Goldoni), Paisiello’s 
Nina (1789), Mozart’s Nozze di Figaro 
(1786), and Cimarosa’s Matrimonio se- 
greto (1792). 

c. The French opera-comique^ begin- 
ning before 1715 with popular farces and 
satires mingling spoken dialogue with 
songs to familiar airs (“vaudevilles”), 
was given a new direction by the example 
of the Italian buffo opera [see Guerre des 
*Bouffons] and developed a type known 
as “Comedie melee d’ariettes,” i.e., a 
“spoken comedy mingled with [original- 
ly-composed] songs,” of which the chief 
composers were J. J. Rousseau (/> Devin 
du village^ 1752), Gluck (La Rencontre 
imprevucy Vienna, 1764), Philidor (Tom 
Jones, 1765), Monsigny (Le DSserteur, 
1769), and Gretry (Zemire et Azor, 1771; 
Richard Coeur-de-Lion, 1784). The ro- 
mantic quality of the librettos of many of 
these works, and the frequent touching 
upon political and social problems, show 
the influence of Rousseau and the Ency- 
clopedists. 

d. The typical English 18th-century 
form was the ^Ballad opera, which was 
succeeded by similar works using original 
music by such composers as Dr. Thomas 
Arne (Love in a Village, 1762), Charles 
Dibdin (The Waterman, 1774), William 
Shield (Rosina, 1783), and Stephen Stor- 
ace (The Haunted Tower, 1789). With 
respect to subject matter and treatment 
the course of English comic opera in this 
period is parallel to that of the French 
op6ra-comiquc. 

The corresponding form for this period 
in Spain is the *Tonadilla [see also *Zar- 
zuela; *Sainete], 

e. In Germany the ^Singspiel was cul- 
tivated at Leipzig by Joh. Adam Hiller, 
using for the most part plays adapted from 
French opcras-comiques by Chr. F. Weisse 
(Die Jagd, 1770, from Monsigny’s Roi et 
le fermier). Other North German com- 

65] 



COMIC OPERA 


COMMA 


posers were Georg Benda (D^r lahrmarl^ty 
1775; in DdT 64), Chr. Neefe, and J. An- 
dre. In Vienna a different type of Sing- 
spiel, strongly influenced by the Italian 
buffo style, developed. The chief com- 
posers were Umlauf {Die Bergf^nappen^ 
1778; in DTOe i8.i), Mozart {Die Ent- 
fuhrung aus dem Seraily 1782), Ditters- 
dorf {Do\tor und Apot helper y 1786), and 
Joh. Schenk {Der Dorjbarbiefy 1796; in 
DTOe 34). 

f. In the 19th century the comic opera 
lost some of its earlier distinctive char- 
acter, approaching on the one hand the 
style, form, and subject matter of serious 
opera or on the other hand tending to- 
ward the light, purely “entertainment” 
type such as the *vaudeville, ^operetta, 
♦zarzuela, etc. In Italy the opera buffa is 
continued by Simon Mayr, F. Paer, Ros- 
sini, and Donizetti. The French opera- 
comique is represented by Boi’eldieu {La 
Dame blanche y 1825), Auber {Fra Dia- 
voloy 1830), Harold {Le Pri aux clercSy 
1832), Adam {Le Postilion de Longju- 
meaUyiS^6),2ind Victor Masse(iL<f^ Noces 
de Jeanette y 1853). English comic operas 
were composed by Sir Henry R. Bishop 
(works 1804-40), but the best English 
works in the comic vein are Sullivan’s 
operettas {H.M,S, Pinaforey 1878; The 
Pirates of Penzance y 1880; The MikadOy 
1885). The best-known German comic 
operas of this period (known as * Spiel- 
oper) are K. Kreutzer’s Nachtlager von 
Granada ( 1 834), Lortzing’s Zar und Zim- 
mermann (1839) and Der Wildschutz 
(1842), O. Nicolai’s Lustigen Weiber von 
Windsor (1847), Flotow’s Martha ( 1847), 
and P. Cornelius’ Bar bier von Bagdad 
(1858). One of the most popular comic 
operas of the 19th century was Smetana’s 
^Bartered Bride (1866). 

Since the middle of the century, comic 
opera of various sorts has been cultivated 
in all countries, chiefly by composers not 
distinguished in any other field. These 
works are very numerous, but for the 
most part ephemeral. A few comic operas 
of lasting merit and on a large scale have 
been produced, of which four may be 
particularly mentioned; Wagner’s *Meis- 
ter singer von Number g (perf. 1868), Ver- 


di’s ^Falstaff (1893), R. Strauss’s *Rosen- 
J{avalier (1911), and Hindemith’s Neues 
vom Tage (1929). Sec also ♦Operetta. 

Lit.: A. della Corte, U Opera comica 
italiana nel 'yoo (1923); M. Scherillo, 
Storia letteraria delV opera buffa napoli- 
tana (1918); G. Cucuel, Les CrSateurs de 
V opira<omique franqais (1913); D. J. 
Grout, The Origins of the Comic Opera 
(unpubl. diss. Harvard 1939); K. Liithge, 
Die deutsche Spieloper (1924); R. Vene, 
“The Origin of Opera Buffa” {MQ xxi); 
M. Cauchie, “The High-Lights of French 
Opera Comique” {MQ xxv); N. D’Ari- 
enzo, “Origin! dell’ opera comica” {RMl 
ii, iv, vi, vii); G. E. Bonnet, “Andre Phi- 
lidor et la naissance de I’opera-comique” 
{RM ii); Special Number, RM xiv; L. 
Holzer, “Die komischen Opern Glucks” 
{StM xiii); H. Abert, “Paisiello’s Buffo- 
kunst und ihre Beziehung zu Mozart” 
{AMWi). D.J.G. 


Comma. A scientific term for the minute 
differences which exist between the 
pitches of the same tone in different sys- 
tems of tuning or calculation. The two 
most important ones are: (a) the Pythag- 
orean comma. This indicates the inaccu- 
racy of the so-called ♦circle of fifths 
which, if based on pure fifths, actually is 
a “spiral of fifths.” Starting from c = i, 
the frequency of the 12th fifth, i.e., of b#, 

is (i.rx(iy = J3^ (the first 
^2' ^2' 524288 ^ 

power indicates the number of ascending 
fifths; the second reduces this extremely 
high tone into the normal octave), a tone 
which is slightly higher than the tone c 
(frequency i). The difference, of 24 
cents, is the Pythagorean comma, (b) 
The Didymic (Didymos, Greek theorist, 
b. 63 B.C.) or syntonic comma which in- 
dicates the difference between E as the 
fourth tone of the circle of fifth (Pythago- 

rcan system): (|-) X (j) = -^ 
and the E of ♦just intonation (fifth har- 
monic): The value of this comma is: 

4 

81 4 8i ^ , 

— X — = — = 22 cents. It shows 

64 5 80 


[166] 



COMMODO 


COMPARATIVE MUSICOLOGY 


that the final tone of the series c-g-d'- 
a'-c" (pure fifths) is slightly higher than 
that of the series c~c'--g'-c"-e" ( par- 
tial) . The third of equal temperament 
lies almost midway between these two 
other thirds, thus forming a comma with 
each: E (pyth.) = 408 cents; E (equ. 
temp.) = 400 cents; E (just inton.) == 
386 cents. The Didymic comma also in- 
dicates the difference between the two 


whole-tones of just intonation. 


9 

8 


and 


10 9 9 81 

9 8 10 80 * 

Yet another comma is the schisma, i.e., 
the difference between c and the (pure) 
third of the eighth Pythagorean fifth, 
i.e., the third above g%. Its value is 


Common time. Name for 4/4-meter. 

Commune Sanctorum. See under 
*Gregorian chant I. 

Communion [L. communio^. In the 
Roman Catholic service, the last of the 
five items of the Proper of the *Mass, 
sung after (originally during) the dis- 
tribution of the Host. Originally it was 
an antiphon with the psalm verse Gustate 
€t videte {Taste ye and see) from Ps. 33 
or with other psalm verses [see * Anti- 
phon (3)], However, these verses dis- 
appeared soon so that only an antiphon 
{antiphona ad communionem) remained. 
The communion antiphons arc moder- 
ately melismatic melodies, sung chorally 
with a solistic ^incipit. 


(■7) ^ (■f’) ^ ("r) 

reduces the accumulated intervals into the 
32805 

original octave) = = 2 cents 

(Vioo of ^ whole-tone). This is one of 
the smallest intervals encountered in 
mathematical acoustics and is entirely 
negligible for all practical purposes. A 
simple calculation shows that the schisma 
also indicates the difference between the 
Pythagorean and the syntonic comma: 

3^^ V 3^X5 

2IO ^ ^4 • 

It very nearly equals the difference be- 
tween the Pythagorean fifth % andjthe 
fifth of equal temperament: 2)’^, 

This comma (1.629 cents) is therefore 
also called schisma. 

An idea of the practical importance of 
these micro-intervals might be obtained 
from the fact that the interval of 6 cents 
or, approximately, of the syntonic 
comma can still be recognized by very 
sensitive ears. 

Commodo [It.]. Convenient, moderate. 

Common chord. An older name for 
the major triad. 

Common meter. See Poetic meter II. 

Common of the Mass. Sec ^Ordinary 
and Proper. 


Comparative musicology. The term 
which is a translation of G. Vergleichende 
Musil^wissenschaft denotes a special field 
of musicological research, that is, the 
study of ^exotic music. Early studies in 
this field were made by P. du Halde 
(Chinese music, 1736), by P. Amiot 
(Chinese music, 1779), by Andres (Ara- 
bian music, 1787), and by R. G. Kiese- 
wetter (Arabian music, 1842). However, 
the systematic exploration of the field and 
the establishment of an organized activ- 
ity along scientific lines is of a much more 
recent date (after 1900). Perhaps the 
most momentous step was the introduc- 
tion of the phonograph as the only reli- 
able means for the recording of exotic 
melodies which, regarding pitch as well 
as rhythm, usually defy the writing down 
in the European system of notation. 
Ellis' method of measuring intervals in 
*cents provided the scientific basis for the 
exact determination of exotic scales. See 
^Musicology. 

Lit.: W. V. Bingham, Five Years of 
Progress in Comparative Musicology Sci- 
ence (1914; bibl.); C. Sachs, Verglei- 
chende Musil{wissenschaft (1930); C. 
Stumpf, Die Anfdnge der Musi\ (1911); 
various articles in Sammelb'dnde fiir ver- 
gleichende Musil{wissenschaft (1922) and 
in Zeitschrift fiir vergleichende Musi\- 
wissenschaft i, ii (1933/35)* E. v. Horn- 
bostel, “Die Probleme der vergleichenden 


[ 167] 



COMPASS 


COMPOSITION 


Musikwisscnschaft” {ZIM vii]; G. Schii- 
ncmann, “Uebcr die Bcziehungcn der 
vergleichendcn Musikwisscnschaft zur 
Musikgeschichte” [AMW ii]; E. Ha- 
raszti, “F^tis fondateur de la musicologie 
comparec” [AM iv, no. 3] . See also under 
♦Musicology; ♦Primitive music. 

Compass. The range of notes obtain- 
able from an instrument or voice. 

Competitions. For a list see Pierre 
Key’s Music Year Boo\, 

Compiacevole [It.]. Pleasing. 

Complement. The difference between 
the octave and any interval, therefore 
identical with inverted interval [see ♦In- 
version (i)]. For instance, the comple- 
ment of the fifth is the fourth, that of the 
sixth is the third. 

Compline. See ♦Office hours. 

Composition. I. This article will not 
recommend methods or studies by which 
one may learn to compose. Neither will 
it number and discuss the various so- 
called elements of composition, harmony, 
rhythm, melody, counterpoint, etc. For 
composition means ‘‘putting together” 
and not “taking apart”; and while these 
elements may be studied separately, as 
various branches of theory, they should 
be studied as a whole When the subject is 
composition. Finally, the present article 
will say little about “inspiration” and its 
place in composition. The subject has 
already been be-labored, without anything 
very definite having ever been said. This 
article is concerned almost exclusively 
with the teaching (consequently, the 
learning) of composition, with the rela- 
tion of theory to composition, and with 
certain other problems arising from such 
an inquiry. 

In a sense, anyone who writes a piece 
of music is a composer, regardless of the 
length, originality, or artistic achievement 
of the piece. In the same way, anyone 
who daubs oil on a canvas may call 
himself a painter. But the world, fortu- 
nately, does not admit of such a lax view. 
The composer (as well as the painter) is 

[^ 


expected to show some skill in handling 
his materials (technique) and some de- 
gree of originality. The first of these re- 
quirements, technique, may be learned 
and acquired, provided that the student 
has a basic minimum of musical ability. 
This branch of music is called T heory and 
includes harmony, counterpoint, orches- 
tration, etc. The second, the requirement 
of originality, can scarcely be learned, 
though it may be developed and culti- 
vated. 

Technique is usually developed through 
the imitation of existing models, the 
student striving to make his works as 
perfect as those he imitates. Paradoxically 
enough, such imitation may also be a 
means of stimulating originality; for the 
student may rearrange the given mate- 
rials, or may add something that is dis- 
tinctly his own; and he may well pass 
from imitation to originality. Perhaps 
when imitation ceases, composition may 
be said to begin. This is not to say that 
the composer must write something en- 
tirely new. The originality may lie in the 
way he employs older procedures and 
older idioms. Only there must be enough 
of himself in the result — regardless of 
how this originality manifests itself — 
to give his work the conviction and 
strength which purely imitative works 
cannot convey. An apt parallel may be 
drawn from the field of painting. The 
least highly regarded canvases are those 
which are the closest to photography, 
those which merely imitate; the most 
highly prized paintings display original- 
ity of treatment, even when portraying 
the most ordinary subject. 

Musical theory is not greatly concerned 
with aesthetic problems of originality or 
even of beauty (an elusive word, which 
in music might be translated “strength”). 
It is concerned with correctness, with the 
manner of procedure, with the means and 
the materials of composition, without too 
much regard to the effect. In composition 
the reverse is true. The means is unim- 
portant; correctness means nothing in it- 
self; the effect is everything. Considered 
from this standpoint, musical theory and 
composition present no contradictions, 

68 ] 



COMPOSITION 


COMPOSITION 


since they belong in different spheres. 
Since composition is concerned exclu- 
sively with effect, the task of the compo- 
sition teacher is to suggest ways in which 
the student may improve the effect — 
i.e., make the piece more beautiful. And 
as few can agree on what is beautiful in 
contemporary art, the teacher's position 
is often difficult. Yet there are certain 
qualities which, all musicians would 
agree, are fundamental to a successful 
composition: a sense of movement or 
flow; a balanced formal structure; a bal- 
ance of unity and variety; a homogeneity 
of style. It is for the teacher to sense any 
deficiencies in these larger categories and 
to suggest remedies suitable to the piece 
in question. 

II. The composer of recent times stands 
in a peculiar position in regard to the 
music of the past. By reprinting a great 
quantity of old music, musicology has 
given the composer ready access to com- 
positions from all periods of music. As a 
result, many modern composers have re- 
ceived inspiration from the music of re- 
mote times, creating in old forms and em- 
ploying archaic idioms (e.g., Malipiero, 
Holst, Vaughan Williams, Ernst Bloch, 
Debussy, Ravel, Hindemith; see *Modal- 
ity; *Neo-classicism; *New Music). 
Many teachers of composition refer their 
students to old music for models; Pales- 
trina, Bach, Mozart, and Beethoven are 
used with particular frequency. An ex- 
treme instance is to be seen in d'Indy's 
book Cours de Composition^ in which the 
student is taken successively through the 
various stages of music history. It may 
be rightly questioned whether such back- 
ward-looking preoccupation with the past 
is a healthy phenomenon in the realm of 
creative music. In previous ages, the 
composer was concerned chiefly with the 
music of his own time and that of his im- 
mediate predecessors, upon which he 
built or against which he revolted. It may 
be that modern dependence on, and bor- 
rowing from, the past may betray the 
weakness and creative impotence of the 
present. 

III. Various books exist which purport 
to teach the art of composition. Some of 


these are puerile and of little value; others 
arc comparatively sound and contain in- 
formation which is valid and useful to 
the student. The best books of the latter 
sort, however, fall rather in the sphere of 
theory — harmony, counterpoint, form, 
and analysis — and their best pages are 
concerned with these theoretical subjects. 
As such, they tell little about composition, 
which is the combination of these various 
elements. A real book on composition 
would have to be sub-titled: How to com- 
bine melody, harmony, rhythm, counter- 
point, and form into a satisfactory whole. 
It is doubtful whether such a book can 
ever be written. Possibly the most useful 
books are those which treat chiefly of 
form (not of forms) in the sense of dy- 
namic growth. How to develop a motive, 
construct and combine musical phrases, 
modulate effectively, balance musical 
masses and sections: these are matters 
which touch very closely upon composi- 
tion. 

The difficulty of writing about com- 
position is strikingly evident in the variety 
of material contained in books bearing the 
word in their title. Some (e.g., the little 
book called Composition by Sir John 
Stainer) are little more than musical 
primers, treating of elementary harmoni- 
zation and giving a few notions about 
melody, rhythm, accompaniments, etc. 
Some are even designed as textbooks, 
having questions and drills for the stu- 
dent (e.g., Hamilton: Composition for 
Beginners), Others discuss various as- 
pects of music in an empirical way, treat- 
ing of Rhythm, Melodies, Form, Color, 
etc. (e.g., Stanford: Musical Composi- 
tion), Still others are concerned chiefly 
with the forms in which music is written 
(e.g., Kitson: The Elements of Musical 
Composition), Various books exist which 
deal with composition in a limited sphere 
(e.g., Newton: How to Compose a Song; 
Evans: How to Compose within the Lyric 
Form), An interesting study of melody 
is contained in Patterson's How to Write 
a Good Tune, Certain books on “com- 
position” are primarily harmony texts 
(e.g., Weber: Composition; Goetschius: 
The Materials Used in Musical Compost’- 



COMPOSITION PEDALS 


CONCERT 


tion). The book by d’lndy has been men- 
tioned; it is in many respects unique, 
both in its approach and in its treatment 
of some of the fundamental problems of 
composition. Riemann’s Handbuch der 
Kompositionslehre is a provocative book 
of individual stamp, which touches on 
many vital points of composition, includ- 
ing dynamic form, development, varia- 
tion, etc., as well as treating certain spe- 
cific forms. Prout’s Applied Form should 
also be mentioned in this regard. Perhaps 
wisely, the author did not use the word 
composition in the title to his book. Nev- 
ertheless it is much more a book on com- 
position than many in whose titles the 
word appears. E. B. H. 

Composition pedals (stops). See 
♦Organ IV. 

Compound binary form. Name for 
•sonata form. It expresses the fact that 
sonata form is originally and historically 
a binary form, but of great dimensions 
and of a composite structure. See also 
♦Binary and ternary form. 

Compound interval. See under ♦In- 
terval. 

Compound meter, time. See under 
♦Meter. 

Compound stop. Same as ♦Mixture 
stop. 

Con [It.]. “With’'; for instance, con 
hrto^ with vigor; con moto, with motion; 
con ottava {con 8 va), with the higher oc- 
tave, etc. 

Concentus. See ♦Accentus, concentus. 

Concert. I. The public performance of 
music for a large audience. Those given 
by soloists are called recitals. Concerts in 
the above sense are a fairly recent institu- 
tion. Through the end of the 17th cen- 
tury, musical performances took place in 
the churches, in the homes of princes or 
wealthy people who could afford a private 
orchestra [see ♦Chapel], or in closed 
circles, such as *acadcmics or *collegia 
musica. Actually, the church was the only 
place where the common people could 

[ 


hear well-prepared performances of good 
music. The first step toward public per- 
formance was made in opera, by the 
foundation of the Teatro San Cassiano in 
Venice, 1637 [see ♦Opera]. The first 
concerts (non-opera tic) open to the pub- 
lic for admission were organized by John 
Banister, a London violinist, in 1672. 
They continued for six years, with a pro- 
gram daily in the afternoon. They were 
followed, in 1678, by a long series of con- 
certs arranged by the London coal mer- 
chant Th. Britton which took place in 
a loft over his coal-house, continuing 
weekly for thirty-six years. Later fol- 
lowed: the Concerts of Ancient Music 
(1776-1848), which were largely devoted 
to the works of Handel; the Salomon 
Concerts (1791-95), for which Haydn 
wrote his famous twelve symphonies 
(♦London Symphonies); the Crystal Pal- 
ace Concerts (1855-1901), conducted by 
August Manns every Saturday afternoon. 

II. In France concert activity started 
with the foundation, by Philidor, of the 
Concerts spirituelsy which continued from 
1725 to the beginning of the French Revo- 
lution (1791). They took place only 
around Easter time, and were largely de- 
voted to sacred music. They became the 
model of similar institutions in Leipzig, 
Berlin, Vienna, Stockholm. Although re- 
vived in 1805, the Concerts spirituels lost 
their importance with the establishment 
of the Concerts du Conservatoire which 
were started by Habcncck in 1828 and 
which still continue. These concerts 
greatly enhanced the 19th-century devel- 
opment of orchestral music and contrib- 
uted much to the growing interest in the 
music of Beethoven, Berlioz, Schubert, 
etc. A more popular enterprise, but of 
international fame, are the Concerts popu- 
hires, conducted by Pasdeloup from 1861 
till 1884, and revived, under the name 
Concerts Pasdeloup, in 1920, by Rhene- 
Baton and Caplet. 

III. The earliest German concert insti- 
tutions are the Gewandhaus Concerte of 
Leipzig which started in 1781, under 
J. A. Hiller, as a continuation of his 
LiebhaberXpnzerte (1763-78), and other 
enterprises of passing importance. Until 

^0] 



CONCERTANT 


CONCERTO 


1884 they took place in the Alte Gewand- 
haus (Old Cloth Hall) which was re- 
placed in that year by a new concert hall, 
the Neue Gewandhaus, Famous conduc- 
tors were Mendelssohn (1835-47), under 
whom the concerts first attained interna- 
tional recognition, Nikisch, Furtwangler, 
and Bruno Walter. 

For the development of concert life in 
America, see under ^American music. 
For the various concert institutions, see 
’••'Orchestras. 

Lit.: K. Meyer, Das Konzert (1926); 
G. Pinthus, Die EntwicJ^lung des Kon- 
zertwesens in Deutschland bis zum Be- 
ginn des /p. Jahrhunderts (1932); E. 
Hanslick, Geschichte des Konzertwesens 
in Wien (2 vols., 1869/70); A. Dorflel, 
Geschichte der Gewandhauskpnzerte 
(1881); Dandelot, Les Concerts du Con- 
servatoire (1897); M. Brenet, Les Con- 
certs en France sous Vancien rSgime 
(1900). 

Concertant [F.], Concertato [It.]. 
Eighteenth-century name for symphonies 
{Symphonie concertante) with participa- 
tion of several solistic instruments, after 
the model of the earlier * concerto grosso^ 
but in the style and form of the Mann- 
heim School. Such works were written 
by Cannabich, Karl Stamitz, Haydn, and 
Mozart. In 17th-century vocal works, coro 
concertato denotes a small body of solo- 
singers, in contrast to the large chorus, 
the coro ripieno or the cappella [see *Con- 
certino ( i ) ] . Terms such as Sonate con- 
certate (Merula, 1637) refer to the “rival- 
ing” use of several instruments [see * Con- 
certo grosso], 

Concertgebouw. Sec ^Orchestras II. 

Concert grand. The largest size of the 
pianoforte, built for concert performance. 
See ^Pianoforte. 

Concert halls. For a list of the most 
important concert halls see *Orchestras. 
For the acoustical properties of concert 
halls, sec •Architectural acoustics. Cf. 
also LavE ii.6, 3860. 

Concertina. See under •Accordion. 


Concertino, (i) In Baroque music, the 
soloist group of the •concerto grosso. — 
(2) Nineteenth-century compositions in 
the style of a concerto but in free form, 
usually in one single movement with sec- 
tions of varying speed and character. A 
German name for the same type is Kon- 
zertstueJ^, Examples are: Weber, Con- 
certino for Clarinet^ op. 26; Schumann, 
Introduction and Allegro appassionato^ 
op. 92 (piano and orchestra). Others are 
by Rubinstein (piano, op. 113), Bruch 
(violin, op. 84), Carpenter (piano), Doh- 
nanyi (violoncello, op. 12). 

Concertmaster [F. chef d*attaque\ G. 
Konzertmeister\ It. violino primo\. The 
first violinist of an orchestra. He is en- 
trusted with violin solo passages, but also 
represents the orchestra in negotiations 
with the management and the conductor, 
assists the latter in rehearsing, and occa- 
sionally replaces him in conducting. 

Concerto [F. concert\ G. Konzert\ It. 
concertoi\, I. General, A composition for 
a solo player and an orchestra teamed, 
not in a master-servant relationship (as 
in the case of •accompaniment), but in 
one of rivalry on an equal basis (the term 
comes from L. concertare, i.e., “to fight 
side by side,” “to compete as brothers-in- 
arms”). The development of the classical 
and modern concerto, i.e., from Mozart 
to the present day, generally follows that 
of the •sonata from which it borrowed 
its chief features of form and style. There 
are, however, the following differences: 
(a) the concerto practically always has 
three movements only, the scherzo being 
omitted (Brahms’s Piano Concerto op. 83 
is one of the few exceptions); (b) the 
first movement is written in a modified 
sonata form in which the exposition, in- 
stead of being repeated in full, is written 
out twice, for the first time in a prelimi- 
nary and abbreviated form with the tonic 
as the main key throughout and for the 
orchestra only, then in its full form for 
the soloist and orchestra and with the 
proper modulation into the dominant, a 
form which is known as concerto-sonata 
form; (c) the last movement is usually in 

[ 17*] 



CONCERTO 


CONCERTO 


*rondo form, a form the light character 
of which lends itself well to the display 
of brilliance and to the expression of a 
'‘happy ending”; (d) a peculiarity of the 
concerto is the soloist *cadenza which ap- 
pears regularly in the first movement, 
near the end of the recapitulation but may 
occur also, less elaborately, in the other 
movements. The solo part of a concerto 
is always Written in a highly virtuoso style 
designed to show the equality, if not su- 
periority, of the single player over the en- 
tire orchestra. According to the solo in- 
strument, concertos are classified as piano, 
violin, cello concertos. Concertos in a free 
one-movement form are called •con- 
certino or Konzertstuc\, 

II. The Present Repertory. The pres- 
ent-day repertory of the piano concerto 
opens with the latest concertos by Mozart, 
composed between 1785 and 1791 (K.V. 
466 in D minor; K.V. 467 in C major; 
K.V. 482 in E-flat major; K.V. 488 in A 
major; K.V. 491 in C minor; K.V. 503 in 
C major; K.V. 537- in D major (Corona- 
tion Concerto); K.V. 595 in B-flat major). 
In these compositions Mozart established 
the classical form and style of the con- 
certo. Beethoven’s five piano concertos, 
especially the last two, in G major (op. 58, 
1805) and in E-flat major (Emperor Con- 
certo, op. 73, 1809), represent the artistic 
high-point of the entire literature. There 
followed Webef (op. ii, 1810; op. 32, 
1912; Konzertstiick op. 79, 1821), Men- 
delssohn (op. 25, 1831; op. 40, 1837), 
Chopin (op. II, op. 21, both c, 1830), and 
Schumann with his beautiful and effec- 
tive Concerto in A minor, op. 54 (1841). 
Chopin’s concertos suffer from an infe- 
rior treatment of the orchestra and from 
a lack of musical substance in the solo 
part. Liszt’s two concertos, in E-flat 
(1849) and A (1849-57), show a tendency 
towards technical display for its own sake 
which continues particularly in the con- 
certos of the Russian composers such as 
Rubinstein (five concertos, notably op. 70, 
in D minor and op. 94 in E-flat), Tchai- 
kovsky (B-flat minor, op. 23, 1875; G 
major, op. 44, 1880; E-flat major, op. 75, 
1893), Rimsky-Korsakov (1882), and 
many others. A conspicuous feature of 


the Russian concertos is the prevalence of 
octave-playing over the other aspects of 
piano technique. Grieg contributed an 
effective and very popular concerto in A 
minor (1868). A new peak of artistic 
perfection was reached by Brahms, in his 
piano concertos in D minor, op. 15 (1854) 
and B-flat major (1887). There followed 
concertos by Franck {Variations sym- 
phoniqueSy 1885); MacDowell (D minor, 
op. 23, 1890); Scriabin (op. 20, 1897); 
Rachmaninov (op. i, 1890; op. 18, 1901; 
op. 30, 1909; op. 40, 1927, revised 1938); 
Reger (op. 114); Prokofiev (op. 10, 1911; 
op. 16, 1913; op. 26, 1917; op. 53, for the 
left hand alone, 1931; op. 55, 1932); 
Ravel (one for piano, one for the left hand 
alone, both 1930-31); Stravinsky (for 
piano and wind instruments, 1924); 
Hindemith (op. 36, one for piano and 
twelve solo instruments); Gershwin 
(1925); Copland (1926); and Vaughan 
Williams (1933). Some of the more re- 
cent works approach the idiom of the 
Baroque ^concerto grosso, in conformity 
with the general trend towards •neo- 
classicism [see below. Concerto for or- 
chestra] . 

The repertory of the violin concerto is 
somewhat smaller and, on the whole, less 
significant. It includes works by Haydn 
(9), Viotti (29), Mozart (7), Kreutzer 
(19; 2 for two violins), Beethoven (1), 
Rode (13), Paganini (2), Spohr (ii), 
Mendelssohn (i), Vieuxtemps (6), Gade 

(1) . Raff (2), Reinecke (i), Goldmark 

(2) , Joachim (2), Bruch (3), Svendsen 
(i), Lalo (4), Brahms (i), Tchaikovsky 
(i), Dvorak (i), Saint-Saens (3), Sin- 
ding (2), Elgar (i), R. Strauss (i), Si- 
belius (i). Schillings (i), Pfitzner (i), 
Reger (i), Holst (i for two violins), 
Scott (i), Casella (i), Krenek (i), Res- 
pighi (2), Szymanowski (2), Stravinsky 
(i), Schonberg (i), Hindemith (i), 
Piston (i), Bartok (i). 

Several modern composers have written 
compositions under the seemingly self- 
contradictory title: Concerto for orchestra, 
i.e., without a soloist instrument. This 
trend occurred in connection with the 
•neo-classical tendencies of the *2o’s, as a 
revival of the •concerto grosso of the 


[ 172] 



CONCERTO 


CONCERTO 


Baroque in which the soloist aspect is 
much less pronounced than in the mod- 
ern concerto. These concert! approach 
the old form in the use of a chamber or- 
chestra, in their emphasis on “motoric” 
rather than emotional impulse, and on 
linear design rather than massed sound 
or orchestral effects (Stravinsky, Con- 
certo en mi h, 1937/38). Some of them 
introduce the Baroque ^concertino, i.e., 
a group of three or two solo instruments 
alternating with the full ensemble, e.g., 
Kaminski, Concerto grosso (1923), E. 
Krenek, Concerto grosso I, II (1921, 
1925), P. Hindemith, Konzert fur Or- 
chester, op. 34 (1925), W. Piston, Con- 
certo for Orchestra (1933). 

III. History, The term “concerto” was 
first used for vocal compositions sup- 
ported by an instrumental (or organ) ac- 
companiment, in order to distinguish 
such pieces from the then current style 
of unaccompanied *a-cappella music. To 
this category belong the Concerti ecclesi- 
astici (church concertos) by Andrea and 
Giov. Gabrieli (1587; cf. HAM, no. 157), 
Adriano Banchieri (1595), both for 
double-chorus, as well as those by Ludo- 
vico Viadana (1602; cf. HAM, no 185; 
SchGMB, no. 168) and Hortensio Naldi 
(1607; cf. RiHM ii.2, 3i3f), both for solo 
parts in the then novel monodic style. 
The use of the name concerto for accom- 
panied vocal music persisted throughout 
the Baroque period, e.g., in Schiitz’s 
Kleine Geistliche Concerten of 1636, and 
in several cantatas by Bach which he calls 
“Concerto.” 

In the field of purely instrumental 
music the term adopted a more character- 
istic significance, viz., that of contrasting 
performing bodies playing in alternation. 
This style which some writers of the 17th 
century called stile moderno is one of the 
most typical traits of Baroque music. On 
the basis of the above definition, the his- 
tory of the concerto prior to Mozart may 
conveniently be divided into three main 
periods, one from 1620 to 1670, the sec- 
ond from 1670 to 1750, the third from 
1750 to 1780. It should be noticed that, 
particularly in the first period, the pres- 
ence or absence of the name concerto, con- 


certante, is not decisive, as various names, 
such as *canzona, *sonata, *sinfonia, 
were used without clear distinction for a 
variety of styles and types. 

(a) . 1620-70. While Viadana’s Sin- 
fonie musicali a otto voci (1610) show the 
instrumental application of Giov. Gabri- 
eli’s double-chorus style, the Sonate con- 
certate in stilo moderno by Dorio Gastello 
(1621, ’29) mark the beginning of an im- 
portant literature, namely of *canzonas 
(i.e., one-movement pieces written in a 
number of short sections in contrasting 
characters) with solistic passages, mostly 
for the violin. (For a slightly earlier ex- 
ample, by Usper, see A. Einstein, in 
Kretzschmar Festschrift, 1918.) This 
type, the concerto canzona, as it might be 
called, was further cultivated by Steffano 
Bernardi {Sonate in sinfonia, 1623), Gio. 
Batt. Fontana (d. 1630), Tarquinio Me- 
rula {Canzoni, overe Sonate concertate 
per chiesa, 1637; also Canzoni da sonar e, 
1651), Massimiliano Neri {Sonate et can- 
zoni, 1644; Sonate, 1651; cf. RiHM ii.2, 
150!?; also Wasielewski, Instrumental- 
sdtze), Vincenzo Albrici {Sinfonia d 6 , 
1654), Antonio Bertali (MS sonatas, 
1663). 

(b) . 1670-1750. In this period the 
Baroque concerto arrived at its peak. The 
main advance over the previous period is 
the replacement of the sectional canzona 
structure by a form in three or four dif- 
ferent movements, and the adoption of a 
fuller, more homophonic style, with in- 
creasing melodic emphasis on the upper 
parts. Within the large literature of this 
period three types can be distinguished 
(according to A. Schering): the concerto- 
sinfonia, the concerto grosso, and the solo 
concerto. The first category, which is of 
only passing importance, uses contrasting 
technique (sections in tutti-character and 
others in a more brilliant style) rather 
than contrasting instrumental bodies and, 
therefore, deserves mention here only be- 
cause it preceded the other two types 
and because it contributed to the develop- 
ment of a virtuoso violin style. It was 
cultivated first by the members of the 
"^Bologna School, e.g., Cazzati, Bonon- 
cini, Aldrovandini, Torelli, later by Albi- 


[ 173] 



CONCERTO 


CONCERTO 

castro (/2 Concerts, c, i703)> dalEAbaco and the soloist It should be noted that 
(Concerts da chiesa, c, pieces such as the introduction to his Eng- 

othcrs. lish Suites nos. 3 and 5 are also “Italian 

Of greater importance is the concerto concertos,” at least, first movements 
grosso, which must be considered the thereof. 

classical ty^ of the Baroque concerto, Bach also wrote the first concertos for 
and which is characterized by the use of harpsichord and orchestra, starting with 
a small group of solo players (concertino) transcriptions of violin concertos (by 

in contrast to the full orchestra (c-ow^er/o) himself, Vivaldi, and others). Among 

[see ^Concerto grosso]. his 18 concertos for one to four harpsi- 

The solo concerto, i.e., the concerto for chords (with orchestra) only the one in 
a single soloist, is the latest of the three C major for two harpsichords and the 
types. Although solo-technique was ex- two for three harpsichords are original 

tensively used in the concerto-can zonas, compositions. Handel’s 18 organ con- 

the first examples showing this style ap- certos (publ. 1738, *40, ’60) belong to the 
plied to the form of the Baroque sonata last examples of the Baroque solo con- 
are contained in the Sinjonie e concerts certo. Here, as also in his harpsichord 
. . . op. 2 (1700?) by Tomaso Albinoni, suites, he mixes sonata movements with 
His concerti (also in his opp. 5, 7, 9) are others of a dance character (minuet, mu- 
usually in three movements and contain sette, siciliano). In Italy the violin con- 
short solo passages, mostly in the char- certo remained the favored type, and vio- 
acter of figurative transitions. An impor- linists such as Francesco Maria Veracini 
tant progress was made by the great mas- (c. i685~i75or'). Carlo Tessarini (b. 
ter Giuseppe Torelli (d. 1708) who holds 1690), Pietro Locatelli (1693-1764), and 
a central position in the development of Giuseppe Tartini (1692-1770) gradually 
all the various' types of Baroque concerto, worked away from the true Baroque style 
In his op. 6 (Concerti musicali a 4, 1698) of the Vivaldi concerto and towards a 
and still more in his op. 8 (Concerti new type characterized by more melodi- 
grossi . . . , 1709; cf. HAM, no. 246; ous, though frequently sentimental, 
SchGMB, no. 257) the solo violin obtains themes, by a clearly homophonic struc- 
equal importance with the orchestra. To- ture, and by forms foreshadowing that 
relli’s idea was continued by Alessandro of the classical concerto. 

Scarlatti (1659-1725; cf. HAM, no. 260) (c). 1750—80. In this period of transi- 

and particularly by Antonio Vivaldi (c. tion from the Baroque concerto to the 
1680—1743) whose numerous violin con- classical concerto the initiative falls to 
certos (Estro armonico op. 3, op. 4, op. German composers, mainly to the three 
6, op. 7) became quickly famous owing sons of J. S. Bach. Ph. Em. Bach’s con- 
to the solistic exploitation of the instru- certos follow in their first movements a 
ment and to a new style of rhythmic pre- scheme which clearly shows the trisection 
cision which pervades his compositions, exposition — development — recapitula- 
Practically all his concertos are in three tion, with the exposition played twice, 
movements, quick, slow, quick, a scheme first by the orchestra, then by the soloist, 
which became the standard form of the and with the recapitulation being short- 
concerto to the present day. His style, ened. While his exposition still lacks a 

soon became the model of concerto style, second theme, this is usually found in the 

Bach (together with J. G. Walther) tran- concertos by Johann Christian Bach 

scribed a number of Vivaldi’s concertos (1735-82) which, more than any other. 
For the organ (or harpsichord) alone, and are the true predecessors of Mozart’s piano 
Bach also made, in his famous Italian concertos. Haydn’s numerous concertos 
Concerto ( 1735), an original contribution (20 for piano, 9 for violin, 6 for cellos, and 
to the somewhat self-contradictory type others) seldom rise above the average 

Df the concerto for a single player only level, and lack the inspiration which per- 

who, in turns, represents the orchestra vades his quartets and symphonies. Only 

[174] 



CONCERTO GROSSO 


CONCERTO GROSSO 


one piano concerto and one or two cello 
concertos are ever heard today. 

Lit.: A. Vcinus, The Concerto (New 
York, 1944); A. Schering, Geschichte dcs 
Instrumental\onzerts (1905, 19:27); H. 
Daffner, Die Entwic\lung des Klavier- 
\onzerts bis Mozart (1906); F. Bauer, 
Das vorbjassische deutsche V iolinkpnzert 
(Diss. Giessen); Hans Weber, Das Vio- 
loncelU\onzerts des / 5 . . . . Jahrhun- 
derts (Diss. Tubingen 1932); E. Rapp, 
Beitrdge zur Fruhgeschichte des Violon- 
cell’\onzerts (Diss. Wurzburg 1934); 
G. Piccioli, ll Concerto per pianoforte e 
orchestra da Mozart a Grieg (1936); R. 
Erlebach, “Style in Pianoforte Concerto 
Writing” (ML xvii, no. 2); H. Mishkin, 
“The Italian Concerto before 1700” 
(BAMS vii); H. Uldall, “Beitrage zur 
Fruhgeschichte des Klavier Konzerts” 
(ZMW x); H. Kretzschmar, “Die Kon^ 
zertkompositionen grossen Stils” (JMP 
iii). See also *Concerto grosso. 

Concerto grosso. The most important 
type of the Baroque concerto [see *Con- 
certo III (b)], characterized by the use 
of a small group of solo instruments, 
called concertino or principale, against the 
full orchestra, called concerto, tutti, or 
*ripieni. The concertino usually consists 
of two violins and a thorough-bass (vio- 
loncello plus harpsichord), i.e., the same 
ensemble which constitutes the ♦trio- 
sonata of the Baroque. The ripieni are a 
small string orchestra, later occasionally 
with the addition of wind instruments 
(trumpets, oboes, flutes, horns). 

The earliest known examples of the 
concerto grosso principle occur in two 
“Sinfoiiie a piu instrumenti” by Alessan- 
dro Stradella (c. 1645-82). Some con- 
cert! gross! by Corelli (1653-1713), al- 
though published much later, would 
seem to be of a date close to that of Stra- 
della’s, because they show the patchwork 
structure of the earlier canzona, with 
quick changes of a considerable number 
of short “movements” (nos. i, 2, 5, 7 of 
the 12 Concerti grossi, op. 6, 1712). 
Georg Muffat’s (1645-1704) ^ concert! 
grossi, published 1701 [DTOe ii.ii], 
probably belong also to the period around 


1680. They contain suite-like move- 
ments (c.g., Sonata-Corrente-Grave- 
Gavotta-Rondcau) and show relatively 
little contrast between the concertino and 
the concerto. In Torelli’s (1650-1708) 
concerti grossi (publ. 1709, written c. 
1690) the two violins of the concertino 
are treated much more individually, so 
that the style approaches that of a con- 
certo for two solo violins. These con- 
certos, together with the later concertos 
of Corelli’s op. 6, represent a high-point 
of classical balance and dignity. Fran- 
cesco Geminiani (1687-1762; op. 2, 1732; 
op. 3, 1733) carried on the tradition of 
Corelli, adopting the four-movement 
scheme of the sonata da chiesa as the 
standard form (Corelli’s concertos usu- 
ally have five or more movements). 

A new trend in concerto grosso style 
was inaugurated by the Venetian Antonio 
Vivaldi (c. 1675-1743) who established 
the three-movement scheme Allegro — 
Adagio — Allegro and who largely dis- 
carded the contrapuntal treatment of the 
earlier masters in favor of a novel style 
of rhythmic animation and precision, us- 
ing stereotyped figures as the basis for a 
more dynamic manner of writing. He 
also established what might be called the 
classical form of the quick movements, 
i.e., a rondo-like alternation of a tutti- 
ritornello with varying episodes for the 
concertino. The concerti grossi of Pietro 
Locatelli (1693-1764) arc direct imita- 
tions of Vivaldi’s, as are also, on a much 
higher artistic level, Bach’s ♦Branden- 
burg Concertos of 1721. Handel, in his 
Grand Concertos op. 6 (1740), although 
incorporating elements of Vivaldi’s style, 
retained the larger number of move- 
ments, as found in Corelli. 

The neo-classical movement of the 20th 
century has brought about a remarkable 
revival of the concerto grosso, chiefly as 
a reaction against the virtuoso-like solo 
concerto of the 19th century. See ♦Con- 
certo I. 

Lit.: A. Schering, Geschichte des In- 
strumentalXpnzerts (1905), pp. 38!!; 
LavE ii.4, 2446!!; W. Kruger, Das Con- 
certo grosso in Deutschland (Diss. Berlin 
1932); A. Bonaccorsi, “Contributo alia 


1 175] 



CONCERT PITCH 


CONDUCTING 


storia del concerto grosso” {RMl xxxix). 
See also ^Concerto. 

Concert pitch. See ♦Pitch (2). 

Concitato. See under ♦Stile. 

Concord. A combination of sounds 
which is satisfactory to the ear (triads, 
seventh-chords, and other “agreeably 
sounding” chords), as distinguished from 
deliberately harsh and unpleasant com- 
binations, called discord. The terms are 
used as aesthetic rather than technical 
categories. 

Conducteur [F.]. In French usage, 
not a conductor, but an abridged orches- 
tral score, as distinct from the grande par- 
tition^ i.e., full score. 

Conducting. I. Conducting, in the 
simplest sense, means the direction of a 
number of performers in a unified musi- 
cal effort, by means of manual and bodily 
motions, facial expressions, etc. Its most 
elementary manifestation is time-beating, 
the motions of which are now embodied 
in a common practice. It is commonly 
assumed that a clear and decisive down- 
stroke will fall on the first beat of each 
measure, and that the last beat is an up- 
stroke, while a secondary accent of the 
measure is indicated by a stroke outward 
to the right. With the right hand the 
conductor indicates the beat, the tempo, 
strong accents, entrances of instruments 
or voices, while on the left hand falls the 
indication of subtler nuances of dynamics 
and agogics. It is true, of course, that 
within a general understanding, con- 
ductors, especially those in charge of vir- 
tuoso organizations, deal idiomatically 
and often freely with this matter. Mod- 
ern orchestras are obliged to adapt them- 
selves to the particular methods of visit- 
ing conductors, but however elastic these 
may be, certain elementary principles are 
taken for granted. (Diagrams of the 
commonly accepted time-beating gestures 
may be found in the books of Boult, Stoes- 
sel, and others; see Lit.) 

Not all conductors elect to use a baton. 
Some feel more free in direction when 
they arc unhampered by what is bound 


to be a somewhat rigid factor. It is cer- 
tainly true that the many possible posi- 
tions of the hand may be more evocative 
than the motions of a stick; and choral 
conductors, especially, find this to be true. 
Choral singing is largely carried on by 
amateur groups which depend on the con- 
ductor for much more than the indica- 
tions common in the leading of an orches- 
tra. Directions must be more graphic, 
and to this end the hand, open or closed, 
with palm upwards or downwards, with 
the index finger rigid or all five fingers 
outspread, suggests much more to the 
singers regarding technique and text in- 
terpretation than a baton may do. Perhaps 
it is because the chorus is not so dependent 
as the orchestra on a traditional method of 
time-beating that choral conductors have 
often been wont to cultivate expressive but 
undisciplined motions which are neither 
musicianly nor specific in their implica- 
tions. Such methods, plus the fact that 
the training of a chorus appears to require 
so much less of the conductor than does 
the training of an orchestra, have led to 
the popular acceptance of choral conduct- 
ing as a stepsister of the more taxing and 
certainly more glamorous branch of the 
art. There is, however, a choral technique 
quite as detailed as that of the orchestra. 
The choral conductor whose ambitions 
lead him beyond the attainment of mere 
“mass” tone and conversational pronun- 
ciation, may produce a result as evocative 
and technically refined as that which is 
possible for the orchestra. 

II. Brief mention may be made of cer- 
tain recent methods which indicate a 
rather radical departure from the accepted 
standards of conducting. Attempts have 
been made by orchestras to operate on a 
conductorless basis. In Russia, where for 
obvious political reasons such an experi- 
ment would find favor, these attempts 
have aroused much interest. Aside from 
the fact that the field of music open to such 
a venture is necessarily limited, the basic 
difficulty lies in the distribution of respon- 
sibility for interpretation. Where each 
member of the group has a voice in inter- 
pretative matters, the dissenters, even with 
the best will in the world, will be unable to 


[176] 



CONDUCTING 


CONDUCTING 


achieve unity of intention. Another at- 
tempt at innovation has been made by con- 
ductors who are also keyboard virtuosos 
and who have tried to revive an 18th-cen- 
tury practice by uniting the functions of 
player (in concertos) and conductor. This 
procedure is not, on the whole, commend- 
able, as either the playing of a concerto or 
the directing of the accompaniment is im- 
portant enough to command a concentra- 
tion not possible when one individual 
serves in two capacities. Furthermore, the 
modern audience is likely to be distracted 
by the spectacle of the pianist sometimes 
standing, sometimes sitting, suddenly 
abandoning the conductor’s gestures, and 
perhaps resuming his seat barely in time 
to take up the soloist’s part. The demands 
of much of the purely orchestral music of 
the 1 8th century could doubtless well be 
met by combining the offices of perform- 
er and conductor; today the opportunity 
for such a procedure would seem to exist 
only in the case of 18th-century music, 
such as Bach’s Concerti, performed by a 
small ensemble. 

History. III. A review of the history of 
conducting must take into account not 
only the diflerence in size between the 
small groups of earlier times and the giant 
orchestras of the present day, but, first of 
all, the different principles of rhythm 
embodied in the various phases of music 
history. As is explained under *rhythm, 
three radically different concepts of 
rhythm might be distinguished: free 
rhythm, metrical rhythm, and measured 
rhythm. It is with the third type that the 
modern conductor is mainly concerned, 
although the rhythmic complexities of 
much contemporary music result in a de- 
gree of accentual irregularity which makes 
necessary a time-beating procedure much 
more elastic than that which applies, for 
instance, to the music of the i8th and 19th 
centuries. The first type is represented by 
Gregorian chant, and for its conducting a 
method called cheironomy has been tradi- 
tionally employed. This consists of mo- 
tions of the conductor’s hand intended to 
guide the singer’s performance, and, in 
the days when music was orally trans- 
mitted (by the so-called cheironomic 


*neumes), to remind him of the direction 
of the melody. For all music which does 
not conform to any categorical method of 
direction, cheironomy is the logical usage 
as it ideally conveys the various inflections 
and the rhythmic freedom of the vocal 
line (e.g., in some modern Russian litur- 
gical music, where the bar-lines are widely 
separated and the “measure” consists of 
from nine to thirteen beats). The second 
type embraces the rhythmically strict, but 
enormously complex music (choral as well 
as instrumental) of the 14th and 15th 
centuries, with its extensive use of com- 
plicated *cross rhythms, ^syncopations, 
displaced measures, ^proportions, etc., 
and its absence in general of regularly re- 
current accents. Here the only possible 
method of conducting is what might be 
called “metronomic conducting,” i.e., an 
up-and-down movement of the hand in- 
dicating the normal pulse [see *Tactus] 
without any attempt to convey accents or 
phrases, all of which must be left to the 
players or singers of the individual parts. 
In the case of choral music of the late i6th 
century (Palestrina, Byrd) the rhythm is 
generally less complex, but the absence of 
regular accent remains to present a prob- 
lem to the modern conductor. Due to the 
fact that most modern editions resort to 
arbitrary barring in equal measures, or at 
best employ the expedient of unequal 
measures, the essential independence of 
each voice is often destroyed; and as the 
proper accent may conceivably fall on 
successive beats in the separate parts, false 
accentuation and phrasing is bound to 
take place. Some modern editions of 
16th-century choral music are irregularly 
barred so that the inevitable after-bar ac- 
cent in singing is made to coincide with 
the word or syllable which, according to 
good sense, should be stressed. Sir Don- 
ald Tovey’s Kirkjiope Choir Magazine 
and editions like the Polymetric arc based 
on this idea, and Tovey’s own method 
when conducting this music was to in- 
dicate each important pulse by a slight 
downward motion of the hand or finger. 
Obviously such a procedure puts a burden 
upon both conductor and chorus, but it is 
eminently justified by the results. 



CONDUCTING 


CONDUCTING 


IV. Where the music was characterized 
by a strongly rhythmic character, where 
no refinements of tempo or interpretation 
were implied, as in folk singing, a gen- 
eral stamping of feet or clapping of hands 
served to attain that unity. Such a method 
was known to the Greeks, who used 
wooden shoes for this purpose, or even a 
sort of clapper hinged to the heel of the 
shoe. There are classic references, also, to 
thumb-snapping as a rhythmic device. 
How early in the history of conducting 
the baton was adopted it is impossible to 
say, but it was certainly in use in the six- 
teenth century. A roll of paper, the violin 
bow, and the cane have likewise served as 
implements of direction; and the last men- 
tioned, in particular, was effective in 
marking the beat by sharp strokes on the 
floor. It is evident, in fact, that for a sur- 
prisingly long period in the history of 
conducting the performer was not ex- 
pected to depend solely on his eye. Even 
after the adoption of the baton, conduc- 
tors continued to make the beat audible; 
and this irritating method was doubtless 
finally abandoned because of popular pro- 
tests against it which arose certainly as 
early as the 17th century. 

During that period in which the harp- 
sichord was an important member of the 
orchestra, small instrumental groups could 
doubtless depend on its incisive tone for 
whatever unifying direction was neces- 
sary; and it was, indeed, recognized as 
valuable in preserving a steady beat. The 
conductor could carry out his direction 
from the harpsichord or the organ, some- 
times removing his hands from the keys 
for this purpose. 

V. By the i8th century the first violin 
had acquired so much authority that the 
responsibility for direction shifted from 
the keyboard to the violin. During Hay- 
dn’s visits to London in 1791 and 1794 
control of the orchestra was divided be- 
tween Haydn at the piano and Salomon 
with his violin. In 1787 Deldevez wrote 
a textbook with details about the practice 
of the violin-conductor, a type of which 
Habcneck (1781-1849) was the last rep- 
resentative. In England the concert- 
master is still referred to as the “leader,” 


and he enjoys prerogatives and acknowl- 
edgments only second to the conductor 
himself. It is not surprising, then, that in 
England, as elsewhere in the 19th century, 
the relinquishment of the bow or the key- 
board for the baton in the hand of a single 
authority was not accomplished without 
opposition. Spohr created an alarm in 
London when he first used a baton there, 
in 1820. By 1850, however, the baton had 
won universal acceptance. The only mod- 
ern survival of primitive time-beating was 
that employed by American college glee 
club leaders of the previous generation 
who maintained an almost consistent and 
mechanical head-nodding throughout the 
performance. A single hand gesture 
would have been considered in bad taste; 
but as the leader was also often the best 
singer, his vocal contribution was inevi- 
tably slight, due to the persistent bobbing 
up and down of his head. 

With the establishment by the *Mann- 
heim orchestra in the i8th century of re- 
finements which had hitherto been un- 
known, the career of the conductor as an 
individual is prophesied. In the 19th cen- 
tury, equipped with baton and with auto- 
cratic powers of control, he ceases to be an 
important participant and becomes the 
dominating figure. Upon him the spot- 
light of modern musical attention is now 
fixed. He has become the personification 
of virtuosity, surrrounded by adulators to 
whom all other conductors are inferior. 
His “readings” are authoritative and 
many a concert goer, it must be feared, is 
more interested in the attitudes and inter- 
pretations of his favorite than in the music 
itself. Not since the days of the celebrated 
“song birds” of the i8th century has such 
partisanship over the relative merits of 
performance been rife. Obviously, the 
temptation to the spectacular, to the occa- 
sional sacrifice of musical truth, is not to 
be invariably resisted. But to one who 
listens objectively, discounting over-praise 
and occasional lapses from good taste, and 
who bears in mind the slow physical de- 
velopment of the orchestra as a flexible 
and a sensitive instrument, and the long 
submergence of the conductor as the 
unique controlling force, the modern or- 


[178] 



CONDUCTOR’S PART 


CONDUCTUS 


chestra and the command of its resources 
by more than one living conductor must 
appear as one of the artistic miracles of 
our time. See also ^Concert; ^Orchestras 
and Concert halls. 

Lit.: B. Grosbayne, A Bibliography of 
Worlds and Articles on Conductors . . . 
(1934); R. Wagner, On Conducting 
(transl., 1919); F. Weingartner, On Con- 
ducting (transl., 1925); A. Carse, Or- 
chestral Conductings A Texthoo\ (1929); 

V. Bakaleinikofif, Elementary Rules of 
Conducting's C. Schroeder, Handbook of 
Conducting (191-?); A. Stoessel, The 
Technique of the Baton (1920, ’28); H. 
Scherchen, Handboo\ of Conducting 
(1933); A. Boult, A Handbook on the 
Technique of Conducting (1932); A. T. 
Davison, Choral Conducting (1941); G. 
Schiinemann, Geschichte des Dirigierens 
(1913); AdHM i, i2o8ff; B. Grosbayne, 

“A Perspective on the Literature of Con- 
ducting” (PM A Ixvii); G. Schiinemann, 

“Zur Frage des Taktschlagens ... in der 
Mensuralmusik” (SIM x); A. Chybinski, 
in SIM x; E. Vogel, in /MP v; R. Schwartz, 
in/MPxiv. A.T.D. 

Conductor’s part. An abbreviated 
score of orchestral works. It usually in- 
cludes the leading part (chiefly first vio- 
lin) with the other important instruments 
cued in. 

Conductus. Latin songs of the 12th and 
13th centuries, either monophonic or 
polyphonic. They probably developed 
from rhymed ’"‘tropes which accompanied 
the entrance of the priest (introitus 
tropes; L. conducere means: to lead, to 
escort). In fact, the name appears first in 
a Daniel Play [c. 1140; see ^Liturgical 
drama] in connection with melodies 
which accompany the coming and going 
of personages [cf, H. Coussemaker, Dra- 
mes liturgiques . . . (i860)]. Towards 
the end of the 12th century the word was 
used as a generic term for Latin poems of 
varied form and content (religious, con- 
templative, lyrical, political, satirical), a 
repertory which forms the Latin counter- 
part of the French poetry of the trouba- 
dours and trouveres. 

[ 179] 


A large collection of monophonic 

are preserved in the codex Florence, 
Laur. plut. 29, / [see *Magnus liber or- 
gani; examples in HAMs no. 17b; AdHM 
i, 185]. More interesting musically are 
the polyphonic conductus which represent 
one of the chief types of 13-century po- 
lyphony. As distinct from the other forms 
of the period [see *Ars antiqua], the *or- 
gana, *clausulae, and ^motets, the con- 
ductus are not based on liturgical chants 
but on freely invented melodies, for in- 
stance, on those of the monophonic con- 
ductus. Above these tenor-melodies one, 
two, or (rarely) three parts are added in 
strict note-against-note style, a technique 
which forms a sharp contrast to the rhyth- 



mically differentiated style of the organa, 
clausulae, and motets. A special type of 
conductus which was considered to be of 
superior value was the conductus habens 
caudam, i.e., a conductus with cadential 
extensions over the final vowels of the 
various lines of the poem [see *Cauda 
(2) ] . There exist a number of conductus, 
presumably by Perotinus, which show a 
considerably more elaborate texture and 
which represent the culmination point of 
the development [cf. OH i, 293!!]. 

The rhythmic interpretation of the ( sim- 
ply syllabic) conductus is still controver- 
sial. Some scholars advocate interpretation 
in modal rhythm, e.g., ^ | J J J J j, instead 
J J J J • Others prefer the latter rendi- 
tion, admitting modal rhythm only for the 
caudae which are written in the ligature 
system of *modal notation [cf. ApNPMy 
224!!]. Examples in HAMs nos. 38, 
39; SchGMBs no. 16 (the “instrumentar* 
opening and close is actually ♦vocaliza- 
tion). 

The term “conductus style” has been 



CONFINALIS 


CONSONANCE 


widely adopted by musicologists to denote 
note-against-note style [see ^Familiar 
style], particularly with reference to early 
14th-century Italian compositions (*mad- 
rigals), which are written in what may 
be called “ornamented conductus style.” 

Lit.: E. Groninger, Repertoire-Unter- 
suchungen zum mehrstimmigen Notre- 
Dame Conductus (1939); OH i, 245-318; 
ReMMA, 307ff; L. Ellinwood, in MQ 
xxvii; J. Handschin, in KIM, 1925 and 
ZMW vi. 

Confinalis. In the theory of church 
modes, a secondary final, usually the up- 
per fifth of the finalis (e.g., a in the Dorian 
mode); therefore, practically identical 
with the dominant of the mode [see 
♦Church modes]. 

Conga. A modern dance which origi- 
nated in Cuba where it is used during 
the Carnival festivities. It is characterized 
by the use of brief melodic phrases and of 
normal rhythmic accents alternating with 
measures in syncopation. The texts are 
frequently political or satirical. 

Conjunct, disjunct. Notes are called 
conjunct if they are successive degrees of 
the scale — disjunct if they form intervals 
larger than a second [see ♦Motion; ♦Mel- 
ody; ♦Primitive music II]. For conjunct, 
disjunct tetrachord, see ♦Greek music. 

Conjunctura. See ♦Square notation; 
also ♦Currentes. 

Consecutives. See ♦Parallel fifths and 
octaves. 

Consequent. See ♦Antecedent and con- 
sequent. 

Conservatory. See ♦Music education 
V, IX; also ♦Profession; ♦Degrees. 

Console. The case which encloses the 
keyboard, stops, etc., of an organ. For- 
merly placed in front of the organ, it is 
now often detached, the sole connection 
being by electric cable. 

Consonance, Dissonance. The terms 
are used to describe the agreeable effect 
produced by certain intervals (consonant 
intervals, e.g., octave, third) as against 


the disagreeable effect produced by others 
(dissonant intervals, e.g., second, sev- 
enth), or similar effects produced by 
chords. 

Consonance and dissonance are the very 
foundation of harmonic music, in which 
the former represents the element of nor- 
malcy and repose, the latter the no less 
important element of irregularity and 
disturbance. 

In spite of numerous efforts no wholly 
satisfactory explanation and definition of 
consonance and dissonance has yet been 
found. The shortcoming of the explana- 
tion given in the initial sentence of this 
article lies not so much in the fact that it is 
based entirely upon subjective impres- 
sions, but chiefly in its failure to account 
for the consonant quality of the fourth 
and fifth. Indeed, from the point of view 
of musical composition of all eras, these 
two intervals must be regarded as con- 
sonances second only to the unison and 
octave; however, according to the above 
definition they would certainly range 
after the third and sixth, and might per- 
haps be termed dissonant (especially the 
fourth makes a decidedly unpleasant ef- 
fect upon an unbiased observer). It is 
chiefly for this reason that the “pleasant- 
unpleasant'theory” cannot be considered 
satisfactory. Following are the most im- 
portant theories of consonance and dis- 
sonance. 

I. (a) According to the Pythagorean 
theory, intervals are the more consonant 
the smaller the numbers which express 
the ratio of their frequencies (or of the 
lengths of the corresponding strings). 
This theory leads to an order of the inter- 
vals which conforms rather well with 
musical practice: 


unis. 

8ve 

5th 

4th 

6th 

3d 

c-c 

c-c' 

c-g c-f 

c-a 

c-e 

i:i 

1:2 

2-3 

3:4 

3:5 

4:5 

3 d 

6th 

2d 

7th 

7th 

c-cb 

c-ab 

C-<I 

c— b 

c-bb 

5:6 

5:8 

8:9 

8:15 

9:16 


The chief objection raised against this 
theory is its failure to account for the fact 
that a minute modification of a consonant 
interval — too slight to be noticed by the 
ear — brings about highly complicated 


[ 180] 



CONSONANCE 


CONSONANCE 


ratios of frequencies. For instance, the 
well-tempered fifth which cannot be distin- 
guished by the ear from the Pythagorean 
(pure) fifth, is (approximately) character- 
293 

ized by the fraction -7—-. See also under 
439 

^Arabian music L 

(b) Helmholtz’ theory of beats [cf. 
Helmholtz-Ellis, Sensations of Tone 
(1912), p. 186, etc.] explains intervals as 
consonant if no disturbing *beats are pro- 
duced by the two tones or by their har- 
monics; otherwise, they are dissonant 
[beats are most disturbing if they number 
33 per second, least disturbing if they are 
less than 6 per second, or more than 120 
per second]. The chief disadvantage of 
this theory is that the dissonant or conso- 
nant character of an interval varies with 
the octave in which it lies, as appears from 
the following table: 


C--C 

33 beats 

c-d 

16 

beats 


66 “ 

c'-d' 

32 

« 

c"-c" 

132 “ 


64 



c'"-d"' 

128 



It appears that the third c-e would be 
as “dissonant” as the second c'— d', and 
that the second would be as “con- 

sonant” as the third c"-e". 

(c) Helmholtz’ theory of Klangver- 
wandtschaft (relationship of sounds). 
Two tones are defined as consonant if 
their harmonics (excluding the 7th, 9th, 
etc.) have one or more tones in common. 
From the accompanying table it appears 



that there exist two or more such common 
tones in the case of octave, fifth, and 
fourth, one in the case of the other con- 
sonances, none in the case of dissonances. 
This definition is more satisfactory and 
useful than any other, particularly since 
it establishes a clear line of demarcation 
between consonant and dissonant inter- 
vals, a result which, from the musical 


point of view, is more desirable than the 
“gradual decline of consonance” resulting 
from the other theories. Its only blemish 
lies in the fact that the “dissonant” har- 
monics, e.g., the seventh, have to be arti- 
ficially eliminated (otherwise D, with the 
seventh harmonic c, would be consonant 
to C). Thus the definition presupposes 
the term to be defined. One could, how- 
ever, argue that the seventh harmonic 

63 

of D is noticeably lower than C (7- as 

64 

against i). 

(d) C. Stumpf’s theory of Tonver- 
schmelzung (amalgamation of sounds). 
This is a psychological explanation based 
on large-scale experimentation. The con- 
sonant nature of an interval is measured 
by the degree to which the sound pro- 
duced by the two simultaneous tones 
evokes^ in the mind of musically untrained 
listeners, the impression of one unified 
sound instead of two different tones. 
Thus, the percentage of listeners judging 
(wrongly) in favor of “one tone” (Ver- 
schmelzung) gives a measurement of the 
degree of consonance or dissonance. Fol- 
lowing is the result of Stumpf’s experi- 
ment: 

octave fifth fourth third tritone second 

75% 50% 33% 25% 20% 10% 

It should be noticed that in this series 
the fifth and the fourth appear as better 
consonances than the third. The chief 
shortcoming of this theory lies in the fact 
that consonance and dissonance are no 
longer contradictory or exclusive terms, 
but only gradations. 

(e) After an examination of all these 
scientific theories, the practical musician 
will probably be sat isfied with a very sim- 
ple common-sense rule, in a way a prac- 
tical condensation of Helmholtz’ Klang- 
verwandtschaft: Every interval contained 
in the major (or minor) triad and its in- 
versions is a consonance^ the other inter- 
vals are dissonances. 

II. Chords can be classified as conso- 
nant or dissonant on the basis of the fol- 
lowing definition: A consonant chord is 
one in which only consonant intervals 
(octave, perfect fifth, perfect fourth, 
third, sixth) are found; a dissonant chord 


[ 181 ] 




CONSORT 


CONTINUO 


is one which includes at least one disso- 
nant interval (second, seventh, etc.). This 
places the triads and their inversions (ex- 
cept for the diminished and augmented 
triad) in the former category, all the other 
chords (seventh chords, ninth chords) in 
the latter, in full conformity with musical 
experience and practice. 

III. The ideas as to which intervals are 
consonant, which dissonant, have changed 
considerably during the course of music 
history. Apparently the fourth was the 
first interval to be considered as a conso- 
nance, with the fifth replacing it at a 
somewhat later date [9th, loth centuries; 
see *Organum (2), I]. The third would 
seem to have been used in England and 
in other northern countries long before it 
was admitted as a consonance into the 
musical practice of the Continent. The 
English theorist Walter Odington (c. 
1290; see *Theory II) was the first to rec- 
ognize the third as a consonant interval, 
and in the 14th century it was gradually 
admitted as such in actual composition 
[see ’’^Fauxbourdon; *Gymel; *Third]. 
By this admission the picture of harmony 
changed so radically that the entire his- 
tory of harmonic music might be divided 
into three main epochs: that of pre-tertian, 
of tertian, and of post-tertian harmony. 
The latter term, of course, refers to the 
modern practice (beginning c. 1900) in 
which, after an ever-increasing use of dis- 
sonances, the triad begins to lose its posi- 
tion as the cornerstone of harmony [see 
♦Harmony II]. 

Lit.: K. Jeppesen, The Style of Pales- 
trina and the Dissonance. ( 1927) ; E. Hart- 
mann, Konsonanz und Dissonanz (Diss. 
Marburg 1922); R. Lenzen, Geschichte 
des Konsonanzbe griffs im ig, Jahrhun- 
dert (Diss. Bonn 1931); S. Krehl, “Die 
Dissonanz als musikalisches Ausdrucks- 
mitter’ {ZMW i); A. Machabey, “Dis- 
sonance, poly tonality, atonalite” {RM xii). 

Consort (erroneous spelling of concert). 
A 17th-century term for instrumental en- 
sembles of chamber music and for com- 
positions written for such ensembles. A 
group including only instruments of the 
same family was called “whole consort” 

[: 


(consort of viols, of recorders; see ♦Chest 
of viols), whereas a group consisting of 
various types was called “broken consort.” 
Morley’s Consort Lessons of 1599, written 
for treble lute, pandora, cittern, bass viol, 
flute, and treble viol, afford a good exam- 
ple of the broken consort. Later publica- 
tions are: Philipp Rossetor, Lessons for 
Consort (1609); John Cooper (Coprario), 
Royal Consort of Viols (1612?); William 
Lawes (d. 1645), The Royal Consort and 
Great Consorte (MS; cf. GD iii, 118); 
Matthew Locke, Little Consort of Three 
Parts (1656) and Consort of Foure Parts 
(MS; cf. GD iii, 224). The compositions 
contained in these collections vary from 
ricercar-like fantasias [see ♦Fancy] in the 
earliest works to suite-like pieces in the 
latest. Locke’s consorts [new ed. by P. 
Warlocke (1932)] are suites consisting of 
a Fantasia, Courante, Ayre, and Sara- 
bande [see ♦Suite III] ; according to Rog- 
er North {Memoirs of Musict^^ 172B) 
these were “the last of the kind that hath 
been made.” 

Contes d’Hoffmann, Les (“The Tales 
of Hoffmann”). “Opera fantastique” in 
3 acts with prologue and epilogue, by 
Jacques Offenbach (1819-80), based on 
stories by E. T. A. Hoffmann (1776- 
1822), composed 1880. In the prologue 
Hoffmann (Tenor) is shown drinking 
with his friends in an inn and relating 
the tales of three love episodes of his life, 
each ending tragically owing to the magic 
influence of some evil spirit. These epi- 
sodes are shown in the three acts (Act I: 
Olympia; Act II: Giulietta; Act III: An- 
tonia; all Sopranos), while in the epilogue 
the scene is the same as at the end of the 
prologue, the friends applauding and leav- 
ing Hoffmann alone with his thoughts. 
In its musical style the opera approximates 
the operetta, which Offenbach had culti- 
vated in all his earlier works. Within this 
class, however, it belongs to the most am- 
bitious and successful examples. 

Continue [short for basso continuo; see 
♦Thorough-bass]. In the scores of Ba- 
roque composers (Bach, Handel), the bass 
part which was performed by the harpsi- 

82] 



CONTRA 

chord or organ, together with a viola da 
gamba or cello. 

Contra [It., against] . ( i) Short for ♦con- 
tra tenor. — (2) In connection with other 
terms the word appears in two meanings: 
(a) “Against”; e.g., in contrapunctus [see 
♦Counterpoint] or in ♦contratenor, from 
which other terms such as contr’alto, haut- 
contre, basse-contre are derived, (b) De- 
noting the lower octave; this meaning is 
probably derived from the 16th-century 
manner of indicating the tones below the 
great octave (C, D . . .) by a dash written 
underneath (C, D . , i.e., in a position 

“contrary” to that used for the higher 
octaves (c, d . . or, c\ d'. . .). This led to 
the term contra-octave for the octave be- 
low the great octave and, consequently, to 
terms such as contrabasso [G. Kontra- 
bass]^ contra-bassoon, contrabass-clarinet 
which denote instruments of the lowest 
range. 

Contra (b)basso [It.]. Double-bass. 

Contra-bassoon. See ♦Oboe family I, D. 

Contradanza [It.]. See *Contredanse. 

Contraf actum [L.; G. Kontrafact, Kon- 
trafactur]. A vocal composition in which 
the original text is replaced by a new one, 
particularly, a secular text by a sacred one, 
and vice versa. This practice prevailed 
largely in the 13th century. Many trou- 
vere songs are French contrafacta of litur- 
gical chants, i.e., they use older liturgical 
melodies with a new French text. Still 
more frequent is the substitution of new 
texts in the motets of the 13th century [cf. 
AdHM i, 234]. The second important 
period of contrafactum is the i6th cen- 
tury. Probably the great majority of the 
earliest Protestant chorales used pre- 
existent melodies for their new texts, and 
many of the melodies used for the Calvin- 
ist psalmbooks were also borrowed from 
secular songs [see ♦Soiiterliedekens]. 

Other terms designating a “change of 
text” are ♦parody and ♦paraphrase. Both 
of these, however, have side-meanings and 
should properly be used only where such 
side-meaning takes place. Parody usually 

[ 


CONTRATENOR 

implies caricaturing (except in the case of 
the 16th-century ♦parody mass), while 
paraphrase means simply free elaboration 
or free translation of an original text. For 
instance, the replacement of an original 
psalm-text (or, of its literal translation) 
by a free rhymed version which expresses 
the same thought is a paraphrase (psalm- 
paraphrase); the use of the original or 
paraphrased text in connection with a 
melody originally written for an entirely 
different (e.g., secular) text is a contra- 
factum. Cf. K. Hennig, Die geistliche 
Kontrajactur im Jahrhundert der Refor- 
mation (Diss. Kdnigsberg 1909). See also 
under ♦Parody. 

Contralto [It.], (i) Same as ♦alto voice 
(female). — (2) See ♦Violin family (c). 

Contra-octave. See under ♦Pitch 
names. 

Contrappunto [It.; L. contrapunctus], 
♦Counterpoint. C. doppio, double coun- 
terpoint. C. alia mentCy extemporized 
counterpoint [see *Discantus supra li- 
brum]. 

Contrapuntal. In the style of ♦counter- 
point. The term is usually employed in- 
terchangeably with ♦polyphonic, although 
it may imply a certain individuality — 
rhythmic as well as melodic — of the 
parts which is not necessarily implied by 
the term polyphonic. 

Contrary motion. See ♦Motion. 

Contratenor, abbr. Contra. In com- 
positions of the 14th and early 15th cen- 
turies, name for the third voice, in addition 
to the tenor and discantus. It has about 
the same range as the tenor with which it 
frequently crosses, so that the lowest note 
may fall to the tenor as well as to the con- 
tra. Its contour is usually much less me- 
lodic than that of the other two parts, to 
which it was added for harmonic com- 
pleteness. With the establishment around 
1450 (Ockeghem, Obrecht) of four-part 
writing and with the consequent separa- 
tion of ranges, the contratenor split in two 
parts: the contratenor altus (high c,) or, 
simply, altus (alto), and the contratenor 

83] 



CONTRA-VIOLIN 


COPYRIGHT 


bassus (low r.) or, simply, bassus (bass). 
This process explains the name *alto 
(high) for a part which, from the mod- 
ern point of view, can hardly be consid- 
ered a “high” part, as well as the use of 
the term counter-tenor for the male alto. 

Contra-violin. See * Violin family (b). 

Contrebasse [F.]. Double-bass. Con- 
trebassony double-bassoon. 

Contredanse [F; G. Contratanz]. 
A dance which attained great popularity 
in France and elsewhere during the later 
part of the i8th century. As a dance, it is 
characterized by the placement of two 
couples facing each other and moving 
against each other in a great variety of 
steps and movements. The music consists 
of a long series of eight-measure phrases 
which may be repeated over and over 
again. It is now generally accepted that 
the contredanse developed and took its 
name from the English ^Country dance 
which it resembles in various respects. In 
this connection it may be noted that as 
early as 1699 we find “Contredanses an- 
glaises” in Ballard’s Suites de danses. . . . 
The contredanse developed later into the 
•fran^aise and the *quadrille. Beethoven 
wrote 12 Contredanses for the orchestra, 
one of which he used in the final move- 
ment of the Eroica Symphony. See also 
♦Cotillon. 

Conzert [G.]. See*Konzert. 

Coperto [It.]. Covered. Timpani co- 
perti are kettledrums muted by being cov- 
ered with a cloth. 

Copla [Sp.]. Couplet or stanza of re- 
frain songs such as the *cantigas or the 
*villancico. The name for the refrain is 
estribillo, 

Coptic church music. The liturgical 
music of the Christians living in Egypt. 
Cf. GDy suppl. vol., lySf. 

Copula [L.].In 13th-century polyphony 
(organum, conductus), a short cadential 
passage in quick notes through the de- 
scending scale [for examples see under 
♦Harmony, Ex. 3; also AdHM i, 224, pas- 


sage marked (d)]. Walter Odington 
[CS i, 247] also describes a similar type 
of copula in two or three parts [for an ex- 
ample cf. ApNPMy facs. 48, passage (i)]. 
As a “species of organum” [Joh. de Gar- 
landia, CS i, 114 and 175; Franco, ibid.y 
133], copula designates a style midway 
between the free organal style and the 
strict discant style. See also ♦Cauda. 

Copyright, Musical. I. The Constitu- 
tion of the United States gives Congress 
the power to “promote the progress of 
science and useful arts by securing for 
limited times to authors and inventors the 
exclusive right to their respective writings 
and discoveries.” [Art. I, Sec. 8.] In 1790 
the first copyright act of the United States 
received the approval of the President. 
Several general revisions and numerous 
amendments were enacted within the 
next century. The Act of 1831 granted a 
musical copyright but only within narrow 
limits. The Act of 1897 granted for the 
first time the right of public performance. 
The present law is based on the third gen- 
eral revision of March 4, 1909, which went 
into effect on July i, 1909. Some amend- 
ments followed, the last on September 25, 
1941 [cf. Solberg, Copyright Miscellany 
(1939), nos. 5 and 15; and United States 
Code Annotated y Title 17, “Copyright” 
(1927), with Cumulative Annual Pocket 
Part of November, 1941]. 

II. This Copyright Act of 1909 pre- 
scribes the following formalities: (i) Pub- 
lication with the prescribed notice of copy- 
right (Copyright 19 by ). Such 
notice shall be affixed to each copy pub- 
lished or offered for sale in the United 
States [Secs. 9 and 18], and in the case of 
a musical work the notice shall be applied 
either upon its title page or the first page 
of music [Sec. 19]. 

(2) Promptly thereafter two complete 
copies of the best edition shall be deposited 
in the Copyright Office (one copy in case 
the author is a citizen of a foreign country 
and the work has been published with 
proper notice of copyright in a foreign 
country), accompanied by an appropriate 
application and the statutory fee of $2.00. 

(3) “No action or proceeding shall be 


[184] 



COPYRIGHI 


COPYRIGHT 


maintained for infringement of copyright 
in any work until the provisions of this 
Act with respect to the deposit of copies 
and registration of such work shall have 
been complied with/' [Sec. 12.] 

(4) Copyright may also be secured for 
unpublished musical and dramatic works 
by deposit of copies and registration under 
Sec. II. 

(5) All books, including the copies de- 
posited at the Copyright Office, have to be 
printed from type set within the limits of 
U. S. A. [cf. Sec. 15 for details]. This re- 
quirement does not apply to books of for- 
eign origin in a language or languages 
other than English. It does not apply to 
musical or dramatic works. 

(6) These formalities prevent the ad- 
herence of U. S. A. to the Berne Conven- 
tion, whose leading principles involve the 
enjoyment and exercise of the rights of the 
Convention without being subject to any 
formality [Art. 4, par. 2 of the revised 
text of Rome] . About a mitigation of the 
formal requirements in relation to the 
partners of the fourth Pan-American Con- 
vention, cf. Solberg, Misc.y No. 15, p. 26. 

III. As soon as the formal requirements 
are fulfilled, the authorized person, in- 
cluding a foreigner under the conditions 
above described, secures, among other 
things, the exclusive right: (a) to print, 
reprint, publish, copy, and vend the copy- 
righted work; (b) to arrange or adapt it 
if it be a musical work; (c) to perform or 
represent the copyrighted work publicly 
if it be a dramatic work; (d) to perform 
the copyrighted work publicly for profit 
if it be a musical composition. 

Before the enactment of the law of 1909 
American courts had decided that com- 
posers did not enjoy any legal protection 
against the making of any form of record 
by means of which their compositions 
could be mechanically reproduced. The 
composers fought these decisions, while 
the record manufacturers wanted to main- 
tain the status quo. The law of 1909 rep- 
resents a compromise. The composer is 
protected against mechanical reproduc- 
tion, but protection is granted only for 
those compositions which have been pub- 
lished and copyrighted after the act went 


into effect on July i, 1909. Foreign com- 
posers enjoy this right only in case of reci- 
procity [cf. infra III]. The right of the 
author undergoes a further restriction as 
soon as either the author himself has re- 
produced the composition mechanically 
or has licensed someone else to do so. In 
such case any other person may make 
similar use of the copyrighted work and 
reproduce it mechanically upon the pay- 
ment of a royalty of two cents on each 
such part manufactured (so called “com- 
pulsory license provision”). The repro- 
duction or rendition of a musical compo- 
sition by or upon coin-operated machines 
is not regarded as a public performance 
for profit unless a fee is charged for ad- 
mission to the place where such reproduc- 
tion or rendition occurs. For details cf. 
Toiner and Evans in the second and 
third annual of Nathan Burf^an Memorial 
Competition\ also the general rule of the 
revised Berne Convention, Art. 13. 

Recent developments in musical activ- 
ity, particularly technical achievements of 
moving pictures and of broadcasting, led 
to some fundamental judicial decisions. 
The most important are: Herbert v. Shan- 
ley Co,y 1917, about performances in 
hotels, dining rooms, and restaurants, 
open to guests without a charge for ad- 
mission; Harms v. Coheny 1922, concern- 
ing performances in moving picture the- 
aters; Witmark^ & Sons v. L. Bamberger 
& Co.y 1923, regarding radio broadcast- 
ing; Jewell — La Salle Realty Co., 1931, 
dealing with a case where a radio receiv- 
ing set had been made available to the 
guests of a hotel by installing a loud- 
speaker. In all these cases the courts de- 
cided that a public performance for profit 
had taken place and had infringed the 
right of the composer [cf. Emerson in 
third annual of Nath, Bur\, Mem. Comp. 
and United States Code 17, Section i, 
1251!; cf. the general rule of the Berne 
Convention about broadcasting. Art. ii 
bis], 

A person who infringes a copyright is 
liable to an injunction restraining such 
infringement and to pay damages as well 
as profits. Where actual damages or 
profits cannot well be ascertained, the law 



COPYRIGHT 


COPYRIGHT 


allows: in the case of a dramatico-musical 
or a choral or orchestral composition, 
$100 for the first and $50 for every subse- 
quent infringing performance; in the case 
of other musical compositions, $10 for 
every infringing performance [Sec. 25]; 
but in no case shall such damages be less 
than $250. 

The copyright secured by the Act of 
March 4, 1909 shall endure for 28 years 
from the date of first publication, but usu- 
ally within one year prior to the expira- 
tion of the original term the proprietor 
of the copyright, or the composer and his 
heirs, can apply for extension for a further 
28 years [Sec. 23]. The revised Berne 
Convention Art. 7 suggests the legal pro- 
tection of the author for his lifetime and 
50 years further. The British Copyright 
Act of 1911, effective since July i, 1912, 
follows this suggestion. 

After the First World War an act was 
approved on December 18, 1919, in order 
to protect authors who in consequence of 
the war had not been able to secure copy- 
right in U. S. A. Under similar conditions 
the recent amendment of September 25, 
1941 [cf. supra I] authorizes the Presi- 
dent to proclaim an extension of time for 
authors and proprietors of copyrightable 
works to comply with the conditions of 
the American Copyright Law in cases 
where they were unable to do so because 
of the disruption or suspension of facili- 
ties essential for such compliance. 

The developments of the last decades, 
particularly the increase of musical per- 
formances by broadcasting and record- 
ings, make it almost impossible for the 
single author or proprietor to adequately 
protect his rights in individual capacity. 
Consequently, collective musical organi- 
zations have been established in most 
countries. The leading American organi- 
zation is the American Society of Com- 
posers, Authors and Publishers (AS- 
CAP). See G. H. Thring, ^^The Copy- 
right of the Composer^' (ML i, no. 4). 

IV. The need for legal protection of 
copyright passes national boundaries. 
Scarcely any branch of modern law is sub- 
ject to international regulations in a like 
degree to copyright. Several international 


conferences and numerous international 
treaties are the signposts of this develop- 
ment. 

( 1 ) The first Convention of Berne cre- 
ating an International Union for the pro- 
tection of literary and artistic works went 
into operation September 9, 1886. Three 
conferences followed, one at Paris (1896), 
one at Berlin (1908), the third at Rome 
(1928). The revised text of the Rome 
conference was signed by delegates of 28 
countries [cf. Solberg, Miscellany, No. 7] . 
The United States has not as yet joined 
this Copyright Union although many at- 
tempts in that direction have been made 
in recent years. (About recent bills of 
1925, 1930, 1935, 1937 cf. Solberg, Miscel- 
lany, nos. 7 and 15.) 

(2) A special series of agreements has 
been entered into by the United States 
and South- and Central-American coun- 
tries, known under the designation of 
Pan-American Copyright Conventions. 
Only two of these Conventions were rati- 
fied by the United States, namely, the 
Second Convention, signed at Mexico 
City on January 27, 1902 (proclaimed in 
1908), and the fourth Convention, signed 
at Buenos Aires on August ii, 1910 (pro- 
claimed July 13, 1914). The latter prac- 
tically supersedes the former, and is in 
effect between the United States and the 
following Latin-American countries: Bra- 
zil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Re- 
public, Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, Hon- 
duras, Nicaragua, Panama;. Paraguay, 
Peru, and Uruguay. 

(3) International copyright can be se- 
cured by individual treaties between 
single states, such as the treaties between 
the United States and China (1903), Ja- 
pan (1906, 1908), Hungary (1912), Siam 
(1920). 

(4) The law of the United States pro- 
vides that, even without a treaty, mutual 
protection of copyright (reciprocity) can 
be acknowledged by a proclamation of 
the President. The copyright secured by 
the Act of 1909 extends to the work of an 
author or proprietor who is a citizen or 
subject of a foreign state or nation, when 
the foreign state or nation grants to citi- 
zens of the United States the benefit of 


[186] 



COPYRIGHT 


CORNETT 


copyright on substantially the same basis 
as to its own citizens or copyright protec- 
tion substantially equal to American law. 
In this case the existence of reciprocal con- 
ditions is determined by a proclamation 
of the President of the United States 
[Sec. 8k]. 

Numerous proclamations of this kind 
have been issued: (a) Proclamations al- 
ready issued before the last general revi- 
sion of 1909. As a matter of course they 
could only consider the former legal status 
and the limited legal protection as exist- 
ing before 1909. The law of 1909 in- 
troduced decisive reforms, particularly 
within the realm of musical copyright 
[cf. supra III]. Therefore supplementary 
proclamation had to be issued in order to 
guarantee the reciprocity under the new 
law (thus: Austria, Belgium, Chile, Cuba, 
Denmark, France, Germany, Great Brit- 
ain and her possessions, Italy, Nether- 
lands and possessions, Norway, Spain, 
Switzerland); 

(b) Some countries asked for the guar- 
antee of reciprocity only under the Act 
of 1909. The proclamations issued accord- 
ing to these requests included: Luxem- 
bourg, Tunis, New Zealand, Australia 
and the territories of Papua and Norfolk, 
Canada, Union of South Africa, Poland, 
Czechoslovakia, Rumania, Finland, Irish 
Free State, Greece, Palestine except Trans- 
jordania. Free City of Danzig, Argentine 
(about Sweden cf. Solberg, Misc.y No. 15, 

p- 32); 

(c) Some states do not enjoy the reci- 
procity of the law of 1909: China, Japan, 
which are governed by prior treaty. 

(Minute details about these interna- 
tional relations are to be found in the 
United States Code, Title 17, historical 
notes to 8 and Annotated Pocl^et Part 
1941, p. 17, as well as in Copyright Pro- 
tection throughout the World edited by 
the United States Department of Com- 
merce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic 
Commerce.) 

Lit.: Herbert A. Howell, The Copy- 
right Law (1942); R, C. deWolfe, An 
Outline of Copyright Law (1925); A. 
Shafter, Musical Copyright (1939); St. P. 
Ladas, The International Protection of 


Literary and Artistic Property, 2 vols. 
(1938); R. C. deWolfe, “Copyright in 
Music’* {Music Library Association, 
Notes, December, 1943). H. A. 

Cor [F.]. (French) horn. Cor anglais, 
English horn; cor a pistons, valve horn; 
cor de basset, basset horn; cor de chasse, 
hunting horn; cor des alpes, alphorn; cor 
d' harmonic, valve horn; cor simple, natu- 
ral horn. For more details see under 
’^Horn I, II. 

Coranto [It.]. See under *Courante. 

Corda [It.]; corde [F.]. String. In 
piano compositions, una corda (abbr. 
u. c.) calls for the use of the left pedal 
(soft pedal) by which the entire keyboard 
is moved a little to the right so that the 
hammers strike only one string, instead 
of two or three. This muting effect is 
canceled by tutte le corde {t. c.) or tre 
corde. In the slow movement of his So- 
nata op. 106 Beethoven demands the al- 
most impossible finesse: poco a poco due 
e poi tre corde (“gradually two and three 
strings”). Corde a vide, corde d jour, 
corda vuota mean open string (of the 
violin). 

Corelli clash. See under ^Cadence II 
[Ex. 24]. 

Coriolanus Overture. Beethoven’s 
op. 62 (1807), an orchestral composition 
written as an overture to a play by H. J. 
Collins. 

Cori spezzati [It.]. The “separated” 
and alternating choruses of the Venetian 
^polychoral style. 

Corista [It.]. Orchestral pitch; tuning 
fork. C. di camera, chamber pitch. 

Cornamusa [It.]; Cornemuse [F.]. 
See *Bagpipe. 

Cornet [F. cornet-a-pistons\ G. Kornett\ 
It. cornetto\. See *Brass instruments III. 
Not to be confused with the *cornett. 
See the illustrations on p. 97 and on p. 98. 

Cornett [F. cornet-d-bouquin\ G. Z/«^; 
It. cornetto], A 15th/ 16th-century in- 
strument in the form of a straight or 


[187] 



CORNETT 

slightly bent tube made of wood (or, oc- 
casionally, of ivory), with a surface oc- 
tagonal in cross section, with six finger- 
holes, and provided with a cup-shaped 
mouthpiece. (Illustration on p. 98.) Al- 
though in many books this instrument is 
referred to under the name of ^cornety 
thus leading to confusion with a 19th- 
century instrument of an entirely differ- 
ent kind, the practice of using a different 
spelling for these two types is now be- 
coming established. The cornett had a 
very gentle sound which blended well 
with strings and with the human voice. 
It was widely used in church music, e.g., 
in eleven of Bach’s cantatas, as a support 
for the chorale melody. In addition to 
the normal cornett (Zin\y cornetto)^ 
pitched in a, there existed a soprano size 
{Kleiner Zin\y cornettino) pitched in 
and a tenor size {Grosser ZinJ{; cornone) 
pitched in d. While the above-mentioned 
instruments had a separate cup-shaped 
mouthpiece, there existed also a cornett, 
usually in straight form, which had a 
small funnel-shaped opening carved out 
from the upper end of its tube. This was 
the Gerader Zin\ {cornetto diritto)^ or 
Stiller Zin\ {cornetto muto), as it was 
called on account of its softer sound. In 
the 1 6th century a bass size was added 
which, in order to bring the fingerholes 
within easy reach of the hands, was bent 
in a clumsy serpentine shape and, there- 
fore, was called serpent. In spite of its 
appearance, which has been compared to 
a “draining pipe suffering from intestinal 
disorder,” it was a highly artistic instru- 
ment which was held in great esteem 
throughout the i6th century. It was par- 
ticularly favored in French church music, 
hence the strange name serpent d'Eglise 
— “church serpent.” The serpent was still 
in favor with early 19th-century com- 
posers, such as Rossini {Le Siege de 
Corinthe), Mendelssohn {Meeresstille 
und gluc\liche ¥ahrt\ Paulus)^ Wagner 
{Rienzi)y and Verdi {Les Vepres sici- 
lienneSy 1855). By this time, however, the 
instrument had changed its appearance 
into a shape similar to that of the tuba. 
By 1789 the serpentine tube had been re- 
placed by one bent back on itself in the 


CORRENTE 

shape of a bassoon and in this form it 
became known as Russian bassoon. An 
improved variety of this instrument was 
the basshorny invented about 1800, also 
called English basshorn [F. basse-cor]. 
All these instruments retained the six 
fingerholes of the ancient cornetts. The 
addition of more fingerholes operated by 
keys led to the chromatic basshorn and 
to the *ophicleide. Illustrations on p. 98. 
Cf. G. Karstadt, in AMF ii. 

Cornetta [It.]. ^Cornet. 

Cornetto [It.]. *Cornett or ^Cornet. 

Cornett-ton [G.]. Sec *Pitch (2). 

Corno [It.]. Horn. Corno a manOy 
natural horn; corno a macchina {a pis- 
toniy cromaticOy v entile) y valve horn; 
corno ingle scy English horn; corno di bas- 
settOy basset horn; corno da cacciUy hunt- 
ing horn. In Bach’s scores corno usually 
means the old ^cornett [G. ZinX\. For 
his corno da tirarsi see under ’•^Trumpet 
II (slide trumpet). See also ’’^Horn I, II. 

Cornopean. Older name for the cornet. 

Coro [It.]. Choir, chorus. In organ 
music gran coro means full organ. 

Corona [L., crown]. Older term for 
^pause. 

Coronach, corronach. A funeral dirge 
of Scotland. It was chanted by the bard 
(Seannachie) on the death of a chief 
or of other prominent personages of the 
clan. The verses described the virtues 
and the deeds of the dead. The music 
was rather wild and rude, frequently in- 
terrupted by the cries of the bewailing 
women. Similar songs and customs pre- 
vailed in Ireland (*caoine). 

Coronation Concerto [G. Krdnungs- 
J{onzert\. Mozart’s Pianoforte Concerto 
in D, K.V. 537 (1788). 

Coronation Mass [G. Kronungs- 
messe], Mozart’s Mass in C, K.V. 317 

(1779)- 

Corrente [It.]. See under *Courante. 


[. 88 ] 



CORREPETITOR 

Correpetitor [G.]. In German opera 
houses, the coach of the solo-singers who 
assists them in studying their parts. 

Corrido. A Mexican type of narrative 
folk ballad, accompanied by guitars, 
harps, etc. It is on the direct line from the 
Spanish romance, Cf. Vicente T. Men- 
doza, Romance y Corrido (1939). 

Cortege [F., procession]. Compositions 
written in the manner of a solemn or tri- 
umphal procession, or march. 

Cortholt, cortol. Same as ^curtail. 

Cotillon. A popular dance of the 19th 
century, used especially for the close of 
an entertainment. It includes a great va- 
riety of steps and figures which are exe- 
cuted by a leading couple and imitated by 
all the others. The cotillon has no particu- 
lar music; any kind of dance music (waltz, 
polka, mazurka) can be played with it. 
See also *Farandole. 

Coule [F.]. French 18th-century agrS- 
ment in the character of an appoggiatura. 
For coule sur un tierce^ see * Appoggia- 
tura, Double II; *Nachschlag. 

Coulisse [F.j. The slide of a trom- 
bone or a slide trumpet. 

Council of Laodicea, held in 367, 
played an important part in the develop- 
ment of Byzantine Church music. It 
abolished the use of instruments and the 
participation of the congregation in the 
performance of the Chant, in order to pre- 
vent it from deteriorating. 

Council of Trent, held in 1543-63, 
played a decisive part in the development 
of Catholic Church music. It abolished 
all the ^tropes, and the ^sequences with 
the exception of five. The determination 
of the cardinals to restore the dignity of 
the service, after the growing corruption 
and secularization of the previous centu- 
ries, became an acute danger for the con- 
tinued development of polyphonic music 
when they considered the complete abol- 
ishing in the service of all music other 
than plainsong. There is, however, no 
truth to the frequently repeated story that 


COUNTERPOINT 

Palestrina “saved music” by composing 
his Missa Papae Marcelli which, we arc 
told, so greatly impressed the cardinals 
that they desisted from their plan. Actu- 
ally, Palestrina’s role in the Council was 
rather inconspicuous, and much slighter 
than that of Jacobus de Kerlle and others. 
Cf. O. Ursprung, in the preface to DTB 
26. See also *Mass B, II (d). Cf. H. Leich- 
tentritt, in MQ xxx, no. 3. 

Counter exposition. A name some- 
times given to the second exposition of a 
fugue. 

Counter fugue [G. Gegenfuge], A 
fugue in which the answer {comes) is 
the inverted form of the subject {dux), 
Cf. nos. 5, 6, 7 of Bach’s ^Art of Pugue\ 
also a Canzonetta by Buxtehude (com- 
plete ed., p. 124). See ^Inversion. 

Counterpoint [L. contrapunctus\ F. 
contrepoint\ G, Kontrapun\t\ It. contrap- 
punto], I. Definition and Description, 
The term — derived from L. punctus 
contra punctum (note against note or, 
properly interpreted, succession of notes 
against succession of notes, i.e., melody 
against melody) — means the combina- 
tion into a single musical fabric of lines 
or parts which have distinctive melodic 
significance. In music where there are 
present more than a single unaccompa- 
nied melody [see ^monophonic], a musi- 
cal texture exists which can be regarded 
from two points of view, the horizontal 
and the vertical; such a musical fabric is 
not dissimilar to a textile material with 
its warp and woof. The study of the verti- 
cal or chordal aspect of such music is 
ordinarily the object of harmony, while 
counterpoint is the study of the horizontal 
strands of melody and the various com- 
binations that can be made with them 
without their losing their individuality 
as melodies. The singing or playing of 
voices or instruments in unisons or oc- 
taves is not contrapuntal since only one 
melodic line is present; nor are composi- 
tions contrapuntal in which one voice as- 
sumes all the melodic interest and in 
which the accompanying voices or instru- 
ments have no distinctive melodies of 


[ 189 ] 



COUNTERPOINT 


COUNTERPOINT 


their own, but merely serve as blocks of 
harmonic color to enhance the beauty of 
the predominating melody, and conse- 
quently are completely subordinated to it 
[sec *Homophonic]. On the other hand, 
music which is made up of individual 
melodic strands woven together is *con- 
trapuntal or ^polyphonic. Contrasting ex- 
amples of homophonic and contrapuntal 
style are given under ^Texture. 

There are infinite degrees of gradation 
between music which is predominantly 
homophonic and that which is predomi- 
nantly polyphonic; pure homophony or 
pure polyphony cannot rightly be said to 
exist, since in any music which has a tex- 
ture there are bound to be both horizon- 
tal and vertical aspects. If the vertical 
aspect is particularly emphasized at the 
expense of the horizontal, the music is 
said to be homophonic, while if most of 
the interest is centered in the horizontal 
lines of melody, it is said to be polyphonic. 

A basic feature of true counterpoint, 
yet one the importance of which is not 
generally understood, is the rhythmic in- 
dependence of the different parts. In fact, 
it is through their rhythmic life no less 
than through their melodic independence 
that the voices of a contrapuntal fabric 
acquire that character of individuality 
which is the very essence of counterpoint 
[see ^Texture]. 

II. History. Counterpoint has had a 
history of about a thousand years. A 
study of this history shows that at no 
time has there been a complete disregard 
of the vertical aspect of view. There has 
been, however, a good deal of change in 
this aspect, so much, indeed, that the 
consideration of this point serves as a con- 
venient means of evolutionary classifica- 
tion in the history of counterpoint. This 
does not mean to imply that the other 
points of view — evolution of the melodic 
lines and of their rhythmic coordination 
— are less important, but only that, ow- 
ing to their more complex nature, they 
do not lend themselves to the purpose of 
short description and survey. 

The earliest type of counterpoint was 
•organum in two parts, based on the 
fourth and fifth as the only consonant 


intervals in addition to unison and octave. 
It went through various stages of devel- 
opment, in the course of which the upper 
voice gained increasing independence 
from the cantus firmus. Around 1200 
(^School of Notre Dame) the number of 
parts was increased to three and, occasion- 
ally, four. 

The 13th-century ^Ars Antiqua, with 
the motet as its principal representative, 
cultivated mostly music in three parts, 
although many two-part and a certain 
number of four-part motets were also 
written. In the majority of these works 
each of the voices is strikingly independ- 
ent mclodically and often rhythmically. 
Harmonically the only places where con- 
cern was shown for euphony was at the 
accented parts of the measure (used in 
the modern sense) where unisons, fifths, 
and octaves are usually found; between 
these rhythmic nodes clashes of all sorts 
might take place, and little concern was 
shown over frequent parallel fifths and 
octaves. Generally speaking, there was 
little cultivation during this period of the 
euphonious interval of the third between 
voices, and the use of the complete triad 
is not at all frequent, but seems almost 
accidental [see *Third; ^Harmony]. 

The *Ars Nova of the r4th century 
displays no sudden change in technique 
of contrapuntal writing. Composers of 
the late 13th century, like Petrus de 
Cruce, had already begun to differentiate 
the rhythmic character of the different 
voices. The triplum in particular became 
more animated, almost in the character 
of a rapid *parlando, while the duplum 
remained rhythmically quieter, and the 
tenor, with the cantus firmus, became 
less important as a melody and more im- 
portant as a bass. Among the French com- 
posers of the 14th century (Machaut) the 
two main developments in contrapuntal 
writing were greater richness and eu- 
phony in voice combination, which is 
shown by greater use of parallel thirds 
and triadic forms, and the incorporation 
of all the voices into one organism of 
great melodic subtlety and rhythmic flexi- 
bility. 

The most important contribution of the 


[ 190] 



COUNTERPOINT 


COUNTERPOINT 


15th century is the establishment of imi- From this time on practically all com- 
tation as a contrapuntal device. After posers continued as always to undergo 

Dufay imitation is increasingly used by contrapuntal instruction as part of their 
Ockeghem, Obrecht, Josquin, and others; musical training. However, its problems 
it is exploited and more regulated by the throughout the i8th and 19th centuries 

generation of Gombert and Willaert, and were subsidiary to those in architectural 

its full significance realized by the com- construction and to the exploitation of the 
posers of the last half of the i6th century harmonic aspect of music. Indeed, with 

(Orlando di Lasso, Palestrina). In the the exception of a handful of men like 

first half of the 15th century the knowl- Beethoven and Brahms, composers of the 
edge and use of ^fauxbourdon resulted 19th century cannot be said to have had 
in the decline of haphazard parallel inter- any fundamental interest in counterpoint, 
vals among moving voices and led to an With the coming of the 20th century a 

appreciation of the triad and its inver- distinct renaissance of counterpoint has 

sions; moreover, it tended to cause greater taken place. Among the first composers 
attention to solid cadences and to empha- to adopt it as the basis of new music was 
size the significance of non-harmonic Schonberg [see *Twelve-tone technique], 
melodic tones, such as the suspension, although it can be said that practically all 
passing tone, and so on. forward-looking composers of today con- 

Although the importance of the har- sider it in some of its manifold forms as 
monic aspect of music was increasingly basic. 

realized through the 15th and i6th cen- III. Teaching, During the early centu- 
turies, the plasticity and melodic equality ries of polyphonic music, the art of writ- 
of the different lines were carried to un- ing counterpoint was taught by specifying 
surpassed heights in the second half of the intervals which the other voices 
the i6th century, this period being re- should make with the notes of the given 
ferred to often as the Golden Age of cantus firmus. The theoretical writings 
counterpoint. of the 13th and 14th centuries [see *The- 

Great contrapuntists were active in the orists] usually included detailed explana- 
17th century, particularly in the field of tions on this subject. An interesting land- 
sacred music. During this period a pro- mark is Conrad Paumann’s ^Fundamen- 
found change in point of view gradually turn organisandi of 1452, because practi- 
took place, the seeds of which had been cal examples were given in the place of 
planted at least two centuries earlier: verbal instruction. By the i6th century 
more attention came to be given to tonal imitation was being taught as a method 
organization in music. Tonal organization [Buchner’s Fundamentum of c, 1520], 
did not spell the doom of counterpoint and the instruction gradually became 
as a method, but it did result in a funda- more methodical. N. Vicentino, in his 
mental change in the manner of its con- Uantica musica ridotta alia moderna prat- 
ception; now the harmonic flow of music tica (1555), and Zarlino, in his Istitutioni 
was so organized that compositions were armontche (1558), gave detailed explana- 
in major or minor keys — were tonal — tions of the various types of double coun- 
and although a composition might consist terpoint and of canon, 
wholly of distinct melodic lines of great Little is known about the teaching of 
individual beauty, these lines had to con- counterpoint during the 17th century. By 
form basically to the underlying harmonic the i8th century the different manners of 
skeleton of the composition. The impor- writing to a cantus firmus were codified, 
tance of the architecture as a whole super- notably by J. J. Fux \Gradus ad Parnas- 
seded that of beauty of detail, out of 1725], into the five “species.” Each 

which compositions had grown in the species was based on a ten-to-fifteen note 

days of modality. The new type is com- cantus, above and below which other 
monly known as harmonic or tonal coun- voices were added; the first species con- 
terpoint. sisted of inventing a new melody each 

[ m ] 



COUNTERPOINT 


COUNTRY DANCE 


note of which should sound with the cor- [cf. Jeppesen, in MQ xxi]. See also 

responding note of the cantus; the second *Fugue; *Canon; ^Discantus; *Linear 

species consisted of two notes against each counterpoint; *Poly phony; ^Texture, 

one of the cantus; the third species was Lit.: L. Cherubini, Counterpoint and 
built of four notes against each one; the Fugue (1854); P. Goetschius, Elementary 

fourth species consisted of syncopation; Counterpoint (igio); id. ^ Applied Coun- 

and the fifth species, which was called terpoint (1902); K. Jeppesen, Counter- 

florid or “free,” consisted mostly of com- point (1939); C. H. Kitson, Art of Coun- 

binations of the first four [see the accom- terpoint (1924), and other books; A. T. 

panying example] . The species as a train- Merritt, Sixteenth-Century Polyphony 

( 1939) 5 Prout, Counterpoint^ Strict and 
Free (1890-96), and other books; H. Rie- 
mann. Simple and t)ouble Counterpoint 
(1904); W. R. Spalding, Tonal Counter- 
point (1904); F. Wright, The Essentials 
of Strict Counterpoint (1935); Y. Rok- 
seth, “Le Contrepoint double vers 1248” 
(in ^Editions XXIV, B, 3/4); R. Wood, 
“Modern Counterpoint” (ML xiii, no. 3); 
Ch. L. Seeger, “On Dissonant Counter- 
point” (MM vii, no. 4); K. Jeppesen, in 
MQ xxi. A. T. M. 

Counter subject. See *Fugue. 

Counter-tenor. An old name for the 
(male) *alto, derived from contratenor 
altus [see ^Contratenor]. 

Country dance. A generic term for 
ing is definitely a harmonic type of coun- English dances of folk-like origin of 
terpoint, although the emphasis is still on which there exist a great variety, differing 
intervals as it was in the great polyphonic in the arrangement of the dancers as well 

as in the steps and gestures, but all be- 
A second method of teaching counter- longing to the type of group dances. The 

point originated in the 19th century, in dancers are usually placed along the long 

which still rnore emphasis is placed on sides of a rectangle, men and women fac- 

harmony. It is usually based on the con- ing each other and moving against each 

trapuntal methods of Bach (particularly other in movements which change with 

those in his organ chorales), the student every eight-measure phrase of the music, 

learning to ornament basic harmonic pro- There is a definite similarity (il not in- 

gressions, making each individual voice terdependence) between these English 

of the compositions as melodious as pos- dances, which flourished especially 

sible. This method has its greatest value throughout the 17th and i8th centuries, 

as an introduction to fugue writing. and the French *bransles of the i6th cen- 

With the upsurge of interest in counter- -tury. The melodies written for these 
point as a method of composition in the dances are all simple, gay tunes with a 

20th century, there have been attempts to marked rhythm, and in symmetrical 

go back beyond both the Bach type of har- eight-measure phrases. The authoritative 

monic counterpoint and the species and to source for the country dances is Playford’s 

base the study on the results of careful The English Dancing Master (1651; re- 

analysis of music of the great polyphonic print London, 1933) which contains over 

era of the late i6th century [see *Palcs- a hundred charming tunes each accom- 

trina style], or in some cases even earlier panied by dancing directions and figures 

[ 192] 




COUP D^ARCHET 

for the performance. Enlarged editions 
of this book continued to appear until 
1728. Throughout the i8th century and 
the early 19th century (till 1830) numer- 
ous publications of country dances — 
frequently in small booklets of a shape 
convenient for the dancing master’s 
pocket — vv^ere issued. Recently there has 
been a considerable revival of country 
dances, in England as well as in the 
United States. See ^Contredanse; *Dance 
music III. 

Lit.: C. F. Sharp, 'fThe Country Dance 
Book^ (6 parts); id.^ \Country Dance 
Tunes (ii parts); F. Kidson, Old English 
Country Dances . . . (1890). 

Coup d’archet [F.]. Bow stroke. 

Coupler [G. Koppel]. See *Organ IV. 

Couplet. See '••'Rondeau (2) and 
'"'Rondo. 

Courante [from F. courir, to run; It. 
corrente, coranto], A dance which origi- 
nated in the i6th century and which, in 
the mid-iyth century, became one of the 
standard movements of the suite. Arbeau, 
in his *Orchesographie (1588), describes 
it as a dance with jumping movements 
and with a great variety of evolutions, ac- 
cording to the ability and fancy of the 
dancer. The earliest known musical ex- 
ample, a “Corante du roy” in B. Schmid’s 
tablature of 1577 fcf. W. Merian, Der 
Tanz in den deutschen Tabulaturbuchcrn 
(1927), p. 1 12], does not show any fea- 
tures of distinction from the *saltarello. 
However, a number of “Corrantos” of 
the Fitz william Virginal Boof{ vaguely 
adumbrate the 17th-century courante by 
a generally lighter texture and by short 
“running” figures [cf. ApMZ ii]. In the 
17th century the dance became stylized in 
two types, the Italian corrente and the 
French courante [for a similar case, see 
under *gigue (2)]. 

(a) The Italian corrente is in quick 
triple time (3/4, sometimes 3/8), and 
with continuous running figures in a mel- 
ody-accompaniment-texture. It would ap- 
pear to be the direct outgrowth of the late 
16th-century type as it is exemplified in 

r 


COURANTE 

the Fitzwilliam Virginal Boo\. It must 
be considered as the earlier of the two 
types, as it appears already clearly estab- 
lished in Schein’s Banchetto musicale 
(1617), Frescobaldi’s Toccate e partite 
d* intavolatura di cembalo (1614/15; cf. 
TaAM iv), and S. Scheidt’s Tabulatura 
nova (1624). Later examples occur in 
M. Cazzati’s Corrente e balli (1667; the 
distinction made here between c, alia 
francese and c. alia italiana is scarcely 
borne out by a difference in style), in the 
Sonate da camera by Corelli, in the key- 
board suites of Zipoli {c. 1716), etc. 

(b) The French courante is a much 
more refined type. It is in moderate 3/2- 
or 6/4-time, with a frequent shift from 
one of these meters to the other (i.e., from 
the accents i 2 3 4^6 to the accents T 2 3 
456; see ^Coloration, '"'Hemiola). The 
resulting instability of rhythm is a typ- 
ical feature of the courante. Equally 
subtle is the texture of the courante, 
a free contrapuntal fabric in which the 
melodic interest frequently shifts for a 
moment from the upper to one of the 
lower parts. More than any other type of 
Baroque music the courante gives the im- 
pression of “blurred contours” which is a 
typical feature of Romantic periods in 
music history [see ^Romanticism]. 
Quite properly it has been compared to 
the quickly changing movements of a fish 
plunging in the water [ficorchevillej. 
Examples of this type abound in the 
works of Chambonnieres, L. Couperin, 
Froberger. d’Anglebert, F. Couperin, and 
others. The two accompanying examples 
(i: Frescobaldi; 2: d’Anglebert) serve to 
illustrate the corrente and the courante. 

The courantes of Bach’s suites are usu- 
ally of the French type. Especially re- 
markable for its rhythmic ambiguity is 
the courante of the English Suite no. 2; 
in others, the change from 3/2 to 6/4 
occurs chiefly in the final measure of each 
section. The Italian type occurs in the 
French Suites nos. 2, 4, 5, 6 and in the 
Partitas nos. i, 3, 5, 6. In the original 
edition of the Partitas \Clavierubung i, 
1731] the distinction between courantes 
and correntes is carefully indicated by 

93! 



COURSE 

Bach; unfortunately, later editors, includ- 
ing those of the B.-G., have substituted 


1 



1. Corrcnte 

2. Courantc 


the name Courante for some or all of the 
^orrentes. See *Dance music III. 

Course [F. ordre\ G, {Sait€n)chor\, In 
stringed instruments, chiefly those of the 
lute type, a number of strings which are 
tuned in unison or in the octave, and 
which are plucked simultaneously in or- 
der to obtain an increased volume of 
sound. Unison-courses, numbering two 
or three strings, are used for the higher 
ranges of the pianoforte and of the harp. 
On the 16th-century lutes double-courses 
were used for the lower strings, as fol- 
lows: G-g c^' f-f' a-a d'-d' g". In 
order to facilitate the terminology, the 
single string g" is also spoken of as a 
course, so that the 16th-century lute 
would have ii strings in 6 courses. A 
bass-course is a string (single or dupli- 
cated) which runs alongside the finger- 
ingboard without crossing the frets; 
hence, it is invariable in pitch. See *Lutc. 


CRESCENDO, DECRESCENDO 

Courtaud, courtall. Same as *curtall. 

Covered fifths, octaves. Same as 
hidden fifths, octaves. See under *Paral- 
lel fifths, octaves. 

Cow bells [G. Kuhgloc\en\, Instru- 
ments similar in shape and sound to the 
bells worn by the cows of the Alps, but 
without clapper and struck with a drum- 
stick. They were used by R. Strauss in 
his Alpine Symphony (1915) and are also 
found in dance bands. 

Crab motion, crab canon [G. Krebs- 
gang^ Krebsl{anon\, See ^Retrograde; 
*Canon (i), I (e). 

Cracovienne. See *Krakowiak. 

Crash cymbals. See ^Cymbals. 

Creation, The. Title of an *oratorio 
by J. Haydn, composed in 1798. 

Crecelle [F.]. *Rattle. 

Credo [L., I believe]. The third item 
of the Ordinary of the *Mass. In plain- 
song, the first phrase. Credo in unum 
Deum, is sung by the officiating priest, 
and the chorus picks up at Patrem om- 
nipotentem. Early (15th-century) set- 
tings of the Credo therefore begin with 
the latter phrase, and are usually indexed 
under Patrem in modern musicological 
editions. The Credo was the last of the 
five chants of the Ordinary to be intro- 
duced into the Mass (shortly after 1000). 
Even today the Credo-melodies ( four, and 
two more “ad libitum”; the oldest, no. i 
of the Gradual, dating from the nth cen- 
tury) are grouped separately from the 
other items {GR 59*, 89*). 

In polyphonic mass compositions the 
Credo is usually treated in a majestic and 
forceful style, designed to bring about the 
feeling of unshaking belief in the Creed 
of the Church. A contrasting expression, 
however, is given to the sections Et in- 
carnatus est and *Crucifixus [see *Mass 
III]. 

Crembalum [L.]. * Jew’s harp. 

Crescendo, decrescendo, abbr. cresc., 
dccresc., or deer.; indicated by the signs 


[*94l 





CRESCENDO EEDAL 


CROSS-RELATION 


-=:=i and 1::===-, The usual terms and 
signs for increasing or decreasing ot tone 
volume. For the latter, the word diminu- 
endo (dim.) IS also in use. For the his- 
tory, see ^Expression III. 

Crescendo pedal. See *Organ VII. 

Crescent [Chinese (Turkish) crescent 
or pavilion or hat; Jingling Johnny; F. 
chapeau chinois\ G. Schellenhaum], A 
fancy percussion instrument consisting of 
a long pole with several transverse brass 
plates of crescent form and frequently 
topped by a hat-like pavilion, all of which 
are hung with numerous little bells. The 
instrument was used in the Turkish 
^Janizary music whence it was introduced 
into the military bands of many nations. 

Cretic meter. See under *Chronos. 

Criticism. See *Music criticism. 

Croche [F.]. See *Notes. 

Croisez, croisement [F.], Indication 
to cross the hands in piano playing. 

Croma [It.]. See *Notes. 

Cromatico [It.]. Chromatic. See under 
^Chromatic (4). 

Cromorne. See *Oboe family III. Cf. 
C. Sachs, in SIM xi. 

Crook or Shank [F. corps de rechang€\ 
G. Stimmbogen\. See ’"‘Wind instru- 
ments IV (b); *Horn II; ^Trumpet II. 

Crooning. See ’"‘Jazz III. 

Cross fingering. In the playing of 
wind instruments with side holes, those 
fingerings in which open holes occur be- 
tween closed holes, as against the “nor- 
mal” fingering in which all the open holes 
are at the bottom of the pipe, the closed 
ones at the upper end. While the normal 
fingering produces most of the diatonic 
tones of the main octave, cross fingering 
is necessary for the semitones and the 
tones of the higher octave. On the mod- 
ern instruments (flutes, clarinets, oboes) 
cross fingering is largely avoided owing 
to the elaborate system of keys (*Boehm 
action). 

[ 


Cross-relation [F. fausse relation-, G. 
Quer stand]. Cross-relation (or false re- 
lation) denotes the appearance in differ- 
ent voices of two tones which, owing to 
their mutually contradictory character — 
e.g., major and minor third of the same 
triad — are best placed as a melodic pro- 
gression in one voice. In other words, 
cross-relation means the use in “diagonal” 
position of what properly is a “horizon- 
tal” element of the musical texture [see 
^Texture]. The most important progres- 
sion of this kind is the chromatic progres- 
sion, e.g., Eb-E, which is so strikingly 
“horizontal” that the ear is disturbed if 
it hears the first tone in one voice, the sec- 
ond in another [Ex. i]. In classical har- 



mony and counterpoint such progressions 
are considered bad (false), and the rule 
prohibiting them serves for the student 
as a useful preventive against common 
faults. Nevertheless, there are numerous 
cases in which the disturbing effect is suf- 
ficiently mitigated to make cross-relation 
acceptable, e.g., if it occurs between inner 
voices [Ex. 2] and, particularly, if the 
“false” relation between one voice and 
the other is rectified by a strikingly 
“good” relation in each of these voices; 
that means, if there is enough melodic 
(contrapuntal) individuality in each 
voice to distract the attention of the 
listener from the diagonal clash [Ex. 3; 
from Mozart]. Another, considerably 
weaker, type of cross-relation is that in- 
volving the tritone (e.g., E~Bb); it is usu- 
ally avoided between two outer voices 
[Ex. 4]. 

>1 




CROSS RHYTHM 


CURRENDE 


Considering the corrective power of 
strongly marked voice progressions, it is 
not surprising to find ample use of cross- 
relation in earlier, contrapuntal music. 
The compositions of Byrd, Gibbons, 
Frescobaldi contain many interesting ex- 
amples [Ex. 5, 6], also of what might be 
called, somewhat antithetically, “vertical 
cross-relation,” i.e., the simultaneous 
sounding of the two chromatic tones 
[Ex. 7; other examples under *Musica 
ficta]. In modern harmonic style cross- 
relations are, of course, very frequent, the 
impression of “falsity” diminishing with 
the growing disintegration of the har- 
monic system of the 19th century. 

Cross rhythm. See ♦Polyrhythm. 

Crot. See ♦Crwth. 

Crotales [F.]. Castanets. See ♦Cymbals. 

Crotalum [L.]. A rattle (castanets.?) 
used in ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome. 

Crotchet. See ♦Notes. 

Crouth, Crowd, Cruit. See ♦Crwth. 

Crucifixus. A section of the ♦Credo of 
the ♦Mass. In mass compositions it fre- 
quendy appears as a separate movement. 

Crwth. A bowed stringed instrument 
of the ancient Celtic nations, conspicuous 
by its rectangular shape which is strongly 
reminiscent of the Greek ♦kithara. The 
oldest illustrations (iith century) show 
the instrument without a finger board, 
thus indicating that it originally was a 
harp (frame harp). Later, a finger board 
was added by which it became an early 
member of the violin family [see ill. on 
p. 823; also GD, pi. 31 and 87]. The in- 
strument was still used in Wales in the 
early years of the 19th century. It is also 
known under the Anglicized form crowd 
and under the Irish names crot and cruit, 
A medieval Latin name, used in the nth 
to the 14th centuries, is chorus [cf. 
SaRM, 80]. The medieval form, without 
finger board, is usually called rotta, rotte. 
The chrottUy mentioned by Venantius For- 
tunatus (6th century), was probably not 
a lyre but a harp [cf. SaHMI, 262], Cf. 


N. BessarabofI, Ancient European Musi- 
cal Instruments (1941), pp. 3141!. 

C.s. Abbreviation for It. colla sinistra^ 
i.e., with the left hand. 

Csardas. See ♦Czardas. 

C sol fa ut. See ♦Hexachord III, 

Cuba. The island of Cuba is interesting 
as the breeding place for various dances 
of mixed Spanish and Negro origin, such 
as the ♦Bolero, ♦Conga, ♦Habanera, 
♦Guarache, ♦Rumba. 

Lit.: I. Castellanos, Instrumentos must- 
cales de los ajrocubanos (Havana, 1927); 
H. Cowell, “The ‘sones’ of Cuba” (MM 
viii); E. Grenet, Musica popular cuhana 
(Havana, 1939); J. Molina y Ramos, La 
Historia y desenvolvimiento del arte mu- 
sical en Cuba (Havana, 1924); F. Ortiz, 
“Afro-Cuban Music” (Quarterly Journal 
of Inter- American Relations i); S. Ra- 
mirez, La Habana Artistica (Havana, 
1891); A. Salazar, “El Movimiento Afri- 
canista en la Musica de arte Cubana” 
(Estudios Ajrocubanos ii); E. Sanchez de 
Fuentes, Consideraciones sobre la Musica 
Cubana (Havana, 1936). See also general 
bibliography under ♦Latin American 
music. 

Cue. In orchestral parts including a long 
rest, a short passage taken from another 
leading instrument and printed in small 
characters, in order to warn the player of 
the entry of his part. 

Cueca (or Zamacueca) . The most popu- 
lar dance of Chile. It is a couple dance 
symbolizing a hen and a cock, and all the 
dancing gestures as well as the animating 
words of the bystanders agree with this 
symbol. Cf. P. Garrido, Biografia de la 
Cueca (Santiago, 1943); Allende, 
“Chilean Folk Music” (Bulletin of the 
Ban American Union ix, 9171!). 

Cuivre [F., copper]. Instruments de 
cuivre or, simply, les cuivres are the brass 
instruments of the orchestra. CuivrS calls 
for a forced, harsh tone in the playing, 
especially of the horn [see ♦Horn I]. 

Currende [from L. currendo canere, 
i.e., street singing]. In the i6th and 17th 



CURRENTES 


CYMBALON 


centuries, name for the chorus of Latin 
schools {Gymnasium) in Germany. Their 
members were usually boys lacking in 
financial means who, by singing on the 
streets and for special occasions such as 
funerals and marriages, provided towards 
their support. There has been a recent 
revival of this custom in various German 
towns. See ^Quempas. Cf. G. Schiine- 
mann, Geschichte der deutschen Schul- 
musi\ (1928); W. Nicolai, in Bach-Jahr~ 
buck (1914). 

Currentes. Same as *conjunctura or, 
at least, the quick diamond-shaped notes 
of the conjunctura [see ^Square nota- 
tion; *Elmuahim]. 

Curtain tune. Same as act tune [see 
^Entr’acte]. 

Curtal(l). See *Oboe family III. 

Cursus. In Latin prose and, in particu- 
lar, in Gregorian chant, cursus denotes an 
important principle of textual construc- 
tion, observed in the closing words of a 
sentence or a section thereof. A great 
number of these chants close with the 
cursus planus, i.e., with five syllables 
showing the following scheme of accents: 
/ Kj e.g.: . . . gloriam tuam; . . . 

atria ejus; . . . Domino deo; . . . opera 
eius; . . . dextera tua [cf. G/?, 350-353] . 
The plainsong melodies frequently (but 
not always) follow and emphasize this 
scheme by placing longer melismas on 
the two strong accents, shorter ones (or 
single notes) on the three weak syllables. 



Iw- ^ «' jur. 


as in the accompanying example. Much 
less frequent is the cursus tardus with 
the scheme ^ \j \j ^ kj kj (e.g., Domini ibi- 
mus), the cursus velox with the scheme 
f \jKj\j\j ^ \j\j (e.g., gloriam congregen- 
tium), and the cursus trispondaicus with 
the scheme ^ kj kj kj f yy (e.g., esse vidM- 
tur). All these schemes are based on the 
rhythmical cursus which follows the 
speech accent of the words, in contradis- 


tinction to the older metrical cursus which 
follows the laws of quantity [see * Poetic 
meter]. Cf. H. B. Briggs, in PM A xxiv, 
74f; H. Bewerunge, in ZIM xii; Paleogra- 
phic musicale iv [see ^Editions XXIII]. 

Gustos [L., watcher]. Sec *Direct. 

Cyclic, cyclical. This term is used in 
two meanings: (i) Generally, to denote 
any musical form including several move- 
ments; thus, sonata, suite, toccata, can- 
tata, etc., are termed cyclic forms. — (2) 
Specifically, to denote compositions — 
usually sonatas or symphonies — in which 
the same thematic material is used in all 
or in some of the movements. The use of 
the term in this meaning is more common 
recently and is, no doubt, preferable. An 
early example of cyclic treatment is Schu- 
bert’s Wanderer-Fantasie, op. 15. Still 
more conspicuous is the use of identical 
material in Berlioz’ Symphonic Fantas- 
tique [see *Idce fixe]. Cyclic treatment 
was adopted by Bruckner who in several 
of his symphonies restates the initial 
theme of the first movement in the clos- 
ing climax of the last. It was more clearly 
established as a principle of composition 
by Cesar Franck and his French follow- 
ers, Vincent d’Indy, Saint-Saens, Faure, 
Dukas. Statements regarding the pres- 
ence of cyclical treatment in Beethoven’s 
sonatas, etc., should be accepted with 
great reserve. The idea as such was cer- 
tainly foreign to him, except, of course, 
in those obvious cases where a movement 
shows the insertion (usually in the char- 
acter of a reminiscence) of a short section 
from another movement, as, e.g., in the 
Fifth Symphony, the Piano Sonata op. 
loi, and the Ninth Symphony. Cyclic 
treatment is, however, clearly indicated 
in many masses of the 15th and i6th cen- 
turies all the movements of which are 
based on the same tenor or begin with 
identical opening measures [see *Mass 
B, II]. It also is present to some extent in 
the early Baroque sonata [see *Sonata 
B,I]. 

Cylinder. See ♦Valve. 

Cymbalon. See *Cimbalom. 


r 197 ] 



CYMBALS 


CZECH MUSIC 


Cymbals. See ♦Percussion instruments 
B, 6. Various modifications are used in 
jazz bands, e.g., the Choke cymbal, the 
Sizzle cymbal. “Cymbales antiques” (De- 
bussy) and “crotales” (Ravel) are smaller 
cymbals of thicker metal, more exactly 
tuned. 

Cythringen [G.]. See ♦Guitar family. 

Czardas. A Hungarian dance, usually 
consisting of a slow, pathetic introduction 
called lassUy and a rapid and wild dance 
called jriss or frisl^a, F. Liszt’s Hunga- 
rian Rhapsody no. 2 is a well-known ex- 
ample, while Schubert’s wonderful Di- 
vertissement a la Hongroise, op. 54 (for 
four hands) is entirely forgotten. See 
♦Hungarian music II. 

Czech music. Evidence of the use of 
Gregorian chant in the Czech countries 
(formerly Bohemia; capital Prague) goes 
back to the loth century. In the 14th cen- 
tury a special type of chant, called RoratCy 
sung first to Latin, later to Czech words, 
was introduced for the service of Matins 
during Advent. At the same time there 
existed an important school of Czech 
musicians and writers on music, headed 
by Magister Zavise (d. 1410). The re- 
forming activity of Johan Hus (burned 
1415), directed against abuses in the 
Catholic Church, was of disastrous results 
for the cultivation of music, which was 
entirely banned from the service. During 
the 1 6th century the Moravian Brothers 
were active in the edition of song books 
in the Czech language. One of these, 
published in 1561, contains 744 melodies. 
As a result of these tendencies, the use of 
the Czech language in the service was 
authorized in 1601. The splendid court 
of Rudolph II (1575-1611) at Prague 
numbered among its members musicians 
such as Jacobus Handl (Gallus), Hans 
Leo Hassler, Philipp de Monte, Jacques 
Buus, and Charles Luython. In the 17th 
and 1 8th centuries a small number of 
Czech (Bohemian) composers partici- 
pated in the development of German or 
Italian music, e.g., Andreas Hammer- 
schmidt (1611-75), Bohuslav Czerno- 
horski (1684-1740; Italian opera), Jo- 


hann Stamitz (1717-57) and Anton Filz 
{c, 1730-60) — both members of the 
♦Mannheim School — Georg Benda 
(1722-95; see *Singspiely ♦Melodrama), 
Johann Dussek (1760-1812; piano so- 
natas), Anton Reicha (1770-1836; cham- 
ber music), and others. Most of these, 
however, were of German extraction, as 
their names show. The history of Czech 
music in a proper sense of the word may 
be said to begin with Frantisek Skroup 
(Skraup; 1801—62), who composed the 
first opera in Czech language {Dratenii^, 
The Thinker), and also the Czech na- 
tional anthem. From 1827 to 1857 he 
was conductor of the State Opera in 
Prague, succeeding Carl Maria von 
Weber. The first great figure in Czech 
music is Bedric (Frederic) Smetana 
(1824-84) who founded the national 
movement in Czech music with his 
operas, symphonic poems, and national 
dances. His younger brother-in-arms was 
Antonin Dvorak (1841-1904) who, how- 
ever, followed largely the German tradi- 
tion (Brahms), particularly in his cham- 
ber music. Less known than these two is 
Zdenko Fibich (1850-1900) who in his 
numerous operas and orchestral works 
shows himself strongly influenced by 
Schumann and Wagner, and who re- 
mained relatively apathetic toward na- 
tional expression. A similar statement 
can be made with regard to J. B. Foerster 
(b. 1859) whose music represents what 
may be called a “subjective idealism.” 

The national trend is more clearly ex- 
pressed in the works of Leos Janacek 
(1854-1928) who developed an interest- 
ing personal style of veristic and highly 
dynamic prosody, somewhat influenced 
by Moussorgsky’s style (JenufUy 1904). 
The most influential Czech composer — 
the father of present-day Czech music — 
is Vitezlav Novak (b. 1870) whose works 
show a great variety of expression and 
style. Romantic as well as impressionistic, 
lyrical as well as intellectual and ironic. 
Josef Suk (1874-1935) represents a lyrical 
Romanticism of French color. Gustav 
Mahler, although born in Bohemia 
(Kalischt, 1860—1911), stands entirely 
outside of the development of Czech 


[198] 



D 


DANCE MUSIC 


music and must be considered in con- 
nection with the history of German music. 
Composers of a later generation, such as 
Alois Haba (b. 1893), Erwin Schulhoff 
(b. 1894), Bohuslav Martinu (b. 1890), 
have largely given up the nationalistic 
approach to music, and have ranked them- 
selves among the champions of the more 
cosmopolitan trends of *New music; 
Hdba in the field of *atonality and 
♦quarter-tones, Schulhoff particularly in 
“idealized jazz,” while Martinu is one of 
the most successful proponents of a neo- 
romantic style of a purely musical design. 
A happy amalgamation of national ele- 
ments and of a rather modern idiom is 
found in Jaromir Weinberger’s (b. 1896) 
opera Schwanda^ the Bagpiper (1927) 
which was a remarkable world success. 

Lit.: R. Newmarch, The Music of 


Czechoslovakia (1942); L. Urban, The 
Music of Bohemia (1919); V. E. Helfert, 
Geschichte der Musil^ in der Tschechi- 
schen Republi\ (1936; also in French); 
R. Batka, Die Musif{ in Bohmen (1906); 
/V., Geschichte der Musi 1 { in Bohmen^ i, 
900-1333 (1906); P. Nettl, Beitrdge zur 
bohmischen und mdhrischen Musi\ge- 
schichte (1927); LavE i.5, 2597; ii.i, 33 
(modern); ii.5, 2956 (folk song); AdHM 
ii, 1156; P. Nettl, “The Czechs in 18th- 
century Music” {ML xxi, no. 4); /W., 
“Schubert’s Czech Predecessors” {ML 
xxiii, no. i); Z. Nejedly, “Magister 
Zavise und seine Schule” {SIM vii); D. 
Orel, “Stilarten der Mehrstimmigkeit des 
15. und 16. Jahrhunderts in Bohmen” 
{Adler-Festschrift, 1930). 

Czimbalom. See ♦Cimbalom. 


D 


D. See *Pitch-names; ♦Letter notation; 
♦Hexachord. In 16th-century ♦part books 
D stands for discantus (soprano). In har- 
monic analysis D means dominant. 

Da capo [It. capo, head], abbreviated 
D.C. “From the beginning.” The term 
indicates repetition of the piece from the 
beginning to the end or to a certain place 
marked fine {da capo al fine). It is most 
frequently found at the end of the trio 
to a scherzo (or minuet), indicating that 
the latter be repeated after the trio. Da 
capo senza repetizione means that the 
repetitions within the scherzo should be 
omitted, as is usually done even where 
this remark is lacking. Da capo e poi la 
coda, see ^Coda, See also ^Dal segno. 

Da-capo aria. See ♦Aria IV. 

Dactyl, dactylic. See ♦Poetic meter I. 

Dampfer [G.]. (i) The ♦dampers of 
the piano. — (2) The ♦mutes of the vio- 
lin. The term ddmpfen (to damp) is also 
used with reference to the muting of the 
horn and other instruments. 


Daily hours. See under ♦Office hours. 

Dal segno [It., from the sign], abbrevi- 
ated d.s., means repetition, not from the 
beginning [see ♦Da capo], but from an- 
other place (frequently near the begin- 
ning) marked by the sign §. 

Damenisation. See ♦Solmization III. 

Damper [F. etouffoir-, G. Dampfer; It. 
sordino}. In pianofortes and harpsichords 
that part of the mechanism which termi- 
nates the vibration of the string — hence, 
the sound — in the moment when the key 
is released. The dampers of the piano- 
forte are small pieces of wood, lying above 
the strings, and covered underneath with 
felt [see ♦Pianoforte I]. See also ♦Mute. 

Damper pedal. See ♦Pianoforte I; also 
under ♦Sordino (2). 

Dance music. I. To the modern man, 
dance is a bodily activity in which recre- 
ational, spectacular, and erotic elements 
are combined. This, however, is not the 
original meaning of dance. In prehistoric 


[ 199 1 



DANCE MUSIC 


DANCE MUSIC 


periods as well as in many primitive cul- 
tures of the present (Africa), dance has 
primarily a ritual character, frequently 
with the inclusion of erotic symbolism. 
It serves to exert magic, to propitiate gods, 
to induce hypnosis and fear, or to heal 
illness. It is danced by the medicine man 
or by a selected group of warriors. 
Women are frequently not allowed to 
dance, but only to beat the drums. In 
more refined cultures the dance takes on 
a symbolic significance. Strictly regulated 
and stylized movements express thoughts 
and perceptions relative to the adoration 
of deities. The dances of the ancient 
Egyptians and of the Chinese belong 
largely to this class. In Greece, for the 
first time, dance developed into an “art,” 
i.e., an expression of beauty for its own 
sake, although still retaining its religious 
significance. In the last centuries of the 
pre^hristian era there appeared in 
Greece as well as in Rome a large influx 
of Oriental dances of a strongly erotic 
and frequently obscene nature. Dance 
became the occupation, not of the priests, 
but of the prostitutes. Little is known 
about dancing in the early Middle Ages. 
The Church strongly opposed dancing 
which it rightly considered as a heathen- 
ish and lascivious element. 

II. A violent reaction against this long 
suppression of dancing occurred in the 
14, th century in wnich the convulsive 
dances of the flagellants served to express 
the fright and despair of a population tor- 
tured by pestilence, fire, wars, and re- 
ligious scruples. Simultaneously the cul- 
tural refinement of the higher classes, in 
particular of the Italian and French 
courts, led to what must be considered 
the origin of the modern dance. Freed 
from religious bondage or symbolical sig- 
nificance, dance becomes the expression 
of joy of life and of love. For the first 
time in the history of dance, men and 
women joined their hands in the folklike 
round dances chorea^ charola\ see 
♦Carole) and in the courtly pair dances 
{danse ^ danse royale) of the 13th and 
14th centuries [sec also *estampie]. The 
;5th century, with its return of Church 
authority [see under *Flemish Schools], 


would seem to have again brought about 
a partial suppression of the dance. The 
Munchner and Glogauer Liederbuch of 
c. 1460 [see *Liederbuch] are practically 
the only sources of 15th-century dance 
composition. The latter contains four- 
part instrumental pieces with titles such 
as Der Ratten Schwantz (literally: The 
Rat’s Tail, i.e.. The Rat’s Dance) and 
Der Pawir Schwantz (Pawir, i.e., Bauer, 
peasant). This period of suppression was 
followed by a renewed outburst of dance 
music in the i6th century, a period which 
may well be called “the century of the 
dance.” As a matter of fact, while in the 
15th century only one dance is known to 
us. the courtly * Basse danse of the French- 
Burgundian culture, a large variety of 
dances occurs in the lute, keyboard, and 
instrumental music of the i6th century. 
They usually appear in the twin-arrange- 
ment of a main dance in slow duple meter 
followed by a quicker dance {*NachtanZy 
^Triphy *ProportZy Hupfauf) in triple 
meter, such as the Spanish *pavane- 
galliard {c, 1500-50) and the Italian 
^passamezzo-saltarello {c. 1550-1600), 
or else in suite-like combinations such 
as: Basse danse-recoupe-tordion (Attain- 
gnant, 1530) and pavana-saltarello~piva 
(Petrucci, 1508). A highly important 
source of information about the dances 
of the i6th century is the *Orchesogra- 
phie of Jean Tabourot (1588; new ed. in 
English by C. W. Beaumont, 1925), a 
high church dignitary who, under the 
pseudonym Toinot Arbeau, gives a de- 
tailed and lively description of the above 
dances as well as of many others, particu- 
larly the various kinds of *branles. 

III. While, in the last decades of the 
1 6th century, the English virginalists 
(Byrd, Bull, Gibbons) brought the 
pavane and galliard to a high-point of 
artistic perfection, comparable to that 
reached in the allemandes and sarabandes 
in Bach’s suites, new dances appeared in 
the ballrooms which were to play a promi- 
nent part in the art music of the 17th 
century, the (German) *allemandey the 
(French) *courantey the (Spanish) *sara- 
Bandey and the (English) *jigg or *gigue. 
Around 1650 these dances became the 


[ 200 ] 



DANCE MUSIC 


DANCE OF DEATH 

standard movements of the *suite which, music III]. In the early part of the 20th 

theretofore, had employed earlier types, century, America made its epochal con- 

such as the *paduana, gagUarda, intrada^ tnbution to dance music in ^rag-time 

etc. At the same time a host of new dance and in *]azz. See also *Ballet; *Suite, 

types, considerably more refined in char- Lit.: C. Sachs, A World History of the 
acter, grew up under the favorable aus- Dance (1937); E. B. Long and McKee, 

pices of the French court of Versailles, A Bibliography of Music for the Dance 

where King Louis XIII patronized dance (1936); Paul D. Magriel, A Bibliography 

and ballet to an extent unparalleled in his- of Dancing (1936); C. W. Beaumont, A 

tory. Most of these were originally peas- Bibliography of Dancing (1929), V. 

ant dances of French provinces, e.g., the Junk, Handbuch des Tanzes (1930); 

*bourree (from the Auvergne), the "^ga- C. J, Sharp, The Dance (1924); E. Sharp, 

votte (from the Dauphine), the *passe- Story of the Dance (1928); E. Porter, 

pied (from the Bretagne), the *rigaudon Music through the Dance (1937) — His- 

(from the Provence), the ^loure (from torical: F. W. Bbhme, Geschichte des 

the Normandie), and, most important of Tanzes in Deutschland, 2 vols. (1886); 

all, the * minuet (from the Poitou). To- LavE, ii.5, 3082!!; Arbeau, Orchesogra- 

gether with certain dances of foreign phie, 1589 (transl by Beaumont, 1925); 

origin, such as the *anglaise, the *horn- W. Merian, fDer Tanz in den deutschen 

pipe, or the * polonaise, they played a Tabulaturbiichern des 16. jahrhunderts 

prominent part in the ballets and operas (1927); E. Halbig, "^Klaviertdnze des j6, 

of Lully, Purcell, Rameau, and became, fahrhunderts (Cotta); P. Aubry, iEs- 

around 1700, the constituents of the op- tampies et danscs royales C\. Ger- 

tional group of the suite. An important \aisCy ’\Danseries [see ^Editions XVI. 5 j ; 

national type of the 17th century is the f Wiener Tanzmusil{ (c, 1650-1700; 

English ^country dance. In this {period DTOe 28.ii); J. Wolf, ‘'Die Tanze des 

there appeared also the first “exotic” Mittelalters” (AMW i); O. Gombosi, 

dance in the ballrooms of Europe, the “About Dance and Dance Music in the 

^canarie (from the Canary Islands). Late Middle-Ages” (MQ xxvii); id., 
IV. The i8th century cultivated par- “Der Hoftanz” (/^M vii, no. 2); J. Pulver, 

ticularly the minuet, without adding “The Ancient Dance Forms” {PMA 

much to the repertory of dance music xxxix, xl); R. Eitner, t“Tanze des 15. bis 

until the end of the century when Vienna 17. Jahrhunderts” (MfM vii, Beilage); 

became a new center of dance music and L. Schrade, “Tiinze aus einer anonymen 

when the first modern types of dances italienischen Tabulatur, 1551” (ZMW 

appeared, the vigorous *ecossais€ (Bee- x); P. Nettl, “Die Wiener Tanzkomposi- 

thoven) and the soft swaying *Ldndler tionen des 17. Jahrhunderts” {StM viii). 

(Schubert), which soon changed into the See also under *Suite. 

most famous dance of all times, the 

* waltz. The period from 1830 to 1850 Dance of death. Death as a dancer or 

brought about a number of dances which as a gruesome fiddler of dance tunes was 

quickly superseded one another in the a favored subject of 15th- and i6th-cen- 

favor of the public, e.g., the Polish ^ma- tury painters and drawers (Holbein, 

zurl{a (Chopin), the Bohemian *poll{a, Diirer), who took their mental picture 

the ^quadrille, and the *galop (Offen- from medieval or contemporary dance 

bach), all of which were launched in customs incorporating dancers masked as 

Paris, confirming the fame of this city as skeletons. Augustus Normiger’s tabla- 

the world center of amusement. The rise ture of 1593 contains a piece entitled 

of the National Schools led to the discov- *Mattasin oder Toden Tantz, the peculiar 

ery by composers of a wealth of national syncopated rhythm of which is quite an 

dances, among which the Spanish dances adequate expression of fear and trem- 

figure prominently in variety and indi- bling. In the 19th century two composers 

viduality of character [see *Spanish have used the *Dies irae as the basis of 

[201 J 



DANISH MUSIC 

compositions portraying the idea of the 
dance of death, namely, Liszt (Todten- 
Tanz for pianoforte and orchestra, 1849) 
and Saint-Saens (Danse Macabre for or- 
chestra, 1874). For a 14th-century Span- 
ish example cf. O. Ursprung, in ZMW 
iv, 14111. 

Danish music. While, prior to 1800, 
Danish music was but a reflection of 
Flemish, French, English, Italian, or Ger- 
man influences [for Danish pupils of 
G. Gabrieli, e.g., see ^Editions V, 35], it 
adopted a significance of its own when a 
German composer J. A. P. Schulz (1747- 
1800), who was Court Musical Director 
at Copenhagen from 1787 to 1795, 
founded the “Danish opera” by writing 
*Singspiele in the Danish tongue {Host- 
gildety Peters Bryllop, Indtoget). He was 
followed by three other composers of Ger- 
man extraction: F. L. Kunzen (1761- 
1817; grand operas Holger Danske^ i 789 > 
and Eri\ Ejegod^ 17^9); E. F. Weyse 
(1774-1842), who in his operas Ludlams 
Hohle (1808) and Faru\ (1814) intro- 
duced Danish folk songs; and F. Kuhlau 
(1786-1832, the well-known writer of 
sonatinas), whose opera Elverhdi (1828) 
is still popular in Denmark. 

With Niels V. Gade (1817-90) we 
meet the first important composer of 
Danish extraction and also the most rep- 
resentative figure of Danish 19th-century 
music. He is the Danish counterpart of 
Schumann and, perhaps even more, of 
Mendelssohn, whose romantic lyricism 
he tinged with a distinctive touch of Nor- 
dic color. He is as characteristic of Dan- 
ish refinement and sensitiveness as is 
Grieg of Norwegian vigor and rugged- 
ness. A lesser known contemporary of 
Gade was I. P. E. Hartmann (1805-1900) 
who wrote music for several ballets, while 
P. A. Heise (1830-79) composed a num-» 
ber of charming lyrical songs. 

The most important among the more 
recent Danish composers is Cail Nielsen 
(1865-1931), who has been called the 
“Danish Sibelius.” In fact, his six sym- 
phonies are somewhat similar to those of 
the Finnish composer in their expansive 
emotionalism, in the “archaic” quality of 


DAVIDSBONDLER-TANZE 

the melodies, and in their contrapuntal 
texture. Practically all the living Danish 
composers stand under his influence, com- 
bining it with impressionistic or neo- 
classical tendencies, e.g., J. L. Emborg (b. 
1876), Peder Gram (b. 1881), Rud Lang- 
gaard (b. 1893), Jbrgen Bentzon (b. 
1897), and Finn Hoffding (b. 1899). 

Lit.: AdHM ii, 1106 (bibl. pp. 1112); 
LavE i.5, 2594. 

Danse macabre [F.]. ♦Dance of death. 

Dante Symphony. See ♦Symphonic 
poem 1. 

Danza tedesca [It., German dance]. 
The ♦Landler or the early ♦waltz (r. 
1800). 

Daseian notation [G. Dasia-notation], 
A notational system of the 9th and loth 
centuries in which the tones of the scale 
are represented by signs supposedly de- 
rived from the prosodia daseia, i.e., a 

‘f- 

prosodic accent [Ex. a] of ancient Greek 
poetry. The signs given in Ex. b indicate 
the tetrachord d e f g, while others (de- 
rived largely from these by changing their 
position from upright to horizontal, or 
from right to left) indicate one lower 
and two-and-one-half higher tetrachords 
which repeat the basic tetrachord in exact 
transpositions of the fifth. There results 
a curious scale which avoids diminished 
fifths but, as a consequence, includes aug- 
mented octaves, as follows: G A Bb C | 
dcfg|abc'd'|e'f'tg'a'|b'c"t.This 
notation is used in 9th-century treatises 
{Musica enchmadis\ cf. GS i, 152-229; 
also CS ii, 81) for the writing down not 
only of monophonic melodies (psalm- 
tones, etc.), but also of examples of ♦or- 
ganum [cf. ApNPM, 204!!]. 

Lit.: E. J. Grutchfield, “Hucbald: A 
Millenary Commemoration” (The Musi- 
cal Times Ixxi, 507, 704); Ph. Spitta, “Die 
Musica Enchiriadis und ihr Zeitaltcr” 
{VMW v); WoHNi, 31. 

DavidsbUndler-Tanze. Robert Schu- 
mann’s op. 6, a collection of 18 charac- 


[202] 



DEACONING 

teristic pieces named after an imaginary 
“Davidsbund” (“League of David”) to 
which he frequently referred in his writ- 
ings on music and which was destined to 
fight — like David — against the Philis- 
tines, that is, against the mediocre taste 
and the reactionary tendencies of the aver- 
age composers, performers, and musical 
amateurs of his day. The letters E. and F. 
given at the end of each piece mean 
Eusebius and Florestan, imaginary names 
which were meant to portray the lyrical 
(introvert) and the heroic (extrovert) 
side of his own self. 

Deaconing. English term for ^lining. 

Dead interval. An interval occurring 
between the last note of a melodic phrase 
and the first note of the next, often in- 
volving separation by a rest. The term 
was introduced into the teaching of coun- 
terpoint in order to justify the occurrence 
of intervals such as the chromatic semi- 
tone or the augmented fifth which, in 
strict theory, are not permitted within the 
course of a phrase, but may well occur as 
a dead interval. 

Deagan marimbaphone, nabimba, 
etc. Xylophon-like instruments invented 
by the American Deagan (d. 1936); they 
are used in P. Grainger’s Suite “In a Nut- 
shell.” 

Death and the Maiden Quartet. 

Schubert’s String Quartet in D minor 
(1826) the second movement of which 
consists of variations on his early song 
“Death and the Maiden” (Der Tod und 
das Madchen, op. i). 

Death and Transfiguration. See 
’"‘Symphonic poem III. 

Debile [It.]. Weak. 

Debut [F.]. First public appearance, 
beginning of a career. 

D.C. Short for *da capo. 

Dec. In English Service music, abbrevi- 
ation for decani. See *Polychoral style. 

Dechant [F.]. ♦Discant. Dechant sur 
de livrcy see *Discantus supra librum. 


DEGREES AND DIPLOMAS 

Deceptive cadence. Sec *Cadence I. 

Decibel. Sec *Bel. 

Declamation. Sec *Text and music. 

Decoration. Same as ^ornamentation, 
^coloratura, florid style. 

Decrescendo, abbreviated deer, or 
decresc. See ’’^Crescendo. 

Degree. In harmonic analysis, see *Scalc 
degrees. 

Degrees and diplomas. The degrees 
most commonly awarded to music stu- 
dents are: 

1. B.A. (with major in music); given 
for completion of a liberal arts course 
(normally 4 years), in which music is 
stressed, but in which non-musical stud- 
ies predominate. Graduation “with hon- 
ors” means that the student has done some 
special work during his senior year, gen- 
erally a paper of some magnitude, and 
has maintained a high scholastic average. 

2. B.Mus.; given for completion of a 
course of study (normally 4 years), in 
which musical studies predominate. A 
minimum of non-musical study is re- 
quired — generally English, history, and 
one or more foreign languages. Concen- 
tration is required in a particular instru- 
ment, or in voice, or in composition. 

3. M.A. (in music). This degree rep- 
resents the logical continuation of the B.A. 
degree course of study. Residence re- 
quirements vary from one to two years. 
An approved course of study (usually 
totaling 30 semester hours) must be com- 
pleted. Some schools require that no 
grade shall be less than B. Most schools 
require a thesis upon a given phase of 
music, demanding some amount of re- 
search on the part of the student. A gen- 
eral or comprehensive examination is usu- 
ally given, covering various branches of 
musical knowledge. In some instances 
the student must demonstrate reasonable 
ability in piano playing, reading at sight, 
and similar musical skills. 

4. M.Mus. As in the B.Mus. degree, 
the accent is less on the academic and 
more on the professional side. This de- 


[203] 



DEGREES AND DIPLOMAS 


grcc is given chiefly by conservatories and 
schools of music. A certain number of 
advanced courses in music must be satis- 
factorily completed; one to two years of 
residence as a full-time student arc re- 
quired (most schools require only one). 
M.Mus. degrees are given in various 
fields of concentration — applied music, 
theory, composition, history, aesthetics, 
etc. The special requirements vary greatly 
among the various schools. Most schools 
require a thesis or its equivalent, such as 
a composition in a larger form, or a pub- 
lic concert in the case of an applied music 
student. The policy of granting a mas- 
ter’s degree for work done primarily in 
applied music has been questioned by 
some educators, who feel that the higher 
degrees should be reserved more spe- 
cifically for advanced academic work in 
theory, history, or the like. 

5. Ph.D. (in music). This is the high- 
est degree which may be taken, and rela- 
tively few have been granted. At least 
two years of residence are required (in 
the United States) by most universities 
granting the degree. The candidate must 
submit, and the university accept, a thesis 
showing distinctly original work, bring- 
ing to light new source material or treat- 
ing known material in an original way. 
He must then pass an oral examination 
covering all branches and fields of music. 
Generally, in addition, he must present a 
satisfactory musical composition of some 
sort; this may be a piece in a larger form, 
if he is gifted in composition, or a fugue, 
if he is not. Some few schools give Ph.D. 
degrees in musical composition, substitut- 
ing a large orchestral work, or the like, 
for the doctoral thesis. 

6. Mus.D. The Doctor of Music is a 
purely honorary degree in the United 
States. It is given in recognition of out- 
standing excellence and achievement in 
music, in much the same way as the LL.D. 
is given in other fields. In England the 
Mus.D. may be “earned”; in America the 
highest “earned” degree is the Ph.D. in 
music. 

7. Other degrees. The above-given aic 
the most usual degrees. Mention may be 
made also of the following: 

[: 


DEGREES AND DIPLOMAS 

a. B.S. (Bachelor of Science). More 
or less equivalent to the B.A., iDut with 
less stress on the humanities — Greek, 
Latin, etc. In general not recommended 
for those intending to do graduate 
work. 

b. Education degrees: B.Mus.Ed.; 
B. Pub. School Mus.; M.M.Ed.; Ed.D. 
These degrees are generally given by state 
universities and schools of music to stu- 
dents preparing to teach in the public 
schools. 

c. M.S.M. (Master of Sacred Music) 
is conferred by some schools. 

8. Diplomas, certificates, etc. It is im- 
possible to describe the various awards of 
this kind which are made throughout the 
country. State teaching certificates are 
required of public school music teachers, 
and requirements vary widely from state 
to state. The New York State require- 
ments are generally considered to be 
among the highest and have become ac- 
cepted nationally as a norm. Music 
schools in particular give out a variety of 
diplomas, certificates, and the like. Since 
each individual school sets the standard, 
the value of such awards depends directly 
upon the excellence of the school granting 
it. Moreover, the achievement repre- 
sented by the diploma or certificate is any- 
thing but standardized. In one school the 
diploma may be given for a minimum 
amount of work, in another it may repre- 
sent a high — even the highest — stand- 
ard of excellence. In some schools the 
term “artist’s diploma” is used to indicate 
that it is given for excellence in perform- 
ance. 

9. Foreign degrees: a. Great Britain. 
The British system of degrees is the clos- 
est to the American. Mus.B., Mus.M., and 
Mus.D. degrees are given, the require- 
ments varying somewhat among the 
various universities. Certain residence 
requirements exist in nearly every in- 
stance, and various examinations are 
given to test the candidate’s knowledge 
of theory, history, and practical music. 
The Mus.B. candidate is expected to have 
already received the B.A. degree, or to 
pass preliminary examinations of equiva- 
lent difficulty. In this respect, as well as 

j] 



DEGREES AND DIPLOMAS 


DESCANl 


in the fact that the Mus.D. may be 
‘‘earned” instead of being purely honor- 
ary, the British degrees have a different 
meaning from the American. The 
Mus.M. is rather infrequently given. All 
the British degrees in music are concerned 
primarily with the candidate’s possession 
of a technique of composition, although, 
in a few universities, performance or 
musicological research may be substituted. 
Several universities give Litt.B., Litt.D., 
or Ph.D. degrees for work in musical 
research, A great number and variety of 
diplomas are granted by various music 
schools in Great Britain (see Scholes. 
256-257). In general three grades are ob- 
served — Associateship, Licentiateship, 
and Fellowship. The latter, being the 
highest, is sometimes purely honorary. 
Cf. GD, Suppl. Vol., 153!. 

b. Germany. The only degree given 
in Germany is the Ph.D. (Dr. phil). 
Since this is so, the German Ph.D. in 
many instances represents a lesser achieve- 
ment than the Ph.D. from an American 
university. Indeed, some of the German 
dissertations are no larger, and contain 
little more information, than an Ameri- 
can undergraduate’s term paper. Others, 
on the other hand, are splendid contribu- 
tions to musical research and often have 
the proportions of full-sized books. In 
addition to writing a dissertation, the 
candidate must pass various examina- 
tions, in music as well as in three “re- 
lated” fields (e.g.. Philosophy, Mathe- 
matics, Acoustics). Certain teachers’ cer- 
tificates and diplomas are awarded by 
German schools of music. These have 
little significance outside of Germany and 
are designed chiefly to maintain standards 
within the country. 

c. Other European countries. The re- 

maining countries of Europe do not lay 
so much stress on academic degrees. In 
France the Doctor of Letters (Dr. es Let- 
tres) may be awarded for musicological 
research. The Paris Conservatory, how- 
ever, and other similar schools (Brussels, 
for example) have systems of recognizing 
achievement by means of first and second 
prizes, certificates, and diplomas of vari- 
ous sorts, E. B. H. 


Dehors, en dehors [F.]. “Outside,” 
i.c., made to stand out, with emphasis. 

Delasol(re), De la sol (re). See 

^Hexachord III. 

Delirante [It.]. Frenzied. 

Demancher. In violin playing, the 
shifting of the left hand from one posi- 
tion to another. 

Demi- [F.j. Half. Demi-jeu, scc^Plein- 
jeu; demi-pause, demusoupir^ see *Notes; 
demi'ton, semitone; demi-voix^ ’•^mezza 
voce. 

Demisemiquaver. See *Notes. 

Demuthsvoll [G.]. Humble, devo- 
tional. 

Denkmaler der Tonkunst, etc. See 
♦Editions VII, VIII, IX. 

De profundis. Psalm 129 (130 of the 
King James Version: “Out of the depths 
have I cried unto thee, O Lord”). See 
♦Penitential psalms. 

Des, deses [G.]. See ♦Pitch names. 

Descant, (i) Older name for the high- 
est voice in part music, i.e., the soprano 
[G. Distant], Hence, names such as 
descant viol, descant recorder for the high- 
est pitched instruments. Unfortunately, 
there is no consistency in the use of the 
teims descant and ♦treble. As terms for 
the upper voice in part music, they are 
used synonymously; however, descant viol 
(recorder) is a higher (and smaller) in- 
strument than the treble viol (recorder); 
on the other hand, descant clef is a 
“lower” clef than treble clef [sec ♦Clefs]. 

(2) As a designation for early part- 
music, written out or improvised, see 
♦Discant and ♦Discantus supra librum. 

(3) In hymn singing, descant is a 
more or less florid melody sung by a few 
picked trebles as an addition to the nor- 
mal melody and harmony of the hymn. 
The practice as well as the term go back 
to the 14th-century ^discantus supra 
librum which was a method of improvi- 
sation to a plainsong melody. While, one 
hundred years or more ago, there still 


[205] 



DESCORT 


DIABELLI VARIATIONS 


were singers in England who improvised 
a descant, the modern practice is to sup- 
ply such melodies in the printed books of 
standard hymn-tunes. The same method 
of singing is also known by the entirely 
inappropriate name fauxbourdon or /j- 
burden [see *Fauxbourdon (5)]. See 
also under *Division. 

Descort [F.]. Sec *Lai. 

Descriptive music. See *Program 
music; * Word-painting. 

Desolre(ut), De sol re (ut). See 
♦Hexachord III. 

Dessus [F.]. Old term corresponding 
to ^treble, while par-dessus corresponds 
to *descant. Thus, dessus de viole^ treble 
viol; par-dessus de viole, descant viol. 

D6tache [F.]. See ♦Bowing (b). 

Detonieren [G.]. To sing in wrong 
or inaccurate pitch; to waver in pitch. 

Deuteros [G.]. See ♦Church modes II. 

Deutlich [G.]. Clear, distinct. 

Development [F. divellopeinent\ G. 
Durchfiihrung', It. svolgimento]. An im- 
portant technique of recent composition 
(i8th and 19th centuries) which consists 
in the '‘unfolding” of the thematic ma- 
terial (themes, subjects) by means such 
as segmentation into fragments, iteration 
of themes or fragments thereof in various 
keys (usually modulatory), modification 
(frequently rhythmic) of motives [see 
♦Metamorphosis], inversion of motives, 
fugal treatment, combination of different 
material in a contrapuntal fashion, etc. 
These devices are used in a manner de- 
signed to bring about a feeling of evolu- 
tion and growth, of increased intensity 
and higher “temperature,” of dynamic 
stress and climax, of a battlefield where 
the musical forces come to grips. Indeed, 
from the composer’s point of view, the 
writing of a development-section might 
be said to be an affair of strategic, rather 
than creative, capacity. The development 
technique is used particularly in the sec- 
ond section of movements written in 


sonata-form, that is, in the so-called de- 
velopment-section, in which material pre- 
sented in the exposition is “developed” 
[see ♦Sonata-form]. However, the same 
technique (although usually on a minor 
scale) is also used in the exposition itself 
of larger symphonies, or, still more fre- 
quently, in the recapitulation, and occa- 
sionally in the ♦coda. It also occurs in 
slow movements written in binary or 
ternary form, in the ♦scherzos and ♦ron- 
dos, and in free compositions (program 
music). In brief, it is one of the corner- 
stones of classical and modern music in 
which it occurs as the natural corollary 
of the 19th-century “dynamic style.” 

The idea of breaking up a subject into 
fragments already appears in the fugues 
of Bach who frequently uses portions of 
the fugal subject as material for the epi- 
sodes. However, here as well as in the 
mosaic-like technique found in many so- 
natas of Domenico Scarlatti, the leading 
principle is one of coordination and juxta- 
position rather than of evolution and 
growth. The technique of “dynamic de- 
velopment” appears first in the sympho- 
nies of the ♦Mannheim school {c, 1740) 
and was fully exploited by Haydn, Mo- 
zart, and Beethoven. 

Devisen-arie [G. Devise, device, in- 
scription]. Modern term (Riemann) for 
the da-capo aria with preliminary an- 
nouncement of the initial subject. Our 
illustration shows an early example, from 



Cesti’s opera VArgia of 1669 [cf. Sch- 
GMB, no. 203] . See Aria IV. 

Dezime [G.]. The interval of the tenth. 

Diabelli Variations. Beethoven’s op. 
120 (1823), consisting of a series of 33 
variations on a waltz by Diabelli. They 
were written in response to a request, 
sent by Diabelli (Viennese publisher) to 
51 composers, to contribute one variation 


[ 206] 



DIABOLUS IN MUSICA 

each to a collective set which was meant 
to represent a cross section of the compo- 
sitional activity in Austria of his day. The 
entire collection was published under the 
title V aterldndischer Kunstlerverein (So- 
ciety of Artists of the Fatherland) in two 
volumes, the first of which contained the 
variations of Beethoven, the second those 
of the 50 other composers (Schubert, 
Moscheles, Kalkbrenner, Liszt — who 
was then eleven years old! — and others). 
Cf. the complete list in GD v, 457. 

Diabolus in musica [L., the devil in 
music]. Nickname for the ^tritone, 
which was considered in the theory of the 
15th to the 19th centuries as the “most 
dangerous” interval. 

Dialogue [G. Dialogs It. dialogo]. 
Seventeenth-century vocal compositions 
the text of which is in the nature of ques- 
tion and answer, or contains such por- 
tions. They are usually written for two 
singers whose parts alternate. In a way, 
they represent the vocal counterpart of 
the stile concertante of 17th-century in- 
strumental music. Aside from the fre- 
quent use of this form in operas there 
exist various collections of cantatas writ- 
ten in the style of dialogues, so-called 
“dialoghi fuor di scena” (dialogues with- 
out stage performance), e.g.; Orazio 
Vecchi, Dialoghi (1608); Marco Gagli- 
ano, Dialogo di Ninja e Pastore (1611; 
expl. in RiHM ii.2, 33); Giov. Franc. 
Capello, Motetti e Dialoghi (1615; expl. 
in SchGMB, no. 180); Andreas Hammer- 
schmidt, Gesprdche zwischen Gott und 
einer gldubigen Seele (1645; new ed. 
DTOe 8.i; expl. in HAM, no. 213); 
Rudolph Able, Geistliche Dialoge (1648; 
new ed. in DdT v); Henry Lawes, Ayres 
and Dialogues (1653, ’55, ’58). The dia- 
logue-technique was frequently applied 
to choruses and arias of oratorios, pas- 
sions, etc. Famous examples are the initial 
chorus and the alto aria “Sehet, Jesus hat 
die Hand” from Bach’s St. Matthew Pas- 
sion, in which the chorus comes in with 
questions such as: “Wo?” “Wohin?” 

Dialogue-tropes of the 12th century 
(i.e., tropes written in the form of a dia- 
logue) are considered the origin of the 


DIATESSARON 

^liturgical drama. Dialogue-technique 
occurs in the *frottola (“a botte e ris- 
poste”) around 1500, and in Willaert’s 
madrigals. The dialogue-laude of the 
1 6th century are among the forerunners 
of the opera. 

Lit.: Th. Kroyer, “Dialog und Echo in 
der alten Chormusik” (/MP xvi); A. 
Dolmetsch: if Select English Songs and 
Dialogues of the XVlth and XVIIth Cen- 
turies (2 vols., 1912). 

Diapason [from Gr. dia pason chordon, 
through all the strings], (i) In medi- 
eval theory, the interval which includes 
“all the tones,” i.e., the octave [see *Dia- 
pente; *Diatessaron; ^Intervals]. — De- 
rived meanings, chiefly used in French 
terminology, are: (2) range of a voice; 
(3) diapason normal, i.e., concert pitch, 
or the tuning fork {diapason a branches') 
which indicates that pitch; (4) the flue- 
pipe work of the organ which forms the 
backbone of each manual. 

Diapente [Gr. pente, five]. Ancient 
Greek and medieval name for the fifth. 
Epidiapente, fifth above; subdiapente or 
hypodiapente, fifth below. Hence, canon 
in epidiapente, canon in the fifth above. 

Diaphonia, diaphony, (i) In Greek 
theory, dissonance, in contrast to *sym- 
phonia, consonance. This meaning sur- 
vives in various medieval writings (Mar- 
chettus de Padua, Joh. de Moravia, Tinc- 
toris; cf. CS iv, 182). — (2) More com- 
monly, the term is used by theorists of 
the 9th to the 12th centuries as synony- 
mous with (early) *organum in parallel 
or contrary motion (e.g., Musica en- 
chiriadis] cf. GS i, 165). The term *dis- 
cantus is probably the Latin translation 
of diaphonia. — (3) Diaphonia basilica 
means pedal point (cf. the long-held tones 
of the organa of the 13th century). The 
name is derived, not from Gr. basileus, 
king (cf. the customary mistranslation 
“royal counterpoint”), but from Gr. basis, 
base. 

Diastematic. See *Neumes 11 . 

Diatessaron [Gr. tessaron, four]. 
Greek and medieval name for the inter- 


[ 207 ] 



DIATONIC 

val of the fourth. Epidiatessaron^ fourth 
above; suhdiatessaron, hypodiatessaroriy 
fourth below. See also *Diapente. 

Diatonic. The term denotes the natural 
scale consisting of five whole tones and 
two semitones, as it is produced on the 
white keys of the keyboard. There is, of 
course, a corresponding scale in each key. 
Music is called diatonic if it is confined to 
the notes of this scale, to the exclusion of 
chromatic tones. For instance, in C major, 
the melodic progression c-d-c and the 
chord d a c' are diatonic, while c-diP-e 
and d ab c are chromatic. Diatonicism is 
a term used for music the tonality of 
which is predominantly diatonic, i.e., non- 
chromatic, such as the works of Haydn 
and Mozart. For a recent modification 
of diatonicism, see *Pandiatonicism. — A 
diatonic semitone is one which involves 
change of degree, e.g., e— f, c— db, g#-a, in 
contradistinction to the chromatic semi- 
tone which involves modification of the 
same degree, e.g., c-ciP, ab-a. In *Just in- 
tonation the former is = 112 *cents, 

15 

25 

the latter only = 71 cents, while in 

24 

well-tempered tuning they are, of course, 
identical (100 cents). For the diatonic 
genus of Greek theory, see *Grcek music 
IT (b). 

Dictionaries of music. These are of 
several types: (i) those which offer 
merely the pronunciation translation, and 
brief description of foreign musical terms 
(e.g., Th. Baker, A Dictionary of Musical 
Terms); (2) those which cover the entire 
field of music with emphasis upon sep- 
arate entries and definitions (e.g., H. Rie- 
mann, Musikjexikon), or upon longer 
articles comprehending all aspects of the 
topics (e.g.. Grove’s Dictionary); (3) 
those which cover all periods and fields 
of composition but are restricted to (a) 
biographies only (e.g., Th. Baker, BiO' 
graphical Dictionary of Musicians), or 
(b) to topics without biographical entries 
(e.g., M. Brenet, Dictionnaire pratique et 
historique de la musique); and (4) those 


DICTIONARIES OF MUSIC 

which are limited (a) to a particular pe- 
riod (e.g., A. Eaglefield Hull, A Diction- 
ary of Modern Music and Musicians), or 
(b) to a particular country (e.g., E. 
Refardt, Historisch-hiographisches Mu- 
sil{erlexiJ{on der Schweiz), or (c) to a 
particular field (e.g., W. W. Cobbett, 
Cyclopedic Survey of Chamber Music, 

The subsequent list groups the diction- 
aries under three headings: I. Standard 
Dictionaries (including the above types 
I, 2, 3) published after 1890; II. Special 
Dictionaries (including type 4) published 
after 1890; III. Earlier Dictionaries. 

I. Standard Dictionaries after iSgo. 

A. United States: Th. Baker, A Diction- 
ary of Musical Terms (25th ed., 1939). — 
id., Biographical Dictionary of Musicians 
(4th cd., 1940). — W. S. Pratt, The New 
Encyclopedia of Music and Musicians 
(1924, originally planned as an abridg- 
ment of Grove; rev. ed., 1929). — O. 
Thompson, The International Cyclopedia 
of Music and Musicians (1939; 

1944).^ 

B. England: G. Grove, Dictionary of 
Music and Musicians (4th ed. by H. C. 
Colles, 1940, 5 vols., with American Sup- 
plement, 1938, and with Supplementary 
Volume, 1940). — P. Scholcs, The Ox- 
ford Companion to Music (1938; 2d ed., 
1941). — English ed. of Riemann (by 
Shedlock, 1893^). 

C. France: M. Brenet, Dictionnaire 
pratique et historique de la musique (new 
ed., 1930). — R. Vannes, Essai de termi- 
nologie musical. Dictionnaire universelle 
. . . (1925). — The Encyclopedic de la 
musique et dictionnaire du Conserva- 
toire (ed. A. Lavignac and L. de la 
Laurencie, 1913-1931; 5 vols. Histoire 
and 6 vols. Technique), although fre- 
quently listed among musical dictionaries 
and probably intended to include one, ac- 
tually lies outside the category. A short 
alphabetical index, mainly to composers, 
was compiled by R. Bruce (Yale Univer- 
sity, 1936). 

D. Germany: R. Eitner, Biographisch- 
hibliographisches Quellen-Lexi\on . . . 
bis zur Mine des 79. fahrhunderts (1900- 
04, 10 vols.; supplementary Miscellanea 
bio-bibliographic a, ed. by H. Springer 


[208] 



DICTIONARIES OF MUSIC 

and others, 1912-16, 3 vols.). — H. Ric- 
mann, MusiJ(lexiI{on (1882; nth ed., by 

A. Einstein, 1929, 2 vols.). H. J. Moser, 
Musil{lexi\on (1935). — H. Abcrt, IHus- 
tnertes Musi}{lexi\on (1927). 

E. Italy: A. della Corte and G. M. Gatti, 
Dizionario dt musica ( 1925; 3d ed., 
1930). — C. Schmidl, Dizionario univet 
sale dei musicisti (1926, 2 vols.; supp.. 
I 938 ). 

F. Other Countries: A. Iljinski and G, 
Pachulski, Biographien der Komponisten 
des iv, bis xx, Jahrhunderts (Moscow, 
1904). — G. Keller and P. Kruseman, 
Geillustreerd Muziekjextcon (s’Graven- 
hage, 1932). — T. Norlind, Allmant Mu- 
sil{lexikpn (Stockholm, 1916; 2d ed., 
1927-28, 2 vols.). — H. Panum and 
others, lllustreret Musi 1 {le\siJ{on (Copen- 
hagen, 1924-26; new ed., 1940). — A. To- 
rellas and J. Pahissa, Diccionario de la 
musica illustrado . . . (Barcelona, 1930, 
2 vols.). — H. Viotta, Lexicon der Toon- 
\unst (Amsterdam, 1889, 3 vols.). 

II. Special Dictionaries after i 8 go, 

A. United States and England: A. 
Eaglefield-Hull, A Dictionary of Modern 
Music and Musicians (i.e., since 1880; 
1924). — Stainer and Barrett, Dictionary 
of Musical Terms (1898). — W. W. Cob- 
betl. Cyclopedic Survey of Chamber 
Music (1929—30, 2 vols.). — D. Ewen, 
Composers of Today (1935; 2d ed., 1936). 

— D. Ewen, Living Musicians (i.e„ per- 
formers; 1940). — Cl. Reis, Composers in 
America (from 1912 to 1937; ’38). — N. 
Slonimsky, “Concise Biographical Dic- 
tionary of Twentieth-Century Musicians’" 
in Music Since igoo (1937; 2d ed., 1938; 
contains important corrections of dates in 
the dictionaries of Grove, Hull, Riemann, 
and Moser). — Who is Who in Music 
(1941 edition). — J. Towers, Dictionary- 
Catalog of Operas and Operettas (1910). 

— J. Pulver, Dictionary of Old English 
Music and Musical Instruments (1923). 

— J. Pulver, Biographical Dictionary of 
Old English Music (1927). — John A. 
Julian, Dictionary of Hymnology (1892; 
2d ed.. 19071!). — Anselm Hughes, Dic- 
tionary of Liturgical Terms (1941). — 
Bio-biblio graphical Index of Musicians tn 
the United States Since Colonial Ttmes 


DICTIONARIES OF MUSIC 

(District of Columbia Historical Records 
Survey. 1941). 

B. France: F. Clement and P. A. La- 
rousse, Dirtionnaire des operas , . . 
(P.aris, 1872; rev. ed. by A. Pougin, 1905) 

C. Germany: W. Altmann, Ku^zge- 
fasstes Tonf{unstlerlcxil{on (1926); H. 
Muller, Deutsches Ton\unnlerlexil{Qn 
(1928)0 — C. Sachs, Reallexi\on der 
Muslim itrumente . . . (1913). — W. L. 
Lutgendorfl, G eigen- und Lautenmacher 
vom Mittelalter bis zur Gegenwart (4th 
ed., 1922, 2 vols.). — J. Zuth, Handbuch 
der LMUte und Gitarre (1926-28). — U. 
Kornmullcr, Lexicon der \iTchlichen 
Tonf^unst (2d ed., 1895). — S. Kiim- 
merle. Encyclopedic der evangelischen 
Kirchenmusik^ (1888—95, 4 vols.). — A. 
Weisscnbiick, Sacra Music a\ Lexicon der 
katholischen Kirchenmusik^ (1937). 

D. Italy: A. de Angelis, L' Italia musi- 
cale d'oggi: Dizionario dei musicisti^ com- 
positoriy direttori d' orchestra . . (1918; 
3d ed., 1928). — C. Desson, Opere e 
operisti dizionario Unto (1903) 

E. Other Countries. Jose Ruiz de Li- 
hoiy, La Musica en Valencia^ diccionario 
btografico e critico ( Valencia, 1903). — 

F. Vieira, Diccionario biograpco de must- 
cos portuguezes . . ; Lisbon, 1900, 2 
vols.). — W. Neumann, Lexi}{on balti- 
scher Tonkunstlet (Riga, 1909), A Vo- 
darsky-Shireff, Russian Composers and 
MusicianSy A Biographical Dictionary 
(New York, 1940); E. Rcfardt, Histo- 
risch-biographisches Musi\erlexi}{pn der 
Schweiz (Zurich, 1928). — G. CernuSdk 
and V. Helfert, Pazdirkuv hudebnt Slov- 
ni\ nau^ny (Brno, 1938). 

III. Earlier Dictionaries, The earliest 
musical dictionary is an nth-century Vo- 
cabularium musicum (repr. in J. La Page, 
Essai de diphtiro graphic musicalcy 1864). 
Much more complete is Joh. Tinctoris* 
Terminorum musicae diffinitorium from 
c. 1474 (repr. in CS iv and, with German 
translation, in JMW i). This was fol- 
lowed, but only after more than two cen- 
turies, by the Clavis ad thesaurum magnis 
cirtis musicae (Prague, 1701) of the Bo- 
hemian organist, Janovka, and by the 
Dictionnaire de musique (Paris, 1703) of 
Scbastien Brossard. From the latter, who 


1 209 J 



DICTIONARIES OF MUSIC 


DIES IRAE 


was unfamiliar with Janovka’s work, 
stems the line of French musical diction- 
aries continued most notably by : J J. Rous- 
seau, Dictionnaire de musique (Geneva, 
1768); the Dictionnaire de musique (I, 
1791; II, 1818) by Framery and Ginguen^, 
contained in the Encyclopedic mStho^ 
dique\ the first French biographical dic- 
tionary of musicians, namely the Diction- 
naire historique des musiciens^ of Choron 
and Fayolle (Paris, i8io~ii, 2 vols.); 
F. H. J. Castil-Blaze, Dictionnaire de 
musique moderne (Paris, 1821; 2d ed., 2 
vols., 1825; revised 1828); F. J. F^tis’ ex- 
clusively biographical Biographic univer- 
selle des musiciens (Paris, 1834-35, 8 
vols.; 2d ed., 1860-65; 2-vol. supplement 
by A. Pougin, 1879-81); and the still use- 
ful compilation, Dictionnaire de musique 
d'aprhs les thSoricienSy historiens^ et cri- 
tiques les plus cSlebres^ edited by M. and 
L. Escudier (Paris, 1844; 5th ed., 1872). 

The German musical dictionaries begin 
with J. G. Walther’s topical and bio- 
graphical [Alte und neue musi\alische 
Bihliothe\ oder] Musikalisches Lexicon 
(1728; greatly enlarged, 1732), and are 
subsequently represented — in addition 
to biographical and other material found 
in J. Mattheson’s writings, especially his 
Grundlage einer Ehrenpforte (1740; mod- 
ern edition by M. Schneider, Berlin, 
1910) — chiefly by: E. L. Gerber’s purely 
biographical Historisch -bi ographisch es 
Lexicon der Tonkjinstler (1790-92, 2 
vols.; 2d ed., 1812-14, 4 vols.); H. C. 
Koch, Musi\alisches Lexicon (1802; rev., 
1865); G. Schilling’s comprehensive [En- 
cyclopddie der gesammten musil{cdischen 
Wissenschaften oder] Universallexi\on 
der Ton^unst (1835-38, 6 vols.; suppl., 
1842); and H. Mendel, Musit{alisches 
Konversationslexi\on (1870-79, ii vols.; 
suppl., 1883). 

Following an unimportant volume en- 
titled A short explication of such foreign 
words as are made use of in musicf{^ books 
(1724), English musical lexicography 
produces its first significant work in J. 
Grassineau’s purely topical Musical dic- 
tionary . . . (London, 1740; 2d ed., 
1769), an expansion of Brossard, and its 
first biographical dictionary of musicians 


in the Dictionary of Musicians (1824, 2 
vols.; 2d ed., 1827). 

Italy’s first dictionary of music was the 
Dizionario di music a sacra e prof ana of 
P. Gianelli (Venice, 1801; 2d ed., 1820), 
which was superseded by P. Lichtenthal, 
Dizionario e bibliografia della music a 
(1826, 4 vols.). 

Of American dictionaries in this field 
the most important early work is J. W. 
Moore, Complete encyclopedia of music 
(Boston, 1854; appendix to 1875), which 
was followed by the author’s shorter Dic- 
tionary of musical information containing 
also a vocabulary of musical terms, and a 
list of modern musical works published in 
the United States from i 6 .p to i 8 j^ 
(Boston, 1876). Later came, among 
others, the Cyclopedia of music and mu- 
sicians [composers only] by J. D. Champ- 
lin, Jr., and W. F. Apthorp (New York, 
1888-90, 3 vols.) and the American his- 
tory and encyclopedia of music, edited by 
W. L. Hubbard and others (New York, 
1910, 12 vols.). 

Works in other languages are: B. Sal- 
doni, Diccionario biogrdfico-bibliogrdfico 
de efemSrides de musico espanoles (Ma- 
drid, 1868, 4 vols.); J. de Vasconcellos, 
Os music os portuguezes (Porto, 1870, 2 
vols.); A. Sowinski, Les musiciens polo- 
nais et slaves anciens et modernes (Paris, 
1857); id,, Slownik muzykdw polskich 
(Paris, 1874). 

For completion of the above list, refer- 
ence may be had to E. Magni-Dufflocq, 
“Dizionari di Musica” {Bolletino bibli- 
ografico musicale viii), to the article “Dic- 
tionaries” in GD and the articles “Lexika” 
in RiML and MoML, L. H. 

Didymic comma. See *Comma. 

Diese [F.]. Sharp; see *Pitch names. 

Dies irae (Day of wrath). A rhymed 
sequence [see *Scquence (2)], probably 
by Thomas a Celano (d. 1256), which is 
among the most impressive products of 
medieval poetry and music. It is one of 
the five sequences still surviving in the 
Roman liturgy, being sung at Requiem 
mass [GRy 97*]. Its plainsong melody 
which is a good example of Dorius mix- 


[210] 



DIESIS 


DIPLOMAS 


tus [sec ^Church modes] shows the se- 
quence-like structure aa bb cc — this 
scheme being repeated with three stanzas 
(in the third stanza, the second c is re- 



Dl-es i-raa <li-C5 <1- la., Sol- vet saac-Luwt 


Jn jk-vil-ULj'Ss-ie Da-vMl cumSUbU-liL. 


placed by an extended coda: lacrimosa — 
Amen), The Dies irae is usually included 
in polyphonic settings of the requiem. In 
the older settings it is either sung simply 
to the plainsong melody (Palestrina, 
Vittoria), or this melody is used as the 
tenor of polyphonic composition (Orazio 
Vecchi, Francesco Anerio; cf. GD ii, 65). 
More recent composers have usually re- 
tained only the text and have written to 
it free music of a highly dramatic char- 
acter (Mozart, Cherubini, Verdi). How- 
ever, the initial phrases of the old melody 
[see Ex.] arc used as a subject in Berlioz’ 
“Symphonic Fantastique” (1828), last 
movement, and in his “Grande Messe des 
Morts” (1837), as well as in Liszt’s “Sym- 
phonic zu Dante’s Divina Commedia” 
(Inferno) and in Saint Saens’s “Danse 
macabre” [see *Dance of Death]. See 
also ^Requiem. 


is called minor diesis or enharmonic diesis 

/ (sY 128 

(2 :^ — J = = 41 cents); see *En- 


harmonic (2). 

Dietro [It.]. After, following. Also 
used in the meaning of ^retrograde. 


Diferencia. Sixteenth-century Spanish 
name for variations. The diferencias con- 
tained in Luis de Narvaez’ Delphin de 
Musica (1543; cf. ApMZ ii) arc among 
the earliest preserved examples of vari- 
ations [see ^Variations VI]. Cabezon 
wrote outstanding diferencias for the or- 
gan [repr. in ^Editions XIII, 3/4 and 
7/8]. Examples in HAM^ nos. 122, 134. 
See also *Glosa. 


Difference tone, differential tone. 

See ^Combination tones. 

Differentiae, differences [G. D//- 
ferenzen]. The various endings of a 
*psalm tone. An older name is tropus. 
See *E u o u a e. 

Dilettant [G.]. Amateur. 

Diluendo [It.]. “Dissolving,” dying 
away. 

Dimeter. See ^Poetic Meter. 


Diminished intervals. See ^Intervals. 


Diesis, (i) It. for sharp; see *Pitch 
names. — (2) In older Greek theory 
(Pythagoras), the diatonic semitone of the 
’"'Pythagorean scale, also called limma. 
— (3) In later Greek theory (Aristotle) 
diesis means the quarter-tone, also called 
pyt{non, of the enharmonic genus. In this 
meaning the term reappears in the writ- 
ings of Niccola Vicentino (1511-72), 
who tried to restore the Greek system. — 
(4) In modern writings on acoustics the 
term is occasionally used to designate 
certain theoretical intervals, about a 
quarter-tone in size. The difference be- 
tween four minor thirds (of just intona- 
tion) and the octave is called great diesis 

— 'j :2 = = 63 *cents); that be- 

5/625 

tween the octave and three major thirds 


Diminished seventh chord. See 
^Seventh chord. 

Diminished triad. See “"“Triad. 

Diminuendo [It.], abbreviated dim. or 
dimin. Same as ’•^decrescendo. 

Diminution [L. diminutio]. (i) In 
counterpoint and in mensural notation, 
see ’"'Augmentation and diminution. — 
(2) The breaking up of the notes of a 
melody into quick figures, as is frequently 
done in variations; hence, synonymous 
with figuration or ornamentation. Sec 
also ’•Ornamentation I. 

Di nuovo [It.]. Anew, once more. 

Diphona [Gr.]. See *Bicinium. 


Diplomas. See ^Degrees. 

[211 ] 



DIRECT 

Direct. A mark, similar in shape to the 
^mordent, which in early manuscripts 
and publications is given at the end of 
each staff (or only of the page) to warn 
the player of the first note of the follow- 
ing staff (or page). The Latin name is 
custos. 

Directaneus. See ^Psalmody I. 

Dirge [from L. Dirige Domine^ an an- 
tiphon from the Office for the Dead; cf. 
AR ( 154) ] . A vocal or instrumental com- 
position designed to be performed at a 
funeral or at memorial rites. 

Dirigent; dirigieren [G.]. Conduc- 
tor; to conduct. 

Dis, disis [G.]. See *Pitch names. 

Discant discantus^. Although Web- 
ster gives discant only as a second choice 
of ^descant, musical authorities (e.g., 
Wooldridge, in OH i) prefer the spelling 
discant — which is closer to the original 
Latin word — for the early meaning of 
the word, explained below. The Angli- 
cized spelling descant may be reserved 
for the later meanings [see ^Descant]. 
Discantus is a 13th-century term, possibly 
a translation of Gr. *diaphonia^ and used 
preferably to denote polyphonic music in 
strict (modal) rhythm [cf. the explana- 
tion of Joh. de Garlandia, CS i, 106: 
“Discant is the concurrence of various 
parts according to the principles of modal 
meter and of the equivalence of note- 
values”]. It therefore denotes that style 
which prevails in the organa, clausulae, 
motets, and conductus of the 13th cen- 
tury [see ^Clausula; also ^Harmony, Ex. 
4], as distinguished from the rhythmi- 
cally free “organal style” of the organa 
dupla of the 12th century (St. Martial 
and, possibly, Leoninus) in which the 
upper voice {duplum) moves on in rela- 
tively free melismas above a few sustained 
notes of the tenor [see * Harmony, Ex. 3; 
also under *Organum]. The 13th- and 
14th-century treatises on discant deal 
chiefly with the rules of consonances and 
of voice-leading in part-writing. Thus, 
discant becomes tantamount to “teaching 
of counterpoint” — a meaning which sur- 


DISCANTUS SUPRA LIBRUM 

vives in the “descant” of English 17th- 
and 18th-century treatises. For English 
discant, see *Fauxbourdon (2). In a few 
treatises prior to the 13th century the 
term discantus is used in various conno- 
tations (e.g., that of contrary motion), 
some of which are not entirely clear [see 
Lit., Handschin] . 

Lit.: OH i, chapter on “Discant or 
Measured Music”; J. Handschin, in 
ZMW vii and viii. 

Discant mass [G. Dis^antmesse]. A 
recent musicological term for Masses of 
the 15th century in which the borrowed 
cantus firmus appears, not — as usual — 
in the tenor, but in the upper part, usu- 
ally disguised in figurations [see *Mass 
B, II]. This method was in vogue in the 
early T5th century (Dunstable, Dufay, 
Binchois) [ex. in BeMMR, 199]. •Cf. 
R. V. Fickcr, “Die Colorierungstechnik 
der Trienter Messen” {StM vii). 

Discantus supra librum [F. dechant 
stir le livrc^ “discant from the book”]. A 
14th-century term for methods of impro- 
vising polyphonic music, with only one 
part (tenor) written “in the book,” i.e., 
in the books of Gregorian chant. The 
*organum of the 9th and loth centuries, 
proceeding chiefly in parallel fourths and 
fifths, may be considered as an early type 
of discantus supra librum, since its rules 
enabled a singer to improvise a second 
voice {vox organalis) to the plainsong 
tenor {vox principalis). Specifically, the 
term refers to certain more elaborate 
methods of improvised harmonization em- 
ployed in the 14th century. The method 
described by S. Tunstede {CS iii, 361; see 
^Theory II ) looks like a “modernization” 
of the early organum of fifths. Four sing- 
ers perform doubled parallel fifths, with 
florid passages interspersed in the two 



highest parts, whereas a fifth singer 
(called “discantor”) occasionally intro- 
duces thirds [see Ex.]. (The black notes 
indicate the “discantor”; the arrows sug- 


[212] 



DISCANTUS VISIBILIS 


DIVERTISSEMENT 


gest the possibility of improvised figura- 
tion [see ♦Ornamentation I]; the lowest 
part is the tenor “from the book.*’) A 
more progressive and more important 
type of discantus supra librum is that 
known as English discant [see ♦Faux- 
bourdon (2)]. It may be noted that, in 
English writings of the i6th to the 19th 
century, the term descant is frequently 
used in a meaning derived from discantus 
supra librum [see ♦Descant (3)]. Cf. 
E. Ferand, Die Improvisation in der 
Musi\ (1939) and paper in Proceedings 
of the Music Teachers* National Associa- 
tion (1940); M. Bukofzer, Geschichte des 
Englischen Disl^ants . . . (1936). 

Discantus visibilis. See ♦Fauxbour- 
don (2). 

Discord. See ♦Concord and Discord. 

Disinvolto [It.]. “Self-possessed,” i.e., 
assured, easy. 

Disis [G.]. See ♦Pitch names. 

Disjoint, disjunct. See ♦Conjoint. 

Diskant [G.j. Soprano (descant). See 
also *Discant. 

Disperato [It.]. Desperate. 

Disposition. The arrangement of stops, 
manuals, pedals, couplers, etc., of an 
organ. 

Disque [F.]. Record. 

Dissonance. See ♦Consonance and dis- 
sonance. 

Distinction, In Gregorian chant, the 
phrases of the melody, such as are indi- 
cated by the sections of the text, e.g.: 
Omnes qui habebant infirmos/ ducebant 
illos ad Jesum/ et sanabantur [AR, 394]- 
In the Vatican editions of the monks of 
Solesmes vertical dashes (called divisio) 
of various lengths and positions are used 
to indicate smaller or longer rests to be 
made after each distinction. Cf. GR, 
p. xiii. 

Dital harp. See *Harp lute. 
Dithyramb [Gr. dithyrambos]. A song 


in honor of the Greek god Dionysus. It 
seems as though it originally was a stro- 
phic song sung by a chorus or the whole 
crowd attending the feast of the god. 
From the 6th to the 4th century it grew 
more elaborate by the inclusion of the 
♦aulos, of soloists, and of dancing groups. 
Thus it became a compound form con- 
sisting of various “movements” which 
has been compared to our cantata. It also 
adopted a dramatic and emotional char- 
acter, full of unbridled passion. Towards 
the end of the 4th century it degenerated 
into a sort of show-opera in which vari- 
ous characters were frequently presented 
by one single actor. — Modern composers 
have occasionally adopted the word as a 
title of compositions of a very free and 
passionate nature. Cf. ReMMAy i2fl; 
RiHM i.i, 129; AdHM i, 58; Th. Rei- 
nach. La Musique Grecque (1926), 149. 

Ditonus [L.]. Medieval name for the 
major third, equal to two whole-tones. 

Div, Abbreviation for ♦divisi. 

Diva [It., goddess]. Same as ♦prima 
donna. 

Divertimento [It.]. An instrumental 
form of the second half of the i8th cen- 
tury which combines features of the suite 
with those of the symphony. It consists 
of a varying number (four to ten) of rela- 
tively short movements some of which are 
in the form and style of the symphony 
(sonata), while others are suite-like 
dances (especially minuets) or variations. 
Divertimenti were written for strings, 
winds, or mixed groups, usually with one 
or two players to the part; thus they are 
chamber rather than orchestral music. 
They were particularly popular in Vi- 
enna. Haydn wrote 66 divertimenti, Mo- 
zart 21; others are by Dittersdorf (1739-' 
99) and Ignaz Holzbauer (1711-83; cf. 
DTB 15). Beethoven’s Septett op. 20 and 
Schubert’s Octett op. 166 belong to the 
same category. Closely related types are 
the ♦cassation and the ♦serenade. See also 
♦Divertissement (4). 

Divertissement [F.]. (i) Fugal epi- 
sode. — (2) A musical potpourri, fre- 


[213] 



DIVIDED STOP 


DOMINANT 


qucndy in the form of pieces extracted 
from an opera. — (3) In the French 
Baroque opera, the ballets, dances, en- 
tr’actes, etc., in short all those pieces 
which merely served to entertain without 
being essential to the plot of the action. — 
(4) Same as ♦divertimento. 

Divided stop. See ♦Stop. 

Divisi [It.]. The term, abbreviated 
is used in orchestral scores to indicate 
that an instrumental body, e.g., the first 
violins, is to be divided into two groups 
for the rendering of passages which in- 
clude full chords, doubling in thirds, etc. 
See reference under ♦A due. 

Divisio [L.]. (i) In Gregorian chant, 
see under ♦Distinction. — (2) In 13th- 
century notation, divisio modi is a small 
vertical dash of indefinite length which 
is regularly placed at the end of an ♦ordo, 
i.e., of a melodic phrase in modal meter. 
It is equivalent to a rest. See ♦Modes, 
rhythmic. — (3) In 14th-century Italian 
notation, divisiones are metrical schemes 
comparable to our 4/8, 6/8, 9/8, 12/8, 
etc., meters, so called because they are ar- 
rived at by dividing a long note {brevis) 
into smaller values. Cf. ApNPM^ 

Division. A 17th- and 18th-century 
term for ♦figuration, that is, for the break- 
ing up of a melody into quick figures and 
passages [see also ♦Ornamentation I; 
♦Coloratura]. In particular, the term re- 
fers to the prevailingly English practice 
of a harpsichordist playing a ground bass 
(with its thorough-bass chords), to which 
a viol- or flute-player, “having the said 
ground before his eye, plays such a variety 
of descant or division in concordance 
thereto as his skill and present invention 
do then suggest unto him” [Chr. Simp- 
son, The Division Violist (1659)]. Such 
music, chiefly extemporized, was called 
divisions upon a ground. Important Eng- 
lish publications other than that of Simp- 
son are: John Playford, The Division Vio- 
lin (1685); Henry Playford, The Division 
Violin (1688, ’93); The Division Flute 
(anon., 1722). Sec *Improvisation III; 
♦Partimento. 


A modern counterpart of the 17th-cen- 
tury method of divisions exists in that 
recent type of jazz known as ♦boogie- 
woogie. 

Division viol. See ♦Viol IV, 2. 

Divoto [It.]. Devout. 

D la sol (re). See ♦Hexachord III. 

Do, doh. See ♦Solmization I; ♦Tonic 
Sol-fa. 

Dodekachordon [from Gr. dode^a, 
twelve, and chordos, string, tone]. Title 
of an important theoretical book by 
H. Glareanus (i488“i563), published in 
1547, in which the traditional system of 
eight ♦church modes is enlarged to a sys- 
tem of twelve. The book is also remark- 
able for its highly judicious and compre- 
hensive analysis of the works of Josquin 
and other masters of the early i6th cen- 
tury. A German translation by P. Bohn 
appeared in 1899. Cf. A. Sobering, “Die 
Notenbeispiele in Glarean’s D.” (SIM 
xiii). — The name was adopted by Claude 
Le Jeune (d. 1606) as a title for a cycle of 
motets based upon the twelve modes of 
Glarean [see ♦Editions XVI, 8]. 

Dogliosamente [It.]. Sorrowful. 

Doigte [F.]. Fingering. 

Dolce [It.]. Sweet and soft. 

Dolcino, dolcian, dulcian. See ♦Oboe 
(history). 

Dolcissimo [It.]. Very sweet and soft. 

Dolente, doloroso [It.]. Doleful. 

Domchor [G.] . The choir of a German 
cathedral (Dorn), either Protestant or 
Catholic. 

Domestic Symphony, See ♦Sym- 
phonic poem III. 

Dominant, (i) The fifth degree of the 
major or minor scale, so called on account 
of its “dominating” position in harmony 
as well as in melody. Many melodies show 
the fifth as a tone second in importance 
only to the first degree, the ♦tonic [see 
♦Scale degrees]. However, the fifth de- 


[214] 



DOMINANT SEVENTH CHORD 

gree is even more important in harmony 
as a bass tone, i.e., the root of the domi- 
nant triad (g-b-d' in C major). In *har- 
monic analysis, this triad is indicated by 
the numeral V or the letter D. It is most 
frequently resolved into the tonic triad 
(I) [see ^Cadence]. Other chords with 
dominant function are the dominant sev- 
enth chord [see ’•‘‘Seventh chord], the 
^diminished seventh chord, and the dom- 
inant ninth chord [see *Ninth chord]. 
Of particular importance in harmonic 
analysis are the so-called secondary domi- 
nants, i.e., the dominants of any degree 
of the scale other than the tonic. It is 
these chords which account for the ma- 
jority of accidentals found in music 
which is essentially diatonic. The desig- 
nation for such chords is: V of II (V/II), 
V of III (V/III), etc. [see Ex.]. See 




^ — -AA.$ Z 


~r 


== 

y ra 






-P - 

3 

? ^ n 



it % I X I 


■•^Harmonic analysis V. — (2) For the 
dominant of modes, see ’•^Church modes I. 

Dominant seventh chord. See ♦Sev- 
enth chord; ♦Dominant, 

Dominica [L.]. Sunday [sec under 
♦Feria]. 

Domp(e). See ♦Dump. 

Domra. A Russian long-necked lute 
[see ♦Lute II] of the i6th and 17th cen- 
turies, the forerunner of the ♦balalaika. 
Cf. A. S. Faminzin, The Domra (1891; 
Russian); LavE i.5, 2494f. 

Don Giovanni (“Don Juan”). Opera 
{dramma giocoso) in two acts by W. A. 
Mozart (1756-91), text by Da Ponte, 
composed in 1787. The action takes place 
in Seville during the 17th century and 
centers around the libertine of legendary 
fame, Don Juan or Don Giovanni (Bari- 
tone), who is assisted in his numerous 
amorous adventures by his servant Lepo- 
rello (Bass). Three women are involved 


DORIAN 

in the plot: Donna Anna (Soprano), 
whose father, the Commendatore (Bass), 
is killed by Don Giovanni in the first 
scene and who, together with her be- 
trothed, Don Ottavio (Tenor), swears 
vengeance; Donna Elvira (Soprano), Don 
Giovanni’s deserted wife who seeks to re- 
gain his love and, in the final scene, im- 
plores him — in vain — to mend his 
ways; and Zerlina (Soprano), a pretty 
peasant girl about to be married to Ma- 
setto (Bass). An especially dramatic touch 
is added to the action by the Statue of the 
dead Commendatore whom Don Gio- 
vanni mockingly invites to dine with him 
and who, in the final scene, comes to de- 
liver the unrepentant sinner to the demons 
of hell. 

Don Giovanni, one of the greatest, if 
not the greatest, operas of all time, needs 
no words of praise. Suffice it to point to 
the overture the slow beginning of which 
anticipates the music accompanying the 
appearance of the Commendatore in the 
final scene, to the “Catalogue aria” by 
Leporello in which he reads to Donna 
Elvira the list of Don Giovanni’s ”1003 
loves,” and to Don Giovanni’s “Deh 
vieni alia fenestra” sung to the accom- 
paniment of a mandolin. 

Donnermaschine [G.]. ♦Thunder 

machine. 

Don Quixote. See ♦Symphonic poem 
III. 

Doppel- [G.]. Double. Doppel-be, 
double flat; Doppelchor, double chorus; 
Doppelfuge, double fugue; Doppelgriff, 
double stop; Doppell^reuz, double sharp; 
Doppelpedaly double pedal; Doppelschlag, 
turn; Doppeltriller, double trill; Doppel- 
zunge, double-tonguing. In connection 
with instruments, the term usually de- 
notes ♦duplex instruments [cf. SaRM, 
114-117]. 

Doppio [It.]. Double. Doppio bemolle, 
double flat; doppio diesis, double sharp; 
doppio movimento {tempo), double 
speed; doppio pedale, double pedal. 

Dorian. See ♦Greek music II (c); 
♦Church modes I; ♦Modality. Dorian 


[215] 




DOT 


DOTTED NOTES 


sixth is the major sixth used in a minor 
key (e.g., in C minor: c~eb-£-g-a-g), so 
called because it appears in the Dorian 
church mode (d-f-g-a-b-a). Cf. Hip> 
kins, “Dorian and Phrygian” (SIM iv). 

Dot [F. point; G. Pun}{t; It. punto\. In 
musical notation a dot is used: (a) after 
a note, to indicate augmentation of its 
value by one-half [see ^Dotted notes]; 
(b) above a note, to indicate * staccato or 
*portato. See also *Punctus. 

Dotted notes. I. Present Usage. A dot 
placed after a note adds to it one-half of 
its value. Thus, a dotted half-note equals 
three quarter-notes [Ex. a]. Two dots 
after a note add to it one-half plus one- 
quarter of its value. Thus, a double- 
dotted half-note equals 4 -f 2 + i = 7 

eighth-notes [Ex. b]. In modern prac- 
tice, dotted notes are used only if their 
value docs not extend over a bar-line; 
otherwise tied notes are used [Ex. c]. 
Brahms revived an older practice when he 
wrote dotted rhythm as shown in Ex. d. 

II. In Baroque Music. In music prior 
to 1750 the dot is frequently used in a 
manner which differs from the modern 
practice and which has been the object of 
much investigation and controversy. The 
only proper answer to this question is 
that in the period under consideration the 
dot indicates a prolongation of undeter- 
mined value, depending upon various 
factors such as the character of the piece, 
the rhythm of the other parts, the tempo, 
the interpretation of the performer, etc. 
Statements to this effect are found in prac- 
tically all theory books written between 
c. 1680 and 1750. In this connection it 
may be noted that Leopold Mozart in his 
Versuch einer grundlichen Violinschule 
(1756) would seem to have been the first 
to use the double dot, thus paving the 
way for a clearer indication of different 
degrees of prolongation. The following 
cases of the freely used dot are noteworthy: 

(a) If dotted notes are used against 
triplets in another voice, the dotted 
rhythm may be modified (attenuated) 


into a triplet rhythm [Ex. i; Bach, Par- 
tita no. ij. According to contemporary 



writers this modification was, however, 
not obligatory, but was left to the discre- 
tion of the performer. In this respect the 
gavotte from Bach’s Partita no. 6 [Ex. 2] 
is informative since here neither the “ex- 
act” nor the “attenuated” rhythm can be 
consistently maintained, since the same 
dotted figure appears in conjunction with 
triplet-groups as well as with groups of 
four notes. Consistency in this matter (as 
in many others) concerned Bach much 
less than it does the student of today. 

(b) According to French writers of the 
early i8th century, compositions written 
in “French style” (i.e., the style of the 
slow section in Lully’s French ^overture) 
call for a more pronounced rhythm than 
is indicated in writing, so that a dotted 
note should be perforni.d ahnost as a 
double-dotted value as in Kx. a. This 
rendition, if used with taste and modera- 

tion, helps to bring out the pompous qual- 
ity of the French overture style and should 
be applied, though without ostentatious 
exaggeration, to pieces such as the prelude 
to Bach’s Partita no. 6 and the prelude in 
E-flat minor from his Wt. Cl. i, a compo- 
sition the true character of which is far 
removed from the gentle and somewhat 
boring lyricism in which it is usually in- 
terpreted. On the other hand, it cannot 
be denied that some modern writers and 


[216] 




DOTTED NOTES DOUBL6 

performers have gone too far in recom- preferable to the trochaic rhythm J j', be- 
mending strict double-dotted execution cause it is “a rhythm full of strength and 
for all sorts of pieces which show a re- harmonizing with nature which is al- 
mote resemblance to the style of the ways stronger at the end than at the be- 
French overture (e.g., the D-major ginning” [cf. 339]. 

Fugue of W^. CL i). In art music, the inverted dotting ap- 

(c) Another free usage of the dot, but pears first in French songs of the late 

less likely to lead to confusion, is illus- i6th century, as a means of correct pro- 
trated by Ex. b (used as early as Kotter’s nunciation [cf. ApNPM, 129]. It is cx- 
tablaturc, c, 1515 ; cf. ApNPM^ 30). tremely frequent in Italian music of the 

(d) Around 1700 dotted rhythm be- early 17th century and, in fact, repre- 

came a sort of fashionable folly. Certain sents one of the most typical embodi- 
French or French-minded composers in- ments of the somewhat exaggerated ex- 
troduced reiterated dotting for running pressiveness of early Baroque music [ex- 
passages, as in Ex. c, or even Ex. d [cf. amples in Caccini, Nuove Musiche 
Georg Muflat, Florilegium (1695/96); (1602); toccatas of Trabaci and Mayone, 

DTOe 2.ii, p. 48], and players applied 1603, cf. W. Apel in MQ xxiv, 436; 
this rhythm to running figures written Frescobaldi, e.g., his Toccata per Tele- 
in plain eighth- or sixteenth-notes. This vazione; Cazzati, Cantata of 1649, cf. H. 
method of playing was known as inegales, Riemann. Kantaten-Fruhling ii, 14; Ales- 
Some modern writers have done ill service sandro Scarlatti, cf. TaAM ix, 112]. 
to the cause of ^Auffiihrungspraxis by Italian terms for the inverted dotted 
advocating this passing mannerism as the rhythm are alia zoppa or Lombardic 
true style of late Baroque music in gen- style. This rhythm also figures promi- 
eral. Cf. E. Borrel, in TG viii, 267!!, and nently in the English music of the 17th 
in no. 40; G. Horn, in no. 53; century (John Blow, Henry Purcell), in 
G. Scheck, and E. Schenck, in DM xxi.8 which it is used effectively in order to 
and II. bring out the short, but accented, first syl- 

III. Inverted Dotting, The rhythm lables which occur in so many English 
which is the reverse of the ordinary dotted dissyllabics. 
rhythm; in other words a dotted note 

which is preceded, not followed, by its Double, (i) The French word double 
complementary short value (e.g., /J.). is an 18th-century term for a simple type 
This rhythm is generally known under of variation, consisting chiefly in the ad- 
the name Scotch snap, because it is a dition of embellishments. It occurs pref- 
typical feature of the ^strathspey and of erably with certain dances of a suite (cf. 
other Scottish folk tunes. Its occurrence, Bach, ist English Suite: courante with 
however, far exceeds the province of two “doubles”; 6th English Suite: sara- 
Scotch music. It is a typical feature of bande with “double”). — (2) The Eng- 
American Negro music and of jazz, and lish word double, if used in connection 
it has been maintained that the synco- with instruments, indicates either instru- 
pated effects of jazz have their origin in ments of lowxr pitch or a combination of 
the Scotch snap [see reference under two instruments in one. The former 
On the other hand, it should be meaning, which is derived from the 
noted that inverted dotting is also very double octave, occurs with the '•‘double- 
frequent in Oriental and in primitive bass, the double-bass clarinet, the double- 
music [see ^Primitive music IV], where bass trombone, the double bassoon, etc., 
the normal dotted rhythm is rather rare, while the latter occurs with the double 
In this connection it is interesting to note horn, the double trumpet, and the double 
that the author of the Speculum musicae flageolet. See ^Duplex instruments. 

(d*. 1320), in defending the *Ars antiqua 

against the refinements of the ♦Ars nova. Double [F.]. Term of the French 
maintains that the iambic rhythm /J is clavccinists for the *turn. 

I217J 



DOUBLE-BASS 


DOUBLE FUGUE 


Double-bass, also called bass viol or 
contrabass [F. contrebasse\ G. Kontra- 
bass\ It. contrabasso]. The largest mem- 
ber of the * violin family, serving in the 
orchestra somewhat in the capacity of a 
1 6-foot organ stop and frequently dou- 
bling the celli in the lower octave. The 
modern instrument has four strings tuned 
El Ai D G, notated an octave higher (E 
A d g). Some instruments have a fifth 
string, tuned Ci. The upper limit for 
orchestral parts is a (notated a') although 
virtuosos extend the range of the instru- 
ment considerably by the use of harmon- 
ics. Famous double-bass players were 
Dragonetti (1763-1846), Bottcsini (1822- 
89), and Koussevitzky (b. 1874). 

More than any othei; instrument of the 
violin family the double-bass has been 
subjected to modification and experimen- 
tation, regarding shape, size, number and 
tuning of the strings, etc. As a matter 
of fact, the principles of violin building 
have never been fully applied to this in- 
strument which, to the present day, re- 
tains various features of the viol family, 
e.g., the sloping shoulders, the flat back, 
the tuning of the strings in fourths rather 
than in fifths, etc. This ancestry appears 
also in the current names bass viol and 
double-bass, both of which are abbrevi- 
ated versions of the full and proper name 
double-bass viol [see *Viol family IV, i]. 
In the 19th century, instruments with 
three strings, tuned Ai D G or Gi D A, 
were in great favor. What these lose in 
compass, they gain in brightness of tone 
on account of the smaller pressure upon 
the table. Even today there are players 
(particularly in Europe) who hold the 
bow in the manner of viol playing, i.e., 
with the hand underneath the stick. 

Double-bass clarinet, trombone. 

See ^Clarinet family II; ^Trombone. 

Double C (D, etc.). See *Pitch names 
II. 

Double cadence [F.]. A compound 
ornament, frequently introduced at ca- 
dences in music of the 17th and i8th cen- 
turies and consisting of a cadence, or trill, 


upon each of two successive notes. The 
interpretation of the double cadence was 
quite flexible, its details being left to the 
discretion of the performer, but the fol- 
lowing sequence of notes, in which the 
first trill is reduced to a five-note turn, is 
typical: 



In this example a shows how the double 
cadence is indicated in 17th-century mu- 
sic (Chambonnieres, d’Anglebert, etc.), 
while b represents the 18th-century nota- 
tion (Bach, Handel, Francois Couperin, 
Rameau) of the same ornament. The 
name double cadence (or its abbreviation, 
double) was often applied to the turn 
alone. P. A. 

Double chorus. The term refers to the 
use of two choruses in alternation. See 
*Polychoral style. 

Double concerto. A concerto for two 
solo instruments and orchestra, such as 
Mozart’s Concerto for violin and viola, 
K.V. 364. 

Double corde [F.]. Double-stop. 

Double counterpoint. See ^Invertible 
counterpoint. 

Double croche [F.]. See *Notes. 

Double-flat. See ^Accidentals. 

Double fugue. A fugue with two sub- 
jects. The term is applied to two differ- 
ent types of fugue with two subjects, 
(a) A genuine double fugue consists of 
three distinct sections, each complete in 
itself: a fugue on the first subject (I), a 
fugue on the second subject (II), and a 
fugue on both subjects in contrapuntal 
combination (I -f- II). Examples are 
Bach’s great harpsichord fugue in A 
minor and his organ fugue in E-flat major 
(the so called St. Anne’s Fugue). His 
fugue in C-sharp minor from Wt, CL i 
represents a somewhat simplified scheme, 
including the sections I and I + H- His 
*Art of Fugue contains not only double 
fugues (nos. 9, 10) but also triple fugues 


[218] 




DOUBLE PEDAL 

of a similar scheme (nos. 8, ii) and an 
(unfinished) quadruple fugue [see *Art 
of Fugue]. — (b) Usually, the term is 
applied to a much simpler type of fugue, 
i.e., an ordinary fugue in which the coun- 
ter-subject has an individual character and 
is consistently used throughout the piece, 
combined with the main subject; in other 
words, fugues represented by the last sec- 
tion only of the above scheme. Examples 
of this type are quite frequent, but usu- 
ally treat the secondary theme more freely 
than is the case in the double-fugue 
proper. For an example cf. PF/. Cl. i, no. 
14 (F-sharp minor). 

Double pedal. In organ playing, the 
use of both feet, not, as usual, in alterna- 
tion, hut simultaneously, for the render- 
ing of intervals or of two parts. This tech- 
nique is documented as far back as 1448 
fcf. W. Apel, “Die Tabulator des Adam 
Ileborgh” (ZMW xvi)]. It was fully de- 
veloped by the North-German organ mas- 
ters of the 17th century (Tunder, Buxte- 
hude) and by their successor J. S. Bach, 
whose organ chorales on “Wenn wir in 
hochsten Noten sein” and “An Wasser- 
fliissen Babylons” have a complete part 
for each foot. In modern organ pieces 
octave-doubling is very frequent. It is 
also used by organists as a means of ex- 
ploiting the limited resources of smaller 
organs. 

Double-sharp. See ^Accidentals. 

Double stop [F. double corde\ G. Dop^ 
pelgriff] . The execution of two or more 
simultaneous tones on the violin and simi- 
lar instruments (intervals, chords, pas- 
sages in two or more parts). The curved 
position of the strings — conditioned by 
the curved shape of the bridge — fre- 
quently compels the player to resort to an 
arpeggio-like rendering, particularly in 
the case of chords of three or four tones 
in piano. Double-stop technique is al- 
ready used to a remarkable degree in 
Ganassi’s “ricercares” for viola da gamba 
(1552; cf. HAM, no. 1 19) and in the 
earliest violin sonatas [Biagio Marini 
(1626); cf. SchGMB, no. 183]. It reaches 
the climax of artistic perfection in Bach’s 


DRANGEND 

sonatas for violin solo, that of brilliant 
virtuosity in the compositions of Paganini, 

Double-tonguing. See *Tonguing. 

Double touch. A modern principle of 
organ construction, devised by Hope- 
Jones, which allows the keys of the organ 
to be depressed in two successive degrees, 
so that different registrations become 
available simultaneously on the same 
manual, e.g., a small group of accom- 
paniment stops on the first touch, and a 
solo stop on the second. Its application 
is practically confined to theater organs. 
See also ^Harmonium II. 

Double trill. The simultaneous trill on 
two different notes, usually in the distance 
of a third. Its perfect and rapid execu- 
tion is one of the most difficult technical 
feats on the piano as well as on the violin. 
For the latter instrument it appears as 
early as the middle 17th century [}. 
Schop; cf. A. Moser in Kretzschmar Fest- 
schrift (1918)]. For the piano, the long 
double trills in Beethoven’s Piano Con- 
certo in G major, op. 58, are among the 
earliest examples. 

Douloureux [F.]. Dolorous, mourn- 
ful. 

Doxology [Gr. doxa, glory, and logos, 
word]. In the Roman liturgy, the name 
of two important texts, known as (a) the 
Lesser Doxology: “Gloria patri (et filio 
et spiritui sancto, sicut erat in principio, 
et nunc et semper et in saeculum saecu- 
lorum. Amen)”; and (b) the Greater 
Doxology: “Gloria in excelsis deo (ct in 
terra pax hominibus bonae voluntatis,” 
etc.). The greater doxology is the ^Gloria 
of the Mass. The lesser doxology (D) is 
a part of all the introitus, which follow 
the scheme A V D A [see ^Psalmody III ] . 
It also is added as a final verse to all 
psalms and nearly all the canticles, its 
last six syllables being indicated by their 
vowels only, thus: u o u a e [see also 

*Psalm tones]. It is also used elsewhere, 
e.g., in connection with the Deus in adju- 
torium [Gi?, i*]. 

Drangend [G.]. Urging forward. 


[219 1 



DRAG 


DRUM 


Drag. See ^Percussion instruments B, i. 

Dragma [Gr., spike, ear]. A note-form 
of the late 14th century which occurs, with 
a variety of meanings, in the theoretical 
and practical sources of the period. Cf. 
ApNPM, passim. 

Dramatic music. The term, aside from 
its obvious meaning, is used to denote 
music written for a drama or play (*inci- 
dental music), particularly the incidental 
music written by Henry Purcell, in order 
to distinguish it from his only complete 
opera. Dido and Aeneas, Cf. E. D. Ken- 
dall, in ML i; W. Barclay Squire, in 
SIMv, 

Drame lyrique [F.]; dramma lirico 
[It.]. Modern terms for opera, not neces- 
sarily of a lyrical character. The English 
term “lyrical drama” is used in the same 
meaning. 

Dramma per musica [It.] . The earliest 
name for Italian operas (17th century), 
particularly those of a serious character 
(the later opera seria). Bach used the term 
for secular cantatas in dialogue-form 
which were designed for a modest stage 
performance (Der Streit zwischen Phobus 
and Pan, Kaffeebantate, etc.). 

Dreher [G. drehen, to twirl]. An Aus- 
trian dance, similar to the *Landler. 

Drehleier [G.]. *Hurdy-gurdy. 

Drehorgel [G.]. ♦Street organ. 

Dreiklang [G.], Triad. 

Dreinfahren [G.]. To play roughly, 
without consideration. 

Dreitaktig [G.]. In phrases of three 
measures. 

Dringend [G.]. Urgent, pressing on. 

Drohend [G.]. Menacing, threatening. 

Drone. ( i ) The low pipes of the ♦bag- 
pipe. — (2) A primitive bagpipe, capable 
of playing only a few low tones and used 
to accompany other instruments or voices. 
— (3) In musical composition, long sus- 
tained notes, usually in the lowest part 


(drone bass) [see ♦Pedal point; ♦Bour- 
don]. 

Drum. I. Generic name for instruments 
the sound-producing agent of which is a 
skin stretched on a frame or vessel and 
struck with the hands or a stick. Drums 
are, therefore, practically identical with 
the category “membranophones” of the 
scientific classification [see ♦Instruments 
II]. There exist, however, in some of the 
most primitive cultures, drums which 
have no membrane, consisting of a tree 
trunk which is hollowed out from a nar- 
row longitudinal slit (slit-drum; cf. 
SaHMl, 2gi). These are, in scientific 
classification, “idiophoncs.” 

II. The membranophonous drums are 
by far the most ancient and most wide- 
spread of all instruments. They are found 
in all exotic cultures, with the most prim- 
itive African or South American tribes as 
well as in China, India, Arabia, etc. [see 
♦Exotic music]. A gigantic bass drum of 
man’s size is depicted on a Sumerian vase 
of the third millennium B.C. [cf. SaHMI, 
pi. IV] . Egyptian drums from about 1800 
B.C. are preserved, and drums are men- 
tioned in one of the earliest Chinese poems, 
dating from 1135 B.C. Drums existed and 
still exist in a large variety of sizes and 
shapes, in the form of a barrel, a cylinder, 
an hourglass, a goblet, etc. 

From the Orient the drum was intro- 
duced into the Western world, into Greece 
— where the use of the “tympanon” was 
restricted to the orgiastic cult of Dionysus 
and Cybele — as well as into medieval 
Europe where the earliest evidence is an 
English 12th-century miniature showing 
a juggler disguised as a bear and striking 
with his hands a barrel drum suspended 
from his neck. One of the famous Span- 
ish miniatures of the 13th century shows 
the player of an hourglass drum, which 
he carries on his shoulder [cf. GD iii, opp. 
P- 734] • Such exotic forms were probably 
imported from the Orient during the 
crusades. Of greater importance was the 
introduction, around 1300, of the Arabian 
nagarah (naqqarah), small kettledrums 
used in pairs and called nacaires in France, 
na\ers in England, naccheroni in Italy. 


[ 220 ] 



DRUM ROLL SYMPHONY 


DUET 


The cylindrical drum appeared at about 
the same time under the name *tabor or, 
later, *tambourin. In the 15th century the 
drums, kettledrums as well as side drums, 
were adopted by the armies as an indis- 
pensable part of the military equipment. 
They remained restricted to this sphere 
until the end of the 17th century when 
the kettledrums were first used in the or- 
chestra. See ^Percussion instruments A,i; 
B,i-4. 

Drum Roll Symphony. Haydn’s Sym- 
phony in E flat, 1795 (Salomon Sympho- 
nies no. 8), so called on account of the 
drum roll in the opening measure. 

Drum Stroke Symphony. Same as 

^Surprise Symphony. 

D.S. ’’•‘Dal segno. 

Dualism, dualistic theory. A theory 
according to which the tonalities of major 
and minor arc not in the relationship of 
something “primary” and “secondary,” 
but are phenomena of equal right of birth, 
one being the inversion of the other. The 
theory is based upon the fact that by reck- 
oning downwards the intervals of the ma- 
jor triad the tones of the minor triad are 
arrived at; e.g., c'-e'-g' becomes, by strict 
inversion, c'-ab-f. This explanation of 
major and minor was already given by 
Zarlino (1588; see also * Arithmetic divi- 
sion) and was revived by Rameau (1737), 
Vallotti (1778), and M. Hauptmann 
(1853). A. V. Oettingen {Harmoniesys- 
tern in dualer Entwic\lung (1866); Das 
Duale Harmonicsystem (1913)] and H. 
Riemann [Das Problem des harmonischen 
Dualismus (1905) and his other books on 
harmony] developed this principle to the 
fullest extent and made it the basis of har- 



mioor T D T S T 


monic analysis. The accompanying exam- 
ple serves as an illustration. It will be noted 

[ 22 


that the “minor dominant” corresponds 
to the “major subdominant,” and vice 
versa. The greatest shortcoming of the 
theory lies in the fact that in a minor mode 
the triad is determined, not by its lowest, 
but by its highest tone, i.e., the fifth. 
Hence, the first chord on the lower staff 
must not be read: c (fundamental)-eb 
(minor third)-g (fifth), but downwards: 
g (fundamental)-eb (major third)-c 
(fifth). This forced explanation is in con- 
tradiction to the most elementary facts of 
acoustics and of musical experience. The 
theory has not gained much ground ex- 
cept within the school of Riemann. 

Lit.: A. v. Oettingen, The Dual liar-- 
monic System (1913); S. Karg-Elert, Po- 
laristische Klang- und T onalitdtslehre 
(1931); H. Westerby, in PM A xxix; O. 
Ortmann, “The Fallacy of Harmonic 
Dualism” {MQ x). 

Ductia. An instrumental form of the 
Middle Ages (13th century) which, ac- 
cording to Johannes dc Grocheo, is a 
stantipes [see *Estampic] of smaller ex- 
tension, i.e., with three to four puncti, 
instead of five or more. The term does not 
occur in actual musical sources. However, 
examples of the above type exist in the 
“Dansse Real” of the Chansonnier du roy 
fcf. P. Aubry, Estampies et danses royales 
(1906)], in several two-part instrumental 
pieces from the MS Brit. Mus. Harleian 
^y 8 [cf. ApNPM, 246f ], and in the melo- 
dies “Chose Tassin” and “Chose Loiset” 
which occur as tenors of motets in the 
Bamberg Codex [see ^Sources, no. 5]. 
Examples in HAM, nos. 41, 42. 

Dudelsack [G.j. ♦Bagpipe. 

Due [It.]. Two. Due corde, i.e., two 
strings, indicates in violin music that the 
same tone should be sounded on two 
strings, for greater volume of sound; in 
piano music, see ♦Una corda. See also 
♦A due. 

Duet [F. duo\ G. Duett or Duo\ It. du- 
ettQ\. A composition for two performers 
of equal importance, with or without ac- 
companiment. The most important types 
are: (a) the vocal duet, i.e., songs or arias 




DUGAZON 


DUPLET 


for two voices with accompaniment [G. 
Duett], These play a prominent part in 
operas, particularly as “love-duets” (prac- 
tically the whole second act of Wagner’s 
Tristan is a “love-duet”). Non-operatic 
duets occur among the songs of Schubert, 
Schumann, Brahms, and many others. An 
early type of unaccompanied vocal duet 
is the *bicinium of the i6th century. In 
the 17th century the chamber-duet (cham- 
ber cantata for two singers, with accom- 
paniment) was a much cultivated type. 
Cf. L. Landshoff, '\Kaminerduette des 
77. Jahrhunderts (1927); E. Schmitz, in 
]MP xxiii; also RiHM, 11.2 and ii.3. A fa- 
mous operatic duet of early date is the 
finale of Monteverdi’s L’lncoronazione di 
Poppea (1642; see SchGMB, no. 178). — 
(b) The instrumental duet, for instance 
for two violins with or without pianoforte 
accompaniment [G. Duo], Only a few 
composers (Rode, Spohr, Romberg) have 
written such pieces, in which the piano- 
forte part is usually mere chord filling. 
For works in which this part has indi- 
vidual significance as, for instance, in the 
sonatas by Bach, the term *trio sonata is 
used. — (c) The pianoforte duet, i.e., 
music for two pianoforte players (four 
hands), either on the same or on two in- 
struments [see *Piano duet]. 

Dugazon. See under *Soubrette. 

Dulce melos. See under ’’^Echiquier. 

Dulcimer [F. tympanon; G. Hackbrett\ 
It. salterio tedesco], A variety of the 
^psaltery, almost identical in shape, but 
played by small hammers held in the hand 
(the psaltery is plucked). Thus dulcimer 
and psaltery stand in a similar relation- 
ship as their ultimate descendants, the 
pianoforte and the harpsichord. The dul- 
cimer originated in the Middle Orient 
(Assyria, Persia) whence it migrated in 
three directions: (i) to Spain and western 
Europe where it appeared as early as the 
1 2th century as is shown by the reliefs of 
the Cathedral Santiago de Compostela 
(1184); (2) to Turkey and hence to Hun- 
gary where it still is used by the gypsies 
under the name ♦cimbalom; (3) to China 
where it appeared around 1800 and was 


called yang ch'in, i.e., “foreign zither” 
[see ♦Chinese music. Ex. 2]. In the early 
1 8th century Pantaleon Hebenstreit re- 
vived the instrument in a greatly enlarged 
and improved form, the so-called ♦panta- 
lon. See ♦Instruments IV, A, i (b). 

In current usage the name dulcimer 
designates home-made zithers plucked 
with the fingers. 

Dulcitone. A variety of the celesta, with 
tuning forks instead of steel plates. 

Dulzian [G.j. Same as ♦dolcino [see 
♦Oboe family III]. 

Dumka [pi. dumky]. A type of Slavic 
(originally Russian) folk song, of a nar- 
rative character and with sudden changes 
from melancholy to exuberance. The 
term has become familiar to musicians 
through Dvorak whose Dumky-Trio op. 
90 consists of six movements each in the 
character of a dumka. He also wrote a 
Dumka op. 35 and a Furiant with Dumka 
op. 12, both for pianoforte. 

Dump, domp. An early type of Eng- 
lish or Irish song, lamenting and sorrow- 
ful in character. A dance for harpsichord 
entitled “My Lady Careys Dompe” from 
the early 16th-century MS Brit. Mus. Roy. 
App. ^8 probably belongs to this class [cf. 
HAM, no. 103; J. Stafford Smith, Musica 
Antiqua (1812), p. 42; see ♦Ostinato]. A 
piece called “The Irish Dumpe” is con- 
tained in the Fitzwilliam Virginal Boo!^ 
[new cd. ii, 236]. Shakespeare, in Ro- 
meo and Juliet, IV, 4, mentions “doleful 
dumps” and “merry dumps.” For an ex- 
ample of a more recent date which has 
been arranged by Beethoven [Irische Ge- 
sdnge, no. 171], cf. GD i, 109. 

Duo [F., G.]. ♦Duet. 

Duodecuple scale. The chromatic 
scale in its modern interpretation as a 
series of twelve tones of equal rights. See 
♦Twelve-tone technique. 

Duodezime [G.]. The interval of the 
twelfth. 

Duplet [F. duolet\ G. Duole], A group 
of two notes to be played in the time of 
three. See ♦Triplet. 


[222] 



DUPLEX INSTRUMENTS 

Duplex instruments. Instruments, 
usually of the brass family, which are a 
combination of two instruments. The 
two most important members of the class 
are: (a) The double euphonium which 
has a wide euphonium bell and a narrow 
Sax-tromba bell either of which may be 
used by manipulating a controlling valve 
which directs the wind-stream through 
one or the other of the bells; thus two dif- 
ferent tone qualities are available on one 
instrument, (b) The double horn in F 
and B'flat which combines two instru- 
ments of the same timbre, but of different 
pitches. The change is effected by an ad- 
ditional valve. Numerous other construc- 
tions, mostly of an experimental nature 
and of ephemeric importance, are men- 
tioned in SaRMy 123 (also 115-117). Cf. 
also LavE ii.3, 1461. 

Duplex longa. Thirteenth-century 
name for the ^maxima. 

Duplum. In the organa and clausulae 
of the School of Notre Dame [see *Ars 
antiqua] , the part above the tenor. In the 
i3th-centurv motets this part was called 
motetus because here the duplum was 
provided with ‘‘mots” [F., words, ie., 
text]. Triplumy quadruplum are other 
parts above the tenor, frequently of the 
same range as the duplum. See *Orga- 
num (2). 

Duramente [It.]. With harshness. 

Dur and Moll [from L. durus, hard; 
mollisy soft]. The German terms for ma- 
jor and minor. For instance: C-dur, C 
major; A^moll, A minor; Dur- {Moll-) 
tonarty major (minor) tonality; Dur- 
{M0II-) akXordy Dur- {Moll-) dreihlang^ 
major (minor) triad. Originally, the 
names Dur and Moll have nothing to do 
with a feeling of “hardness” or “softness” 
conveyed by one tonality or the other, but 
stem from two different forms of the letter 
b, the b durum (so called on account of its 
angular shape) and the b molle (round 
shape). Sec *B; *Hexachord. 

Durchbrochene Arbeit [G.]. A tech- 
nique of writing in which fragments of a 
melody arc given to different instruments 

[: 


DUREZZA 


taking turns [see Ex.; Haydn]. This 
technique, which is frequently used in 
symphonies, quartets, etc., appeared first 



in the works of Haydn and Mozart [cf. 
RiHM ii.3, 178]- A medieval type of this 
technique is the *hocket. See also *Ante- 
cedent and consequent. 

Durchdringend [G.]. Penetrating. 

Durchfuhrung [G., “through-lead- 
ing”]. The term is used in two different 
and almost opposite meanings according 
to whether it occurs with reference to 
sonata-form or to the fugue. In the for- 
mer case it means development; in the 
latter, exposition. Thus, the sonata-form 
follows the scheme: Themenauistellung 
(exposition), Durchjiihrung (develop- 
ment), Reprise (recapitulation); the 
scheme of the fugue is: Durchfuhrung 
(exposition), Zwischenspiel (episode), 
Durchfuhrungy Zwischenspiel, etc. 

Durchgangsnote [G.]. *Passing-tone. 

Durchimitieren [G.]. The term refers 
to a style in which imitation is applied 
equally to all the parts. It is particularly 
used with reference to the fully developed 
imitative polyphony of the Flemish pe- 
riod, as distinguished from those pieces 
of the same (or earlier) period in which 
the tenor has a cantus firmus* 

Durchkomponiert [G.]. ’•‘‘Through- 
composed. 

Durezza [It., hardness] . In modern mu- 
sic, con durezza means: to play with an 
expression of harshness and determina- 
tion. In the 17th century, durezza means 
dissonance. Ilence, toccata di durezza e 
ligature (Frescobaldi) means: toccata 
with dissonances and with tied notes; in 
a way, a composition study in appoggia- 
turas. The earliest examples occur in the 
works of Gio. Macque (d. 1614; see *Edi- 
tions XVII, 4) and his pupil Gio. Trabaci 
[see W. Apel, in MQ xxiv], both mem- 

3] 



DUSK OF THE GODS 


ECHO 


bers of the early ^Neapolitan School of 
organ music. 

Dusk of the Gods, The. See *Ring 
des Nibelungen, Der. 

Dux [L.]. See *Fugue; *Canon (i). 

Dynamic marks. The whole of words, 
abbreviations, and signs which indicate 


degrees of sound-volume. The common- 
est are: pianissimo (pp); piano (p); mez- 
zopiano (mp); mezzoforte (mf); forte 
(f); and fortissimo (fl); crescendo (cresc., 
— ==r) and decrescendo or diminuendo 
(deer., dim., z==*-); sforzato (sf); and 
forte-piano (fp). See the various heads. 
For the use of dynamic marks in music 
prior to 1750, see ^Expression III. 


E 


E. See ^Letter notation; *Pitch names; 
*Hexachoid. 

Ear-training. The important field of 
elementary instruction [see *Solfege] 
designed to develop in the student sen- 
sitiveness to musical phenomena, particu- 
larly with regard to intervals and rhythm. 
The usual method is to play intervals, 
rhythms, etc., and have the student rec- 
ognize and record them. 

Lit.: W. Earhart, Music to the Listening 
Ear (1932); O. Ortmann, Problems in the 
Elements of Ear-dtetion (1934); G. A. 
Wedge, Advanced Ear-training and Sight- 
singing 

Ecclesiastical modes. See ♦Church 
modes. 

fichappee. See *Nonharmonic tones I. 

fichappement [F.]. Escapement (of 
the pianoforte). 

fichelette [F.]. ♦Xylophone. 

fichelle [F.]. Scale. 

Echiquier [eschiquier eschequier^ es- 
chaquier, escachenum, exaquir ] . An early 
stringed keyboard instrument which is 
mentioned in various literary sources of 
the 14th and 15th centuries. In a letter 
written by the Spanish king, John I of 
Aragon, who tried to obtain such an in- 
strument from Duke Philip the Bold of 
Burgundy (1387), it is described as an 
‘‘instrument semblant d’orguens, qui sona 
ab cordcs” (similar to the organ, but 


sounding with strings). The same instru- 
ment is probably meant by the English 
che 1 {J{er and by the German Schachtbret 
(i.e., Schaftbret, quillboard, not chess- 
board as has frequently been surmised) 
which is mentioned in a poem Der Minne 
Regeln by Eberhard Cersne (1404). Both 
the etymology of the name and the nature 
of the instrument are obscure. According 
to C. Sachs it was an upright harpsichord 
[cf. SaHML 336f], while F. W. Galpin 
identifies it with a 15th-century instru- 
ment called dulce melos^ for which he re- 
adopts the theory already advanced by 
Bottce de Toulmin [Dissertation sur les 
instruments de la musique (1840)] that 
it was a clavichord with a hammer action 
anticipating that of the pianoforte [cf. 
GD, Suppl. Vol., 1 1 8]. In the original 
description, however, no hammers, only 
a checking device, are mentioned. Cf. 
W. H. Grattan Flood, in ML vi, no. 2; 
G. Lc Cerf, in RdMy nos. 37, 38. 

Echo, (i) Acoustically: see ♦Architec- 
tural acoustics. — (2) Musically: echo-like 
effects occur frequently in the polyphonic 
works of Josquin and his followers, as the 
result of a special technique of imitation; 
sec the accompanying example from Kot- 
ter’s tablatur {c. 1515); also ♦Imitation, 
Ex. 2. However, it was not until the end 
of the 1 6th century that the echo was ex- 
ploited as a source of sound-variety and 
of realistic effects. Lassus, in a piece from 
his Libro de villanelle (1581; cf. com- 
plete cd. X, 140), exploits the humorous 


[224] 



ECHO ATTACHMENT 


ECLOGUE 


efiect of a constantly repeated echo in a 
most skillful manner. Echo-like repeti- 
tions of short motives, first in f, then in p, 
are among the most typical devices of the 



organ style of Sweelinck, Scheldt, Nivers, 
Gigault, etc. Of greater artistic value and 
interest are the echo-eifects in 17th-cen- 
tury vocal pieces (operatic arias, cantatas) 
in. which the personified Echo answers the 
laments of the deserted lover, of the dis- 
tressed fugitive, etc. A most beautiful 
example is found in Carissimi's oratorio 
Jephtha [cf. SchGMB, no. 198; also RiHM 
ii.2, 35]. A charming instrumental echo- 
piece by J. K. F. Fischer is reproduced in 
DdT X, 84. For an echo-cflect in Bach, see 
the last movement (Echo) of his French 
Ouverture (1735). Mozart wrote a very 
ingenious Notturno en Echo (1777) in 
which four groups of players produce a 
quadruple echo. Nineteenth-century op- 
eratic composers have frequently used the 
echo-repetition of military signals, hunt- 
ing-calls, etc. (Beethoven, Fidelio; Wag- 
ner, Tristan), Cf. Th. Kroyer, “Dialog 
und Echo . . {]MP xvi). 

Echo attachment. A special valve at- 
tached to brass instruments (horns, trum- 
pets, cornets) by which a bell of smaller 
opening is brought into operation. The 
tones thus produced sound as if they were 
played at a great distance. 


in that they were not abstract scale for- 
mations but melodic formulae which in- 
cluded the characteristic features (tonic, 
cadential endings, typical progressions) 
of all the melodics written in one echos. 
Thus they belong to the category of 
^melody types. 

The earliest mention of the octoechos 
is found in a Syrian source of about 515 
[sec ^Syrian chant], 300 years before the 
earliest account of the eight church modes 
which were probably derived from the 
Syrian (or Byzantine) cchoi, possibly by 
amalgamating them with the ancient 
Greek system of octave species {tonoi\ see 
*Greek music II (d)). Various other 
Eastern churches, e.g., the ^Armenian, 
^Russian, '’^Serbian, utilize to the present 
day a classification based on echoi, i.e., 
melodic formulae, rather than on modes, 
i.e., scales [cf. ReMMA, 102; GD, Suppl. 
VoL, 175, 181]. 

It is believed that some traces of the 
early echoi are preserved in the eneche- 
mata of 12th- and 13th-century Byzantine 
MSS, which were sung as an intonation 
to the chant proper much ia the same way 
as a pianist sometimes strikes a few chords 
in order to “establish the key.’* Each 
enechema was sung to certain syllables 
the meaning of which is obscure; e.g., the 
enechema of the first plagal mode was 
g-g-a-g-f-g, and was sung to the “word’* 
Aneanes [cf. ReMMA, 87; see also *Ane- 
naiki; *Noeane; ’•^Solmizationj. 

Lit.: ReMMA, passim (bibl. 432f); O. 
Strunk, in MO xxviii, xxxi, no. 3; P. J. 
Thibaut, in RMC i. 

Eclatant [F.]. Brilliant; or piercing. 


Echo organ [G. Echower\'\, See *Or- 
gan III. 

Echos [pi. echoi]. In the ancient Syrian 
and Byzantine chant, a system of tonal 
classification which corresponds to the 
system of modes [see ^Church modes] 
of the Roman chant. The echoi existed in 
the same number — eight — as the West- 
ern church modes and were collectively 
referred to as octoechos (eight echoi). 
They differed, however, from the modes 


Eclogue. An idyllic poem in which 
shepherds are introduced conversing 
(after the model of Vergil’s ten Bucolic 
Eclogues), In the i6th century such po- 
ems were frequently written in the form 
of dramatic plays and were performed on 
the stage, particularly in Spain. These 
presentations, which probably involved 
music, are believed to be among the vari- 
ous precursors of opera. Cf. A. Salazar, 
in PAMS, 1938, p. 98. — Modern com- 
posers have used the term Eclogue (Eg- 


[225] 



ECO 

logue) as a title for compositions of an 
idyllic, pastoral character. 

Eco [It.]. Echo. 

l^cole d’Arcueil. A group of 20th-cen- 
tury French musicians (Henri Sayguet, 
Roger Desormiere, Maxime Jacob, Henri 
Clique-Pleyel) who convened at Arcueil 
in the home of Erik Satie, whom they con- 
sidered as their leader. The group was 
founded in 1923 [cf. N. Slonimsky, Music 
Since 1^00 (1937), p. 236]. See also '“'Six, 
Les. 

ficossaise [F., Scotch, i.e., dance]. A 
dance which, in spite of its name, has 
nothing in common with genuine Scotch 
dance music [see *Reel, ^Strathspey], 
but which belongs to the English *coun- 
try dances. It appeared around 1780 in 
England and in France and had a great 
vogue in the early 19th century. Beetho- 
ven as well as Schubert wrote collections 
of ficossaises, all in quick 2/4 time. See 
’••‘Dance music IV. 

Editio Medicea; Ratisbonensis ; 
Vaticana. See under ^Liturgical books. 

Editions, Historical. Under this 
heading (which corresponds to the Ger- 
man term Denf^mdler) there follows a 
list of the important serial publications of 
early music (I, Instrumental; K, Key- 
board; L, Lute; Op, Opera; Or, Oratorio; 
S, Song; V, Vocal). Italics indicate origi- 
nal titles. 

I. Archives des maitres de Vorgue (10 
vols., ed. by A. Guilmant, 1898—1910). 
i: J. Titelouze, Oeuvres completes. — 2: 
A. Raison, Livre d'orgue. — 3: T. Rober- 
day, Fugues et caprices; L. Marchand, 
Pieces choisies; L. N. Clerambault, Livre 
d*orgue\ Du Mage, Livre d'orgue; L. C. 
Daquin, Livre de noels. — 4: N. Gigault, 
Livre de musique. — 5: N. de Grigny, 
Livre d'orgue\ F. Couperin (de Crouilly), 
Pieces d’orgue; L. Marchand, Pieces 
d’orgue. — 6: J. Boyvin, Oeuvres com- 
plies. — 7: F. Dandrieu, Livre d*orgue\ 
Guilain, Pieces d’orgue pour le Magnifi- 
cat. — 8: S. A. Scherer, Oeuvres. — 9: 
N. le Begue, Oeuvres. — 10: Liber fra- 


EDITIONS, HISTORICAL 

trum Cruciferorum Leodensium (pieces 
by A. Gabrieli, Sweelinck, Merulo, and 
others). 

II. L’Arte musicale in Italia (7 vols., ed. 
by L. Torchi, 1897). ^ • Motets, madrigals, 
frottole, c. 1520—80. — 2: Motets, madri- 
gals, c. 1580-1625. — 3: Organ composi- 
tions, 1 6th and 17th centuries. — 4: Mad- 
rigals, Madrigal comedies, c. 1600. — 5: 
St. Landi, San Alessio (Op); Anon., Da- 
niel (Or); solo cantatas, 17th cent. — 6: 
Peri, Euridice (Op); Monteverdi, Com- 
battimento (V); /W., Ballo delle ingrate. 

— 7: Instrumental music, 17th century. 

III. Biblioteca di raritd musicali (9 vols., 
ed. by O. Chilesotti, c. 1885-1915). i: 
Danze del secolo xvi (Caroso, Negri; L). 

— 2: Balli d'arpicordo (Picchi, 1621; K). 

— 3: Affetti amorosi (G. Stcffani, 1621; 
S). — 4: Arianna (B. Marcello, 1727; 
Op). — 5: Arie, canzonette e balli (H. 
Vecchi, 1590; V). — 6: Partite . . . (Fres- 
cobaldi, 1614; K). — 7: Airs de court 
(J. B. Besard; L). — 8: Musica del pas- 
sato (1536-C. 1750; L). — 9: Madrigali, 
villanelle ed arie di danza (J. B. Besard; 
L). 

IV. Chefs d’ oeuvre de I’opera frangais 
(various editors, c. 1880; piano reductions 
of Baroque operas). Beaujoyeux, Le Bal- 
let-comique de la Reine. — Cambert, Po- 
mone; Les Peines et les plaisirs d’ amour. 

— Campra, UEurope galante\ Les Fetes 
venitiennes\ Tancrede. — Catel, Les Bay- 
aderes. — Collasse, Les Saisons; Thetis et 
Pelee. — Destouches, lsse\ Omphale. — 
Gretry, La Caravane, Cep hale et Prods. 

— Lalande et Destouches, Les Elements. 

— Lesueur, Ossian ou les Bardes. — Lully, 
Alceste\ Armide; Atys\ Bellerophon\ Cad- 
mus et Hermione^ Isis, Persee; Phaeton; 
Proserpine; Psyche; Thesee. — Philidor, 
Ernelinde. — Piccinni, Didon; Roland. 

— Rameau, Castor et Pollux; Dardanus; 
Les Fetes d’Hebe; Hyppolite et Aricie; 
Les Indes galantes; Platee; Zoroastre . — 
Sacchini, Chimene ou le Cid; Renaud. — 
Salieri, Les Danaides; Tarare. 

V. Chorwer}^., Das (49 vols. of 15th- 
lyth-century vocal music, ed. by F. Blume, 
1930—). Alphabetical list of composers; 
collective volumes at the end. 32: Adam 


[226] 



EDITIONS, HISTORICAL 

von Fulda, Hymncn. — 31: Aulen, Missa. 

— 22: G. Binchois, Sechzchn weltliche 
Lieder. —25: A. Caldara, Ein Madrigal 
und 18 Kanons. — Chr. Dcman- 
tius, Deutsche Johannes Passion; Der 116. 
Psalm; Motetten. — 28: G. Dressier, Fiinf 
Motetten. — i9;49- G. Dufay, Zwolf 
geistliche und weltliche Werke; Samt- 
liche Hymnen. — 9;2i;32: H. Finck, 
Acht Hymnen; Missa in summis\ Hym- 
nen. — 24;38: M. Franck, Fiinf Motetten; 
Musi\alische Bergkj'cyen, — 10: G. Ga- 
brieli, Drei Motetten. — 40: A. Grandi, 
Drei konzertierende Motetten. — 44: J. 
Hahnel, Ostermesse. — 47: B. Harzer, 
Johannespassion. — 7: H. Isaac, Mts^a 
carminum, — i;3;i8;2o;23;3o;33;42: Jos- 
quin, Missa Pange lingua\ Weltliche Lie- 
der; Vier Motetten; Missa Da pacem\ 
Drei Evangelien-Motetten; Acht Lied- 
und Choralmotetten; Drei Psalmen; Missa 
De beata virgine, — i3;34;37;4i;48: O. di 
Lasso, Madrigale und Chansons; Buss- 
tranen des heiligen Petrus i, ii, iii; Pro- 
phetiae Sibyllarum, — 15; J. Lupi, Zehn 
weltliche Lieder. —46: J. Martini, Drei 
geistliche Gesange. — 4; J. Ockeghem, 
Missa mi-mi. — 17: H. Purcell, Fiinf 
geistliche Chore. — 1 1 : P. de la Rue, Re- 
quiem und einc Motette. — i2;36: H. 
Schein, Sechs deutsche Motetten; Der 116. 
Psalm. — 29: P. Schofler, Fiinf zehn 
deutsche Lieder. — 26: Th. Selle, Johan- 
nes-Passion. — 6: Th. Stoltzer, Der 37. 
Psalm. — 16: J. Theile and Chr. Bernhard, 
Zwei Kurzmessen. — 2: J. Vaet, Sechs 
Motetten. — 5:8: A. Willaert, Italienische 
Madrigale; Volkstiimliche italienische 
Lieder. 

Collective Volumes: 14: Sieben chro- 
matische Motetten. — 32: Zwolf Hym- 
nen. — 35: Nordische Gabrieli-Schiiler. 

— 43: Karnevalslieder der Renaissance. 

— 45: Deutsche Lieder des 15. Jahrhun- 
derts. 

VI. Classici della musica italiana, I 
(Raccolta Nazionale diritta da Gabriele 
d’Annunzio; 36 vols.; the titles do not al- 
ways correctly indicate the contents), i: 
A. Banchieri, Musiche corali (V). — 2: 
G. B. Bassani, Canzoni (S). — 3: L. Boc- 
cherini, Sonate (I). — 4: G. Caccini, Arie 


EDITIONS, HISTORICAL 

(S). — 5: G. Carissimi, Oratorii. — 6: 
G. Cavazzoni, Composizioni (K). — 7: 
L. Cherubini, Arie (contains 3 operatic 
overtures). — 8: M, dementi, Sonate 
(J^)- — 9 * Corelli, Sonate (I), — 10: 
E. del Cavalieri, Rappresentazione di ani- 
ma € di corpo (Or).— n: F. Durante, 
Sonate . . . (K). — 12: G. Frescobaldi, 
Sonate (K). — 13: B. Galuppi, 11 Filosofo 
di Campagna (Op).— 14: Gesualdo da 
Venosa, Madrigali. — 15: N. Jommelli. 
La Passione di Gesu Cristo (Or). — 16: 
P. Locatelli and F. G. Bertoni, Composi- 
zioni (I). — 17: B. Marcello, Cantate (S). 

— 18: G. B. Martini, Sonate (K). — 19: 
C. Monteverdi, // Combattimento . . . (V), 

— 20: G. Paisiello, La Pazza per amore 
(Op). — 21: P. L. da Palestrina, Canzo- 
nette e madrigali (V). — 22: P. D. Para- 
disi, Sonate (K). — 23: G. B. Pergolesi, 
Opere (Op, V). — 24: J. Peri, LEuridice 
(Op). — 25: N. A. Porpora, Sonate (I). 

— 26: M. Rossi, Composizioni (K). — 
27: G. Rutini, Sonate (K). — 28: G. B. 
Sammartini, Sonate (I). — 29: P. G. San- 
doni e Serini, Sonate (K). — 30: A. Scar- 
latti, Cantate (S). — 31: D. Scarlatti, 
Composizioni (K). — 32: G. Tartini, 
Sonate (I). — 33: F. Turrini, Sonate (K). 

— 34: F. M. Veracini, Sonate (I). — 35: 
A. Vivaldi, Le Stagioni (I). — 36: D. Zi- 
poli, Composizioni (K). 

VII. Denbjnaler der Tonf{unst in Oes- 
terreichy (DTOe, 83 volumes, 1894 to 
date; in annual issues (Jahrgange): i.i; 
i.2; ii.i; ii.2, etc., reproduced here as fol- 
lows: I.i; i.ii; 2.i; 2.ii, etc.). Alphabetical 
list of composers; collective volumes at 
the end. 

i6.ii: J. G. Albrechtsberger, Instrumental- 
werke (I). 

38.!: Bl. Amon, Kirchen-Werke (V). 
lo.i: O. Benevoli, Festmesse und Hymnus 

36.i: St. Bernard!, Kirchenwerke (V). 
5.ii; 12.i1: H. F. Biber, Violinsonaten (I). 
25.i: H. F. Biber, Messen (V). 

3o.i: H. F. Biber, Requiem (V). 

I3.i: A. Caldara, Kirchenwerke (V). 

39: A. Caldara, Kammermusik fiir Ge- 
sang (S). 

3.ii; 4.ii: M. A. Cesti, II Porno d*oro (Op). 


1 TTJ 1 



EDITIONS, HISTORICAL 

43.ii: K. Dittersdorf, Instrumental werke 

23.!: A. Draghi, Kirchcnwerke (V). 

28.1 : J. E. Eberlin, Der blutschwitzende 
Jesus (Or). 

4.1; 6.ii, lo.ii: J. J Froberger, Orgel- und 
Klavierwerke (K). 

35.1 : E. A. Forster, Kammermusik (1). 
i.i: J. J. Fux, Messen (V). 

2.i: J. J. Fux, Motetten (V). 

9.ii: J. J. Fux, Instrumental werke (I). 
23.11.* J. J. Fux, Concentus musico-instru- 
mentalis (I). 

17: J. J. Fux, Costanza e fortezza (Op). 
21: FI. Gassmann, La Contessina (Op). 
45: FI. Gassmann, Kiichen-Musik (V). 
21: W. Gluck, O^feo ed Eundice (Op). 
30.II: W. Gluck, Don Juan (Ballet). 

44: W. Gluck, L Innocenza gtustificata 

(Op). 

8 . 1 : A. Hammerschmidt, Dialogi (V). 

6 . 1 ; 12.1; 15.I; 20.1; 24; 26: J. Handl, Opus 
musicum (V). 

42.I: J. Handl, Messen (V). 

14.II: M. Haydn, Instrumental werke (I). 
22: M. Haydn, Orel Messen (V). 

32.!: M. Haydn, Klrchenwcrke (V). 

5.I; 16.I: H. Isaac, Choralis Constantinus 

(V). 

14.!; 16.I: H. Isaac, Weltliche Werke (V, 

I). 

25.1: J. K. Kerll, Messe(V). 

30.1 : }. K. Kerll, Requiem (V). 

33.II; J. Lanncr, Landlcr und Walzer (I). 
29.1 : Cl. Monteverdi, ll Ritorno d'Viisse 

I. 11 ; 2.1I: Georg Muflat, Florilegium (I). 

I I. 11 : Georg MuElat, Auserlesene ,, A nstru- 
tn€ntalmusi\\ Armonico tributo (I). 

3.111: Gotti. Muflat, Componimenti musE 
cali (K). 

29.11 : Gotti. Muffat, 12 Toccaten und 72 
Versed (K). 

37.1*. Nelthart v. Reuenthal, Liedcr (S). 
8 . 11 : J. Pachelbel, 94 Kompositionen, zu- 
melst liber das Magnificat (K). 

36.11 : P. Peuerl, Neue Paduanen . . . (I, V). 
13.il: A. Pogliettl, Klavier- und Orgel- 
wcrke (K). 

36.11 : I. Posch, Musi\aVtsche Tafelfreud 
(I,V). 

13.11*. G. Rcutter, Klavier- und OrgeF 
werke (K). 


EDITIONS, HISTORICAL 

13.1!: F. T Richter, Klavier- und Orgel- 
werkt ( K). 

34. ). Schenk, Der Dorjbarbier (Op). 

25.1: H. Schmeliztr, Messe (V). 

28.i1: H. Schmcltzer, Ballette (I). 

3.1: }. Stadlmayer, //ymnc-;! (V). 

30.!: Chr Straus, Requiem (V). 

35. ii: I Strauss, Vater, Walzer (I). 

32. li: ). Strauss, Sohn, Walzer (I). 

38 h: Jos. Strauss, Walzer (I). 

18.1: I. Urnlauf, Die Berg\nappen (Op). 

9.1. O. von Wolkenstein, Geistliche und 
weltliche Licder (S, V). 

Collective Volumes: 

20.11: Gcsange von Fiauenlob, Reinmar 
von Zweter und Alexander (S). 

37.11: Gesellschaftslied, Das deutsche, 
1480--1550 (V). 

41: Italienische Musiker 1567-1625 (V). 
i8.ii, 25.11: Ocstei reichische Lautenmusik 
im xvi. Jahrhundert; zwischen 1650 
und 1720 (L). 

33.1. * Deutsche Komodienarien, 1754-58 
(S). 

43.1 : Salzburger Kirchcnkomponisten 
(Bibei, Biechteler, Eberlin, Adlgasser; 

7; I I.i; 19.!; 27.!; 31; 40: Sechs (Sieben) 
Trienter Codices (V) [see *Trent Co- 
dices]. 

15.1!; 19. li: Wiener Instrumentalmusik 
vor und urn 1750. 

13.1!: Wiener Klavier- und Orgel werke 
{c. 1650-1700). 

27.!!; 42.11. Wiener Lied, Das (1778-91, 
I7y:i-i8i5; S). 

28.11: Wiener Tanzmusik {c. 1650-1700; 

!)■ 

VITI. Den\maler der Ton\unst in Bay- 
ern {DTE, published as Denkmaler 
deutscher Tonkjunst^ Zweite Folge\ 36 
volumes, 1900-13, see remark under VII). 

i; 9 . 1 : E. F. dalkAbaco, Augewahlte Wer- 
ke (I). 

lo.i: G. Aichinger, Ausgewahlte Werke 

(V). 

4.ii; Chr. Erbach, Ausgewahlte Werke 

(K). 

14. ii: W. Gluck, Le Nozze d’Ercole e 


d’Ebc (Op). 

lo.ii: A. Gumpelzhaimer, Ausgewahlte 
Werke (V). 

[ 228] 



EDITIONS, HISTORICAL 

4.ii: H. L. Hassler, Werke fur Orgel und 
Klavier (K). 

5.ii: H. L. Hassler, Canzonette\ Neue 
Teutsche Gesang (V). 
ii.i: H. L. Hassler, Madrigale (V). 

26: J. de Kcrle, Preces speciales (V). 

2.ii: J. K. Kcrll, Ausgewahltc Werke (K, 

V). 

1^:21-24: J. E. Kindermann, Ausgewahl- 
te Werke (V, S, K). 

18: J. and J. Ph. Krieger, GesammcIte 
Werke fiir Klavier und Orgel (K). 

9.ii: L. Mozart, Ausgewahlte Werke (K, 
I,S). 

18: F. X. Murschhauser, Gesammelte 
Werke fiir Klavier und Orgel (K). 

2.i; 4.i: J. and W. H. Pachelbel, Klavier- 
werke, Orgelkompositionen (K). 
27/28: J. Chr. Pez, Ausgewahlte Werke 
(I, Op). 

29/30: A. Raselius, Cantiones sacrae (V). 
I2.i: A. Rosetti, Ausgewahlte Sinfonien 

(!)• 

25: A. Rosetti, Orchestcr- und Kammer- 
musik (I). 

3.ii: L. Send, Werke: Motetten und Mag- 
nificat (V). 

7.i; 8.i: J. Staden, Ausgewahlte Werke 
(V,S,I). 

6.ii: A. Steffani, Ausgewahlte Werke (S, 

Y)- 

ii.ii: A. Steffani, Alarico (Op). 

I2.ii: A. Steffani, Ausgewahlte Werke 
(selections from operas). 

19/20: P. Torri, Ausgewahlte Werke (se- 
lections from operas). 
i4.i; 17: T. Traetta, Ausgewahlte Werke 
(selections from operas). 

Collective Volumes: 

3.i; 7.ii; 8.ii: Sinfonien der Pfalzbayeri- 
schen (Mannheimer) Schule (J. Sta- 
mitz, F. X. Richter, A. Filtz, I. Holz- 
bauer, J. Toeschi, Chr. Cannabich, C. 
Stamitz, F. Beck, E. Eichner; I). 

6.i: Niirnberger Meister der zweiten Half- 
te des 17. Jahrhunderts. Geistliche Kon- 
zerte und Kirchenkantaten (P. Hain- 
lein, H. Schwemmer, G. K. Weeker, J. 
Pachelbel, J. P. Krieger, J. Krieger; V). 
15; 16: Mannheimer Kammermusik . . . 
(F. X. Richter, I. Holzbauer, J. B. 
Wendling, J. Toeschi, Chr. Cannabich, 
E. Eichner, K. Stamitz, Abt G. J. 


EDITIONS, HISTORICAL 

Vogler, A. Stamitz, F. Danzl, J. Sta- 
mitz, A. Filtz, F. X. Sterkel, W. Cra- 
mer, J. F. Edelmann; I). 

IX. Den^mdler deutscher Tonl{unst 
(DdT; 65 volumes, 1892-1931; see re- 
mark under VII). 

12/ 13: H. Albert, Arien (S). 

5: J. R. Able, Ausgewahlte Gesangswerke 
(S). 

56: /.Christoph Friedrich Bach, Die Kind- 
heit ]esu\ Lazarus (Or). 

42: J. Ernst Bach, Sammlung auserlesener 
Fabeln (S). 

48: J. Ernst Bach, Passionsoratorium. 

64: G. Benda, Der ]ahrmar\t (Op). 

6: Chr. Bernhard, Solokantaten und Chor- 
werke (V). 

45: G. Bohm, Heinrich Elmenhorsts 
Geistliche Lieder (S). 

II : D. Buxtehude, Instrumentalwerke. 
14: D. Buxtehude, Abendmusiken und 
Kirchenkantaten (V). 

43/44: Fr. Deller, Orpheus und Eurydice 
(Ballett). 

31, 41; Ph. Dulichius, Centuria (V). 
46/47: Ph. Erlebach, Harmonische Freu- 
de (S). 

10: J. K. F. Fischer, Journal de Prin temps 

45: J. W. Franck, Heinrich Elmenhorsts 
Geistliche Lieder (S). 

16: M. Franck, Ausgewahlte Instrumen- 
talwerke. 

57: J. V. Gorner, Sammlung neuer Oden 
und Lieder (S). 

15: C. H. Graun, Montezuma (Op). 
51/52: Chr. Graupner, Ausgewahlte Kan- 
taten (V). 

40: A. Hammcrschmidt, Ausgewahlte 
Werke (V). 

20: J. Hasse, La Conversione di 5 . Agos- 
tino (Or). 

2: H. L. Hassler, Cantiones sacrae (V). 

7: H. L. Hassler, Messen (V). 

24/25: H. L. Hassler, Sacri concentus 

(V). 

16: V. Haussmann, Ausgewahlte Instru- 
mentalwerke. 

42: V. Herbing, Musi\alischer Versuch 

(S). 

8, 9: J. Holzbauer, Gunther von Schwarz- 
burg (Op). 

32/33: N. Jommelli, Fetonte (Op). 


[ 229 ] 



EDITIONS, HISTORICAL 

37/38: R. Keiser, Croesus; Llnganno Fe- 
dele (Op). 

58/59: S. Kniipfer, Ausgcwahlte Kirch- 
enkantaten (V). 

19: Ad. Knegcr, Arien (S). 

53/54: Joh. Ph. Krieger, Ausgewahlte 
Kirchenkompositionen (V). 

4: J. Kuhnau, Klavierwerke (K). 

58/59: J. Kuhnau, Ausgewahlte Kirchen- 
kantaten (V). 

60: A. Lotti, Messen (V). 

55: C. Pallavicino, La Gerusalemme libe- 
rata (Op). 

63: J. Pezel, Turmmusiken und Suiten 

(I). 

23; H. Praetorius, Ausgewahlte Werke 

(V). 

1 8-. J. Rosenmuller, Sonate da camera 

(I). 

43/44: J J Rudolph, Ballette (I), 
i: S. Scheldt, Tabulatura nova (K). 
58/59: J. Schelle, Ausgewahlte Kirchen- 
kantaten (V). 

10: D. A. Schmicorer, Zodiacus (I). 

39: J. Schobert, Ausgewahlte Werke (I). 
17: J. Sebastian!, Passionsmusik (Or). 
35/36: Sperontes, Singende Muse (S). 
65: Th. Stoltzer, Hymnen und Psalmen 

(V). 

28: G. Ph. Telemann, Der Tag des Ge- 
richts; Ino (Or). 

57: G. Ph. Telemann, 24 Oden (S). 
61I62: G. Ph. Telemann, Tafelmusi^ (I). 
17: }. Thcile, Passionsmusik (Or). 

3- F. Tunder, Gesangswerke (V). 

26/27: J. G. Walthcr, Gesammelte Werke 
tiir Orgel (K). 

6* M. Weckmann, Solokantaten und 
Chorwerke (S, V). 

45: P. L Wockenfuss, Heinrich Elmcn- 
horsts Geistliche Lieder (S). 

21/22: F. W. Zachow, Gesammelte Wer- 
ke (V, I, K). 

Collective Volumes: 

29/30: Instrumentalkonzerte deutscher 
Meister (Pisendel, Hasse, C. P. E. Bach, 
Telemann, Graupner, Stolzel, Hurle- 
busch). 

34: Newe deudsche geistliche Gesenge, ed. 
by Georg Rhau, 1544 (numerous com- 
posers). 

49/50: Thiiringische Motctten der ersten 
Halfte des 18. Jahrhunderts (Topfl, 


EDITIONS, HISTORICAL 

Niedt, Arnold!, Flendcr, Erlebach, J. M. 
Bach, Liebhold, Kellner, Telemann). 

X. The English Madrigal School (36 
vols., ed. by E. H. Fellowes, 1913-24; 
p = parts; v = voices), i: Th. Morley, 
Canzonets to 2^ ^ v (1593, ’ 95 )* — Th. 
Morley, Madr, to 4 v (1594). — 3: Th. 
Morley, Canzonets to 5 and 6 v (1597) — 
4: Th. Morley, Ballets to $ v (1600) — 
5: O. Gibbons, Madr. and motets of ^ p 
(1612). — 6: J. Wilbye, First set of madr, 
(1598). — 7: J. Wilbye, Second set of 
madr, (1609). — 8: }. Farmer, Madr, to 
4 V (1599). — 9: Th. Weelkes, Madr. to 
3, 4, 5 and 6v( 1597). — 10: Th. Weelkes, 
Ballets and madr, to ^ v (1598). — ii: 
Th. Weelkes, Madr. of ^ p (1600). — 12: 
Th. Weelkes, Madr. of 6 p (1600). — 13: 
Th. Weelkes, Airs or Fantastic Spirites 
(1608). — 14: W. Byrd, Psalms^ Sonnets 
and Songs for ^ v (1588). — 15: W. Byrd, 
Songs of sundry natures (1589). — 16: 
W. Byrd, Psalms^ Songs and Sonnets 
(1611). — 17: H. Lichfield, Madr. of $ p 
(1613). — 18: Th. Tomkins, Songs of 3, 
5 P (1622). — 19: J. Ward, Madr. to 3, 
4 y 5 P (^^^3)* — Farnaby, Canzo- 

nets to 4 V (1598). — 21: Th. Bateson, 
First set of madr. ( 1604). — 22: Th. Bate- 
son, Second set of madr. (1618). — 23: J. 
Bennett, Madr. to 4 v (1601). — 24: G. 
Kirby e> Madr. to 4, 6 v (1597). — 25: 

F. Pilkington, First set of madr. (1613). 

— 26: F. Pilkington, Second set of madr. 
(1624). — 27: R. Carlton, Madr. to ^ v 
( 1601 ). — 28: H. Youll, Canzonets to 
(1608). — 29: M. East, First set of madr. 
(1604). — 30: M. East, Second set of 
madr. (1606). — 31: M. East, The madr. 
in his third and fourth boo\s (1610, ’18). 

— 32: Th. Morley, The Triumphes of Ori- 
ana (1601) — 33: R. Allison, An hours 
recreation in Music (1606). — 34: Th. 
Vautor, Songs of divers airs and natures 
(1619). — 35.1: R. Jones, Madr. of 3, 4, 
5, 6, y and 8 p (1607). — 35.2: J. Mundy, 
The madr. in his Songs and Psalms . . . 
(1594). — 36. Madrigal writings of Mi- 
chael Cavendish (1598); Thomas Greaves 
(1604); William Holborne (1597), etc. 

XL The English School of Lutenist 
Song-writers (2 series of 16 vols. each, ed. 


[230] 



EDITIONS, HISTORICAL 

by E. H. Fellowes, 1920-32). First Series: 
J. Dowland, First ( Second^ Third) Boo\e 
of Songs and Ayres (1597; 1600; '03); A 
Pilgrim's Solace (1612; vol. 2 includes 
three songs from Robert Dowland’s A 
Musicall Banquet^ 1610). — Th. Ford, 
Songs in MusicJ^e of Sundrie Kindes 
(1607). — F. Pilkington, First Boo 1 {e of 
Songs or Ayres (1605). — Ph. Rosseter 
and Th. Campian, A Booke of Ayres 
(1601). — Th. Morley, Little Short Songs 
to the Lute, 

Second Series: Th. Campian, First ( Sec^ 
ond^ Thirds Fourth ) Booke of Ayres (un- 
dated). — R. Jones, First (Second^ Third, 
Fourth, Fifth ) Bool^e of Songs and Ayres 
(1600-10). — J. Attey, First Booke of 
Ayres (1622). — J. Bartlett, A Booke of 
Ayres (1606). — M. Cavendish, Airs 
(1598). — W. Corkine, Ayres (1610); 
Second Booke of Ayres (1612). — J. 
Danyel, Songs (1606). — A. Fcrrabosco 
(the younger), Ayres (1609). — Th. 
Greaves, The Songs in Songes of Sundrie 
Kindes (1604). — T. Hume, The Songs 
in Musicall Humors (1608); Poeticall 
Musicke (1607). 

XII. Das Erbe deutscher Musik (pres- 
ent continuation of the ioimtr Denkrndler, 
various editors, 1935 to date. Two series: 
Reichsden\male, i.e., documents of gen- 
eral importance; Landschaftsdenkmale, 
i.e., documents of chiefly local impor- 
tance). 

A, Reichsdenkmale. i: Alt-Bachisches 
Archiv, Motetten (M. Schneider). — 2: 
Alt-Bachisches Archiv, Kantaten (M. 
Schneider). — 3: Joh. Christian Bach, 
Quintette op. ii (R. Steglich; I). — 4: 
Das Glogauer Liederbuch i (H. Ring- 
man n; V, I). — 5: L. Senfl, Sieben Mo- 
tetten (A. Loehrer). — 6: G. Ph. Tele- 
mann, Pimpinone (Th. W. Werner; Op). 
— 7: Trompeterfanfaren . . . (G. Schiine- 
mann; I). — 8: Das Glogauer Liederbuch 
ii (H. Ringmann; I, V). — 9: Orgelcho- 
rale um I. S. Bach (G. Frotscher; K). — 
10: L. Senfl, Deutsche Lieder i (A. Geer- 
ing; S). — II : Gruppenkonzerte der 
Bachzeit (K. M. Komma; I). — 12: Lau- 
tenmusik des 17/18. Jahrhunderts (H. 
Neemann; L). — 13: L. Senfl, Motetten 
. . . Messen ii (W. Gerstenberg; V). 


EDITIONS, HISTORICAL 

B. Landschaftsdenkmale (numbering 
not original), (i) N. Bruhns, Kirchen- 
kantaten i (F. Stein). — (2) N. Bruhns, 
Kirchenkantaten ii, Orgelwerke (F. 
Stein). — (3) Chr. Demantius, Neue 
teutsche weltliche Lieder (K. Stangl; S). 

— (4) J. W. Franck, Die drey Tochter 
Cecrops (1679; G. F. Schmidt; Op). — 
(5) J. H. Herbst, Drei mehrehorige Fest- 
konzerte (G. Fcrber; V). — (6) Hoch- 
zeitsarien und Kantaten Stettiner Meister 
nach 1700 (H. Engel; S). — (7) J. S. 
Kusser, Arien . . . aus Erindo (H. 
OsthofI; Op). — (8) R. J. Mayr, Ausge- 
wahlte Kirchenmusik (K. G. Fellerer; 
V). — (9) Moritz Landgraf von Hessen, 
Ausgewahlte Werke (K. Dane; I). — 
(10) Preussische Festlieder (J. Miiller- 
Blattau; V). — (ii) F. W. Rust, Werke 
fiir Klavicr und Streichinstrumente (R. 
Czach; K, I). — (12) J. Schultz, Mu- 
sikalischer Lustgarte (1622; H. Zenck; 

v.l). 

XIII. Hispaniae Schola Musica Sacra 
(ed. F. Pedrell, 1895-98). i: Chr. Mo- 
rales, Composiciones (V). — 2: F. Gue- 
rrero, Composiciones (V). — 3;4: A. de 
Cabezon, Composiciones . . . (K). — 
5: J. G. Perez, Composiciones (V). — 
6: Fray Tomas de Santa Maria, F. Gue- 
rrero, T. L. de Victoria, Cenallos, uncer- 
tain author, Psalm compositions (V). — 
7;8: A. de Cabezon, Composiciones (K). 

XIV. Istituzioni e monumenti delV 
arte musicale italiana (6 vols., 1931 to 
date), i: Musiche strumentali . . . sino 
al 1590 (I, V). — 2: Canzoni e sonate 
. . . di G. Gabrieli (I). — 3:LeCappelle 
musicale di Novara (G. Battistini, 1665- 
1719; V). — 4: Vincenzo Galilei (V, L). 

— 5: Schola musicale di Napoli (Mon- 
tella, Trabaci, Gesualdo; V). — 6: La 
Musica in Cremona (Ingegneri, Monte- 
verdi; V). 

XV. Lira sacro-hispanica (10 vols., ed. 
by M. H. Eslava, 1869; Spanish sacred 
music, chiefly motets; detailed list of con- 
tents in GD ii, 177). Two vols. “i6th 
Century” (Fevin, Morales, Guerrero, 
Victoria, and others). — Two vols. “17th 
Century” (Comes, Lobo, Heredia, Sala- 
zar, and others). — Two vols. “i8th Cen- 


[231] 



EDITIONS, HISTORICAL 

tury” (Bravo, Muelas, Soler, Ripa, and 
others). — Four vols. “19th Century” 
(Garcia, Secanilla, Ledesma, Eslava, and 
others). 

XVI. Les Maltres musiciens de la 
renaissance frangaise (23 vols., ed. by H. 
Expert, 1894-1908; French vocal music 
of the 1 6th century). Alphabetical list of 
composers; numbering not original, (i) 
P. Attaingnant, Trente et une chansons 
musicales (1529). — (2) A. Brumel, P. 
de la Rue, Missa, . . . — (3) E. du Caur- 
roy, MSlanges, — (4) G. Costeley, Mu- 
sique i,ii,iii. — (5) Cl. Gervaise, E. du 
Tertre, Danceries (I). — (6) Cl. Goudi- 
mel, Les 1^0 psaumes i,ii,iii. — (7) Cl. 
Jannequin, Chansons. — O. de Lassus, 
Les Meslanges, — (8) Cl. Le Jeune, Do- 
decacorde i. — (9) Cl. Le Jeune, Le Prin- 
temps i,ii,iii. — (10) Cl. Le Jeune, MS- 
langes, — (ii) Cl. Le Jeune, Psaumes en 
vers mesurez i,ii,iii. — (12) J. Mauduit, 
Chansonettes mesurSes, — (13) J. Mou 
ton, Fevin, Mtssa, . . . — (14) F. Re- 
gnard, PoSsies de P, de Ronsard, 

XVII. Monumenta Musicae Belgicae 
(ed. by J. Watelet, 1932-38). i: J. B. 
Loeillct, Werken voor Clavecimbel. — 
2: A. Kerckhoven, Werken voor Orgel. — 
3: J. H. Fiocco, Werken voor Clavecim- 
bel. — 4: Ch. Guillet, Giov. de Macque, 
C. Luython (K). 

XVIII. Monumenta Musicae Byzan- 
tinae (ed. by C. Hoeg, H. J. W. Tillyard, 
and E. Wellesz; 1935-). 

A. Facsimiles, i : Sticherarium. — 
2: Hirmologium Athoum. 

B. Subsidia. i.i: H. J. W. Tillyard, 
Handbook of the Middle Byzantine Musi- 
cal Notation. — i.ii: C. Hoeg, La Nota- 
tion ekphonetique. — i.iii: E. Wellesz, 
Byzantine Elements in Gregorian Chant. 

C. Transcriptions, i: E. Wellesz, Die 
Hymncn des Sticherarium fiir September. 
— 2: H. J. W. Tillyard, The Hymns of 
the Sticherarium for November. 

XIX. Monuments de la musique fran- 
fatse au temps de la renaissance (10 vols., 
ed. by H. Expert, 1924-29, as a continua- 
tion of the Maitres Musiciens), i; Cl. Lc 
Jeune, Octonaires de la vanite i. — 2; P. 
Ccrton, Messes d 4 voix, — 3: D. Lc Blanc, 


EDITIONS, HISTORICAL 

Airs de plusieurs musiciens, — 4-7: A. de 
Bertrand, Amours de Pierre de Ronsard y 
i-iii. — 8: Cl. Le Jeune, Octonaires . • , 
ii, — 9: Cl. Goudimel, Messes d 4 voix, — 
10: P. de TEstocart, Octonaires de la 
vaniti i. 

XX. Musica Divina (10 vols., ed. by C. 
Proske and J. Schrems, 1853-63; contains 
selections of 16th-century vocal sacred 
music). Annus primus, i: Liber mis- 
sarum. — 2: Liber motettorum. — 3: 
Psalmodiam, Magnificat, Hymnodiam, 
Antiphonas B.M.V. complectens. — 4: 
Liber vespertinus. — Annus secundus, 
5-8 (same titles as 1-4). — 9,10: Selectus 
novus missarum. 

XXL Musica Sacra (26 vols., ed. by F. 
Commer, 183911; contains selections of 
sacred music, mostly of the i6th and 17th 
centuries), i: Sammlung . . . fiir die 
Orgel (ne^v ed. by F. Redlich under the 
title Meister des Orgelbarocl^, — 2,3: 
Choral music (Carnazzi, Cordans, Du- 
rante, Caldara, Gabrieli, and others). — 
4: Solo songs with piano accompaniment 
(Durante, Hassc, Jommelli, and others). 
— 5-12: Lasso. — 13,14-' Hasler. — 17, 
18: Mahu, etc. 

Beginning with vol. 5 there appeared 
under the same name a parallel publica- 
tion by A. H. Neithardt and others (vols. 
5-16), containing also 19th-century Ger- 
man church music by Bortnianski, Grell, 
Homilius, and others. Still another pub- 
lication of the same title has been pub- 
lished by Dorflel (ed. Peters). 

XXII. Old English Edition (25 vols., 
ed. by G. E. P. Arkwright, 1889-1902). 
i; Th. Campion, Masque for Lord 
Hayeses Marriage (1607). — 2: Th. Arne, 
Six Songs — 3-5: G. Kirbyc, Madrigals 
(1597). — 6-9: W. Byrd, Songs of Sun- 
dry Natures (1589). — 10: Ch. Tyc, Mass 
Euge bone, — ii— 12; Ferrabosco, Madri- 
gals. — 13-15^ Th. Weelkes, Madrigals 
and Ballets (1598). — 16-17: Weelkes, 
Ayres or Phantastic\ Spirites (1608). 
— 18-20: F. Pilkington, Songs or Airs 
(1605). — 21: White, Kirby e, Wilbye, and 
Daman, Anthems, Motets, etc. — 22: J. 
Milton, Six Anthems. — > 23: J. Blow, Six 
Songs. — 24: H. Purcell, Six Songs from 


[23a] 



EDITIONS, HISTORICAL 

“Orpheus Britannicus.” — 25: J. Blow, 
Venus and Adonis. 

XXni. PalSographie musicale (17 
vols., cd. by the Benedictines of *Solesmes, 
1889 to date; containing facsimiles and 
studies of plainsong MSS). 

A. First Series, i: Le Codex 339 de 
Saint-Gall. — 2,3: Le repons-graduel Jus- 
tus ut palma. — 4: Le ^dex 121 d'Ein- 
sicdeln. — 5,6: Antiphonarium Ambrosi- 
anum (Cod. Add. 34209 . . . Brit. 
Mus.). — 7,8: Antiphonarium tonale mis- 
sarum (Cod. H. 159 .. . Montpellier). 

— 9; Antiphonarium monasticum (Cod. 
601 . . . , Luque). — 10: Antiphonale 
(Codex 239 . . . de Laon). — ii: An- 
tiphonale (Codex 47 . . . de Chartres). 
— 12: Antiphonaire monastique (Codex 
f. 160 . . . de Worcester). — 13: Le 
Codex latin. 903 . . . de Paris (Graduel 
de St. Yrieux). — 14: Le Codex 10673, 
Bibl. Vaticane (Graduel Beneventain). — 
15: Le Codex VI.34, Benevent. 

B. Second Series, i: Antiphonale, 
Codex Hartker . . . de Saint-Gall. — 
2: Cantatorium (Codex359 . . . de Saint 
Gall). 

XXIV. Publications de la societe fran- 
qaise de mustcologie (various editors, 
1925 to date). A. Monuments: i. Deux 
livres d’orgues parus chez Pierre At- 
taingnant (Y. Rokseth; K). — 2. Oeuvres 
inedites de Beethoven (G. de Saint-Foix). 

— 3,4 (falsely designated 4,5): Chansons 
au luth et airs de cour (L, de la Lau- 
rencie; S). — 5: Treize Motets . . . pour 
orgue (Y. Rokseth; K). — 6,7: La Rhe- 
torique des dieux . . . de Denis Gaultier 
(A. Tessier; L). — 8: J. H. d’Anglebert, 
Pieces de Clavecin (M. Roesgen-Cham- 
pion; K). — 9: J.-C. de Mondonville, 
Pieces de Clavecin avec accompagnement 
de violon (c. 1730; M. Pincherle; I). — 
10: Le Manuscrit . . . d’Apt (i4th/i5th 
cent.; A. Gastoue; V). 

B. Documents: 1,2: Inventaire du 
fonds Blancheton de la Bibliotheque du 
Conservatoire de Musique de Paris (de 
la Laurencie). — 3,4: Melanges offerts ^ 
M. L. de la Laurencie. — 5,6: Docu- 
ments inedites relatifs a Torgue fran^ais 
(Dufourcq). — 7: Catalogue dcs livres de 


EDITIONS, HISTORICAL 

musique de la Bibliotheque de I’Arsenal 
h Paris (de la Laurencie, Gastoue). — 
8 : Bibliographie des poesies de P. de Ron- 
sard mises en musique au i6e siecle (Thi- 
bault, Perceau). 

XXV. PubliJ^ationen alter er Musi\ 
(various editors, 1926 to date), i.i; 3.i; 
4.ii: Guillaume de Machaut, Musikalische 
Werke (Ludwig; V).— i.ii: Johannes 
Ockeghem, Samtliche Werke i (Pla- 
menac; V). — 2: Luys Milan, Lihro de 
musica (Schrade; L). — 3.!!: Sixtus Die- 
trich, Ein Beitrag . . . zur Musikan- 
schauung . . . (Zenck). — 4.!; 6: Luca 
Marenzio, Madrigals (Einstein; V). — 
5; 7: Das Graduale der St. Thomaskirche 
. . . (P. Wagner). — 8: Ottaviano Pe- 
trucci, Frottole (Schwartz; V), — 9: 
Adrian Willaert, Samtliche Werke i 
(Zenck; V). 

XXVI. Publi\ationen dlterer pra\- 

tischer und theoretischer Musi 1 {werl{e 
(33 vols., ed. by Eitner, 1869-1905). 
Alphabetical list of composers (our num- 
bering is according to volumes; an op- 
tional numbering according to annual sets 
[see, e.g., MoML 157] is added in paren- 
theses). 20(24): M. Agricola, Musica in- 
strumentalis deutsch (1528). — 22(26) : 
J. a Burgk, Geistliche Lieder und Pas- 
sion (V). — 10(9): G. Caccini, Euridice 
(Op). — 12(11): F. Cavalli, Giasone 
(Op). — 12(11): M. A. Cesti, La Dori 
(Op). — 23(27): 60 Chansons des 

16. Jahrhunderts (Attaingnant; V). — 
24(28): G. Dressier, Motetten (V). — 
21(25): J. Eccard, Neue geistliche und 
weltliche Lieder (1589; V). — 8(7): H. 
Finck, Lieder und Motetten (V). — 
29(33): G. Forster, Frische teutsche Lied- 
lein (V). — 10(9): M. da Gagliano, 
Dafne (Op). — 16(16): Glarean, Dode- 
\achordon. — 15(15): H, L. Hassler, 
Lustgarten (V). — 6(5) : Josquin, Ausge- 
wahlte Kompositionen (V). — 18(21/ 
22): R. Keiscr, Prtnz Jodelet (Op). — 
25(29): Gr. Lange, Motetten (V).— 
27(31): J.-M. Leclair, Zwolf Sonaten fiii 
Violine und Generalbass (1732; I). — 
14(13): J- B. Lully, Armide (Op). — 
10(9): Cl. Monteverdi, Orfeo (Op).— 
9(8): E. Oeglin, Licdcrbuch (1512; V)* 


[233 J 



EDITIONS, HISTORICAL 

— i-4(i-4): J. Ott, Liederbuch (1544; 
V). — 13(12): M. Praetorius, Syntagma 
Musicum ii. — 19(23): J. Regnart, Vil- 
lanellen (V). — 14(14): A. Scarlatti, La 
Rosaura (Op). — 5(4)* A. Schubiger, 
Musikalische Spicilegien. — ij{ 19/ 20) : 
G. C. Schurmann, Ludwig der Fromme 
(Op). — 26(30): O. Vccchio, VAmfipar- 
nasso (Op). — ii(io): S. Virdung, Mu- 
sica getutscht (1511). — 7(6): J. Walter, 
Wittembergisch geistlich Gesangbuch 
(ip4; V). — 28(32): M. Zeuner, 82 
geistliche Kirchenlieder (1616; V). 

Raccolta nazionale. See VI. 

XXVII. Tresor musicale (58 vols., ed. 
by R. J. van Maldeghem, 1865-93; con- 
tains sacred and secular vocal music of the 
i6th century; each year two volumes, one 
“Musique religieuse,” one “Musique pro- 
fane,” were published; detailed index in 
GD V, 377 ff). 

XXVIII. Tudor Church Music (lo 
vols., 1923-29; contains i6th- and 17th- 
century English Church music), i: Tav- 
erner (Masses). — 2: W. Byrd (English 
Services, etc.). — 3: J. Taverner (Mag- 
nificats, hymns, motets). — 4: O. Gib- 
bons (Services and anthems). — 5: R. 
White (Motets, anthems). — 6: Th. Tal- 
lis (Motets, hymns). — 7: W, Byrd, 
Gradualia I, II. — 8: Th. Tomkins (Serv- 
ices). — 9: W. Byrd (Masses, motets). — 
10: H. Aston, }. Marbeck, O. Parsley. 

XXIX. Verecniging voor Noord-Ned- 
erlands MuzieJ^geschiedenis (c. 40 vols., 
the most important of which are listed 
below, excluding the complete publica- 
tion of Sweelinck [by M. Seiffert] and of 
Obrecht [by J. Wolf]). 22: C. Boskoop, 
50 Psalmen Davids (V). — 30: Driestem- 
mige Oud-Nederlandsche Liederen (r. 
1500; V). — 26: Een duytsch Musyck- 
Boeck (1572; V). — 41: P. Hellendaal, 
Vicr Sonates voor Violoncel (c. 1750; I). 

— 32: C. D. Hurlebusch, Compositioni 
musicali per il Cembalo {c, 1750; K). — 
25,27: Nedcrlandsche Dansen der i6de 
eeuw (Susato, Phalesius; I, arranged for 
piano). — 19: A. van Noort, Tahulatuur- 
Boec\ (1659; K). — 34: Orkestcomposi- 
ties . . . (early 17th cent.; I). — 37: 
Oud-Nederlandsche Klaviermuziek (mu- 


EGYPTIAN MUSIC 

sic book of Anna Maria van Eijl, 1671; 
K). — 13* A. Reinken, Hortus musicus 
(1687; I). — 14: A. Reinken, Partite di- 
verse . . . (K). — 28: J. Schenk, Scherzi 
musicali {c. 1700; I). — 5: C. Schuyt, 
Drie Madrigalen (c. 1600; V). — 29: 
T. Susato, Het ierste Musyc\-boexJ{en 
(1551; V). — 24: J. Tollius, Zesstemmige 
Madrigalen (after 1600; V). — 42: J. van 
den Vondel, Kruisbergh (1640; V). — > 
8: J. Wanning, Bloemlezing uit die 52 
Sententiae {c. 1600; V). — 35: A. Wil- 
laert, Missa super Benedicta (c. 1550; V). 

Education. See *Music education. 

Effleurer [F.]. To touch very lightly. 

Eglogue. Same as ^Eclogue. 

Eguale. See *Equale. 

Egualmente [It.]. Equally, evenly. 

Egyptian music. Pictorial represen- 
tations of instruments show that there 
existed a musical culture in Egypt as early 
as the 4th millennium B.C. The instru- 
ments of the Old Kingdom (prior to the 
1 8th century B.C.) were chiefly small 
harps and flutes. The music was quiet 
and reserved, probably similar in charac- 
ter to that of the ancient Chinese. In- 
vestigations made on two preserved flutes 
of the early second millennium suggest 
that the melodies moved in relatively 
large intervals, e.g., d-f-a-b [cf. C. 
Sachs, in AMW ii]. With the beginning 
of the New Kingdom (i6th century 
B.C.) a complete change took place, ow- 
ing to the infiltration of Asiatic instru- 
ments and music. We now find a greatly 
enlarged orchestra, including large harps, 
oboes, lutes, and many percussion instru- 
ments, such as the sistrum and the drum. 
Careful measurements of the numerous 
instruments preserved from this era have 
shown that small intervals are now pre- 
ferred. All evidence points to the rise of 
music of an entirely different character, 
full of ecstasy and passion. As later in 
Greece, the “Apollinian” element was 
superseded by the “Dionysian” [see 
*Grcek music]. The trend towards indi- 
vidual and unrestrained expression and 


[>34] 



EIGHT-FOOT 

the consequent dissoluteness of civiliza- 
tion led, around 600 B.C., to a reaction 
and to the re-establishment of the old 
sacred rites. It is to this rather artificial 
state of affairs that Herodotus, Strabo, 
Plato, and other Greek writers refer in 
their reports telling about the high ethical 
standard of Egyptian culture and the re- 
strained character of the music. It is very 
likely that Egyptian music and theory 
exercised a great influence upon those of 
Greece. In the early Christian era, Alex- 
andria was an important center of Chris- 
tian worship and of psalm-singing. 

Lit.: A. Hemsi, La Musique orientale 
en Egypte (1930); J. Pulver, “The Music 
of Ancient Egypt” (PM A xlviii); C. 
Sachs,“Die Tonkunst dcr alten Aegypter” 
(AMW ii); id., “Die Namen der alt- 
agyptischen Musikinstrumente” (ZMW 
i); ReMMA, 6fl (bibl. p. 426). 

Eight-foot. See *Foot (2). 

Eilend [G.]. Hurrying. 

Eingestrichen [G.], One-line (octave, 
C, etc.). 

Einklang [G.]. Unison. 

Einleitung [G.]. Introduction. 

Einlenken [G.]. To lead back. 

Einsatz [G.]. (i) Attack. — (2) The 
entrance of an orchestral part. 

Einstimmig [G., one-voiced]. Mono- 
phonic. 

Eintritt [G.]. Entrance, particularly of 
a fugal subject [see *Einsatz]. 

Eis [G.j. See *Pitch names. 

Eisteddfod. See *Bards; *Penillion. 

Eklogen. See ^Eclogue. 

Ekphonetic notation [from Gr. 
phonesis, lecture, pronunciation]. The 
term denotes certain primitive systems of 
musical notation, consisting only of a lim- 
ited number of conventional signs de- 
signed for the solemn reading of a litur- 
gical text. Originally, they were nothing 
but accents indicating a raising or lower- 


ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS 

ing of pitch, or signs calling for special 
inflections used to bring out grammatical 
peculiarities, such as questions, exclama- 
tions, affirmations, etc. Later, they de- 
veloped into somewhat more elaborate 
formulae the exact nature of which is ob- 
scure. Ekphonetic signs occur in Byzan- 
tine, Armenian, Syrian, Coptic, manu- 
scripts of the later Middle Ages (c. 600— 
1500). In Jewish chant a system of ek- 
phonetic signs, called ta’amim, is used to 
the present day [see ^Jewish music]. Es- 
pecially important are the Byzantine signs, 
\ the deciphering of 
which has been greatly furthered in recent 
studies of C. Hoeg [cf. the reproduction 
in BeMMR, 32]. The ekphonetic signs 
aie distinguished from the neumes by the 
fact that they indicate, not a freely in- 
vented melody, but a succession of fixed 
melodic formulae. Moreover, they usually 
occur only at certain places in the text 
(most frequently the beginning and end 
of a phrase), without giving a continuous 
melody. They probably represent a type of 
singing similar to that used in the psalm- 
tones of Gregorian chant. See ’•‘'Notation 
II; ^Byzantine chant II. 

Lit.: J. B. Thibaut, Monuments de la 
notation e^phonetique et neumatique de 
Veglise latine (1912); C. Hoeg, La Nota- 
tion eJ{phonStique (1935); WoHN i, 61; 
E. Wellesz, “Die byzantinischen Lections- 
zeichen” {ZMW xi). 

E la (mi) ; elami. See *Hexachord II. 

Elargissant [F.]. Broadening. 

Electronic musical instruments. 
Prior to the latter part of the 19th century 
all musical instruments were based on me- 
chanico-acoustical or pneumatico-acousti- 
cal principles of sound production. A 
string, a reed, a piece of metal, a stretched 
membrane, or the air enclosed in a tube 
was set into vibration by energy supplied 
by the player, thus generating waves in 
the surrounding air. These methods of 
producing musical sound were all in use 
as far back as history can trace, and for 
thousands of years no new ones were dis- 
covered. Not until the 19th century, when 
electrical science began to take an interest 


[235] 



ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS 

in the subject, was a fundamentally new 
method of making music devised; and not 
until the three-element vacuum tube was 
developed, in the second decade of the 
present century, did this new method be- 
come really practical. Today there are 
musical instruments which, without the 
aid of soundboards or other acoustical 
amplifiers, achieve any desired volume of 
sound by means of electrical circuits and 
appliances such as are used in radio re- 
ceivers; and there are others whose vibra- 
tions originate not as motions of solid 
bodies or particles of air but as electrical 
impulses. 

Perhaps the earliest of these instruments 
was the Telharmoniutn^ invented towards 
the close of the 19th century by Thaddeus 
Cahill (b. Iowa, 1867). This was a kind 
of organ which, instead of generating 
sound waves in the air by means of pipes, 
employed rotary generators to create elec- 
trical impulses at frequencies correspond- 
ing to the rates of vibration of musical 
pitches, and telephone receivers to convert 
the electrical impulses into sound. De- 
signed to distribute music over telephone 
lines, it proved commercially impractical 
because it interfered with telephone serv- 
ice. Moreover, it was enormously complex 
and bulky, comprising no less than thirty 
carloads of machinery. It is hardly sur- 
prising that electronic music made little 
headway until science evolved, in the form 
of vacuum tubes no larger than ordinary 
electric light bulbs, a substitute for the 
tons of steel and copper used in Cahill’s 
generators. Since 1920, progress has been 
rapid and many kinds of electronic instru- 
ments have been developed. In 1939 
orchestra composed exclusively of such 
instruments was organized by T. A. Cra- 
craft and introduced to the public in 
broadcasts over the network of the Na- 
tional Broadcasting Company. The prin- 
cipal electronic instruments in current use 
are briefly described below. For more de- 
tailed information consult the sources 
listed at the end of this article. 

I. Keyboard Instruments. Various types 
of electronic piano are available. These 
instruments retain all of the essential piano 
mechanism except the soundboard, whose 


ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS 

function (i.e., reinforcement or “amplifi- 
cation” of sound waves generated by the 
vibration of the strings) is performed elec- 
trically. There are several methods of con- 
verting string vibrations into electrical 
impulses without the aid of a microphone. 
These are commonly called “pickup” sys- 
tems. The types most widely used are the 
electromagnetic and electrostatic systems. 
In the former, a tiny coil with a magnetic 
core is mounted near the string, but far 
enough from it to prevent contact as the 
string vibrates. When the string is set in 
motion its vibrations generate alternating 
current in the coil. The electrical impulses 
thus produced are conducted by wires 
through amplifiers which increase their 
strength, and finally to a loudspeaker 
which converts them into sound waves. 
In the electrostatic system the coil and 
magnet are replaced by a simple conduc- 
tor, and the string itself is charged. As the 
string vibrates, variation of the distance 
between it and the conductor generates 
alternating current which is amplified and 
converted into sound waves in the manner 
described above. Such a method of am- 
plification makes it possible not only to 
obtain great volume from a small instru- 
ment but also to control the characteristics 
of its tone. Harmonics may be altered in 
intensity, or omitted altogether, thus 
changing the timbre of the original sound, 
and the dynamic envelope of the tone may 
be controlled to vary the apparent manner 
of generation and decay — e.g., the per- 
cussive impact of the piano hammer may 
be eliminated so that the tone builds up 
gradually. By such means the piano may 
be made to produce sonorities resembling 
those of stringed or wind instruments. 
The power amplifier and loudspeaker are 
usually built into the piano cabinet but 
may be separately housed and connected 
by cable to the pickup system. To this 
class of instruments belong the Neo-Bech- 
stein (invented by W. Nerust) and the 
EleJ{trochord (invented by H. Vierling). 

Numerous electronic organs have been 
developed. Some are similar in operation 
to the pianos described above, converting 
mechanically generated sound frequen- 
cies which are amplified and then con- 


[236] 



ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS 

verted back into sound; others omit the 
first step in that process and begin with 
electrically generated frequencies. Repre- 
sentative of the former type are the wind- 
blown reed organs of R. H. Ranger and 
B. F. Miessner and the now widely known 
Everett Orgatron. The Ranger instrument 
utilizes a photoelectric pickup system, 
light reflected from the vibrating reeds 
being translated into electrical energy by 
means of a photoelectric cell [see VII]. 
Miessner employs an electrostatic pickup 
system which makes it possible to obtain 
more than one timbre from a single reed. 
The Orgatron also has electrostatic pickup 
and is available in models with two manu- 
als, pedal board, swell pedal, and tablet- 
form controls similar to the stops of a 
modern pipe organ. 

Among keyboard instruments utilizing 
electrical sound generation the best known 
arc the Hammond Organ and the Nova- 
chord. The former resembles the spinet 
in size and shape but has two five-octave 
manuals. A series of small, motor-driven 
rotary generators produces alternating 
current at frequencies corresponding to 
those of the tempered scale, and harmonic 
controls provide a very large number of 
timbres, some of which are pre-set. These 
are controlled by means of keys located at 
the left-hand end of each of the two man- 
uals. Sliding bars located above the upper 
manual enable the player to select other 
timbres. Pedal board and swell pedal are 
provided, and the amplifier and loud- 
speaker are contained in a separate cabi- 
net. 

The Novachord, a six-octave, single- 
manual instrument which also resembles 
the spinet in form, employs a purely elec- 
tronic tone-generating system. Twelve 
vacuum tube oscillators (i.e., circuits ca- 
pable of producing alternating current at 
given frequencies) operate at the frequen- 
cies of the highest octave of the instru- 
ment. There is a separate oscillator for 
each note of the chromatic scale, and asso- 
ciated with each oscillator are five divider 
tubes, each of which operates at one-half 
the frequency of the preceding tube. Thus 
one oscillator and the five dividers asso- 
ciated with it supply the six octaves of one 


ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS 

note of the scale. Controls mounted on 
one end of the panel above the keyboard 
provide different tone colors by varying 
the harmonic components of the tone, and 
similar controls on the other end operate 
another set of vacuum tubes which varies 
the tonal envelope to produce either per- 
cussive effects, similar to those of the pi- 
ano, or sustained tones, similar to those of 
stringed or wind instruments. The power 
amplifier and loudspeaker are built into 
the console. 

The principles utilized in the Nova- 
chord have recently been adapted, with 
some modifications, to produce the Solo- 
vox, an instrument designed to add a sus- 
tained melodic voice to the conventional 
piano. A miniature keyboard of three 
octaves, which is mounted just below the 
right-hand end of the piano keyboard, 
controls a master oscillator and five di- 
vider tubes. When a key is depressed it 
tunes the master oscillator to the pitch 
associated with that key in the highest 
octave of the instrument, and selects the 
proper divider to produce the tone in the 
desired octave. As there is only one mas- 
ter oscillator, only one fundamental pitch 
can be produced at one time, but harmonic 
controls afford a considerable variety of 
tone color. The performer plays the prin- 
cipal melodic part on the Solovox with the 
right hand and accompanies it on the pi- 
ano keyboard with the left hand. 

II. Bowed Instruments. Electronic vio- 
lins, violas, violoncellos, and basses usually 
consist of skeleton frameworks just suffi- 
cient to support the finger board, bridge, 
and strings (and to afford some guidance 
to the player’s hand), with non-micro- 
phonic (usually electrostatic) pickups at- 
tached to the bridge. Amplifiers and loud- 
speakers are contained in separate cabi- 
nets connected by cable to the pickups. 
Certain variations of tone quality are 
available in some models. 

III. Fretted Stringed Instruments. Elec- 
tronic amplification has been applied to 
guitars of all types, banjos, and mandolins. 
Of these instruments the most successful 
is the so-called steel guitar, now widely 
used in popular dance orchestras. In ap- 
pearance it bears little resemblance to any 


[237I 



ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS 

traditional form of guitar, its body con- 
sisting of a small box-like structure which 
affords no acoustical amplification. The 
pickup system is similar to that used for 
bowed instruments and the amplifying 
equipment is separately housed. Its ad- 
vantages include widely variable amplifi- 
cation, greater sustaining power, and con- 
trol of tone quality. 

IV. Wind Instruments, Electronic wind 
instruments apparently have not passed 
the experimental stage. This is probably 
due chiefly to the fact that their inherent 
volume is usually sufficient for all pur- 
poses. Miessner has adapted pickup sys- 
tems to reed instruments such as the clari- 
net and saxophone, chiefly for the purpose 
of providing them with variable tone 
quality, but they do not appear to have 
emerged from the laboratory. Electronic 
brass instruments seem to be non-existent. 

V. Percussion Instruments, Electronic 
methods make it possible to obtain from 
small and inexpensive devices sounds re- 
sembling those produced by bells weigh- 
ing many tons. One form of electronic 
carillon consists of a set of coiled steel reeds 
similar to those used in clocks. Equipped 
with a keyboard controlling electrically 
operated strikers, it is played the same 
manner as is the piano, and its amplifying 
system increases its volume to any degree 
desired. Another form utilizes loosely 
suspended lengths of piano wire. The 
latter method has proved especially suc- 
cessful in reproducing the inharmonic 
partials characteristic of bells. 

Radio listeners may be interested to 
know that the familiar chimes heard be- 
tween programs on the NBC network are 
produced by a mechanism (invented by 
Capt. Richard H. Ranger) which resem- 
bles the old-fashioned music box. Steel 
reeds, plucked by pins set in a revolving 
barrel, produce vibrations which are con- 
verted into electrical frequencies, ampli- 
fied, and finally broadcast. A more recent 
chime device, similar in purpose but dif- 
ferent in principle, has been developed by 
J. L. Hathaway, an NBC engineer. This 
employs a system of oscillators to produce 
frequencies which are converted by a loud- 
speaker into tones of bell-like quality. It 


ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS 

is used to give time signals in public places 
such as Rockefeller Plaza in New York. 

A very practical percussion instrument 
is a chromatic kettledrum invented by 
Miessner. It consists of thirteen short 
bass viol strings which are stretched over 
a rectangular frame and tuned in semi- 
tones. When the strings are struck with 
ordinary kettledrum sticks their vibra- 
tions, picked up electrostatically and am- 
plified through a suitable loudspeaker, 
produce sounds closely resembling those 
of conventional kettledrums. The obvious 
advantage of this electronic instrument is 
that it provides in a compact and easily 
portable form the equivalent of thirteen 
actual drums, since all of its pitches are 
available simultaneously. 

VI. Space-controlled Instruments, One 
of the first electronic instruments to attract 
public attention was the Theremin, in- 
vented about 1924 by the Russian scientist 
whose name it bears. This instrument 
uses a radio-frequency beat system of tone 
generation based on the dissonance be- 
tween two oscillators. One oscillator op- 
erates at a fixed frequency and the other 
at varying frequencies determined by the 
proximity of the player’s hand to a short 
rod antenna which is charged with alter- 
nating current from the second oscillator. 
The difference between the frequencies of 
the two oscillators produces a “beat” — 
i.e., a third frequency, which is the audio 
frequency that operates the loudspeaker. 
The volume of sound is controlled in a 
similar manner by the player’s other hand. 
A serious defect of this instrument in its 
earliest form was its inability to change 
from one pitch to another without an in- 
tervening glissando, but that defect has 
been remedied to some extent in later 
models by means of an improved volume 
control. In recent years Theremin has 
developed other types of instrument, in- 
cluding an electronic cello that has neither 
strings nor bow but utilizes the cellist’s 
conventional left-hand technique for pitch 
determination. Volume is controlled by 
means of a variable resistance operated by 
a lever which is manipulated by the play- 
er’s right hand. Another instrument of 
this type is the Trautonium, invented by 


[238] 



ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS 


EMBELLISHMENT 


the German Friedrich Trautwein. Origi- 
nally it was operated by the hands in the 
same manner as the Theremin, but later a 
metal string was placed over a metal rail 
having marks to indicate where the string 
should be pressed on the rail for the cor- 
rect pitches of the tempered scale. 

VIL Photoelectric Instruments, The 
sound track of a modern motion picture 
film is recorded by photoelectric methods. 
In one system, sound vibrations are con- 
verted into varying intensities of a beam 
of light which produces on the film a per- 
manent pattern of variable density cor- 
responding to the variations in pitch and 
volume of the sounds recorded. Another 
system uses an oscillating beam to trace a 
pattern of variable area. 


Radio Engineers, 1936); L. Stokowski, 
“New Horizons in Music” {Jour, Acous- 
tical Soc, of America, 1932); id,, “New 
Vistas in Music” {Atlantic Monthly, Jan., 
1935); E. G. Richardson, “The Produc- 
tion and Analysis of Tone by Electrical 
Means” {PM A Ixvi); J. Schillinger, “Elec- 
tricity, a Musical Liberator” {MM viii, 
no. 3); A. N. Goldsmith, “Electricity be- 
comes Music” {MM XV, no. i); J. M. Bar- 
bour, “Music and Electricity” {PAMS, 
1937). E. P. 

Elegy [G. Elegie], A plaintive poem; 
hence, a musical composition of a sad or 
mournful character. 

Elektrochord. See ^Electronic musical 
instruments I. 


I 



SOUND TRACKS 


I. Variable area sound track. 2. Variable density sound track 


When the film is exhibited the process is 
reversed. A beam of light passing through 
the sound track falls on a photoelectric 
cell which converts the varying intensities 
or areas of light into audio-frequency cur- 
rent, and this current, after amplification, 
operates a loudspeaker which reproduces 
the original sounds. Various musical in- 
struments have been designed to operate 
on this principle of tone generation but 
none has come into general use. Infor- 
mation concerning experiments in this 
field will be found in B. F. Miessner’s 
article on “Electronic Music and Instru- 
ments” [see Lit.]. 

Lit.: C. Chavez, Toward a New Music 
(1937); Th. Cahill, “The Cahill Telhar- 
monium” {Electric World, 1906); B. F. 
Miessner, “The Electronic Piano” {Pro- 
ceedings, Music Teachers* Nat, Assn., 
1937); “The Application of Electron- 
ics to the Piano” {Proceedings, Radio Club 
of America, 1934); id,, “Electronic Music 
and Instruments” {Proceedings, Inst, of 


Elevation [L. elevatio\ It. elevazione\, 
(i) The music played during the Eleva- 
tion of the Host. It consists either of a 
motet or of an organ piece. A “Toccata 
per I’elevazione” and other similar pieces 
are contained in Frescobaldi’s Eiori must- 
cali (1635). See *OfIertorium. — (2) See 
*Appoggiatura, Double II. 

Eleventh. Sec ^Intervals. Eleventh 
chord, see under *Ninth chord. 

Elmuahim, elmuarifa. Terms used by 
13th-century theorists [cf. CS i, 339; 341] 
to denote the semibrevis which has the 
shape of a rhomb. They come from Ara- 
bian al maluma and al ma rufa, i.e., “the 
known thing,” terms used in Arabian 
translations of Euclid for the rhomb. Cf. 
J. Handschin, in ZMW xiv, 321; H. G. 
Farmer, in Journal of the Royal Asiatic 
Society, 1925, p. 76. 

Embellishment, (i) Same as *orna- 
mentation. — (2) Same as ^auxiliary tone. 


[239] 





EMBOUCHURE ENGLISH MUSIC 


Embouchure, (i) The ’^mouthpiece of 
wind instruments, especially of the brass 
and the flute. — (2) In the playing of these 
instruments, the proper disposition of the 
lips, the tongue, etc. Also called “lip,” 
“lipping.” 

Emmeles [Gr., within the melos]. Ear- 
ly medieval term for the subfinalis, i.e., 
the tone below the final of a church mode, 
c.g., c in Dorian. See *Church modes I. 

Emperor Concerto. Colloquial name 
for Beethoven’s Piano Concerto in E-flat, 
op. 73 (1809), evidently suggested by the 
grandeur of the work. 

Emperor Quartet [G. Kaiser quartett]. 
Colloquial name for Haydn’s String 
Quartet in C, op. 76, no. 4, the slow move- 
ment of which comprises variations on his 
Emperor’s hymn: “Gott erhalte Franz den 
Kaiser,” the ^national anthem of Austria. 

Emperor’s Hymn. See ^National an- 
thems. 

Empfindsamer Stil [G., sensitive 
style]. Denomination for the North- 
German style of the second half of the 
1 8th century represented by W. F. Bach, 
C. P. E. Bach, Quantz, G. Benda, Reich- 
ardt, and others who, in the period from 
c. 1750 to 1780, tried to arrive at an ex- 
pression of “true and natural" feelings, 
anticipating to some extent the Roman- 
ticism of the 19th century. Unfortunately, 
a somewhat narrow and rationalistic point 
of view toward musical expression, which 
hampered rather than freed the imagina- 
tion, prevented the movement from be- 
coming more than a Romantic variety of 
*Rococo style. These views appear par- 
ticularly in the *Affectenlehre of this pe- 
riod. Aside from the works of W. F. Bach 
and C. P. E. Bach, the *volkstumliche 
Lied and the *Singspiel are among the 
foremost results of this movement. See 
^Gallant style. 

Empfindung, Mit [G.]. With feeling, 
emotion. 

Emporte [F.]. “Carried away,” excited. 
Empresse [F.j. Eager. 


fimu [F.j. With emotion, affectation. 

Enchainement [ F. ] . Voice-leading, 
proper connection of chords. 

Enchainez [F.j. Same as *segue. 

Enchiriadis, Enchiridion [Gr., from 
cheir, hand]. Medieval term for hand- 
book, manual. ^Musica Enchiriadis is the 
title of an important treatise of the 9th 
century, formerly ascribed to Hucbald 
[G 5 i, 152]; Enchiridion is the title of 
several early publications of Protestant 
^chorales. 

Enclume [F.j. Anvil. 

Encore [F., again]. In public perform- 
ance, the repetition of a piece, or an extra 
piece played in response to the applause 
of the audience. The practice of encoring 
started in the 17th century with the rise of 
the operatic virtuoso-singers. Haydn had 
turned against this habit by 1799, at the 
occasion of the first performance of his 
Creation', in a note printed on the program 
he begged the audience not to insist upon 
the repetition of any number. 

Endings. See ^Differentiae. 

Enechema. See *Echos. 

Engfiihrung [G.]. Stretto of fugues. 

English flute. Eighteenth-century 
name for the end-blown flutes (^recorder 
or ^flageolet), in contradistinction to the 
side-blown type (cross-flute) which was 
known as German flute. 

English discant. See under *Faux- 
bourdon (2). 

English horn. See ’^Oboe family I, B. 

English Madrigal School. See *Edi- 
tions. Historical, X. 

English music. I. The history of Eng- 
lish music, considered as a whole, presents 
a picture with many peculiar traits such 
as are not encountered in the musical his- 
tory of the Continental nations. Most 
striking is the fact that the evolution of 
English music, instead of moving in ex- 
tended and organic curves of growth and 


[240] 



ENGLISH MUSIC 


ENGLISH MUSIC 


decline, follows a rather irregular and 
somewhat eruptive line of evolution, in- 
volving short periods of extraordinary 
flowering between centuries of low ebb 
and almost complete stagnation. The 
high points of English music history are 
marked by a limited number of great 
personalities: Dunstable around 1400; 
Tallis, Byrd, and Gibbons before and after 
1600; Purcell and Handel before and after 
1700. Between these culmination points 
there lie periods of eclipse, the most ob- 
scure being that which separates Purcell 
and Handel from contemporary compos- 
ers such as Vaughan Williams and Holst, 
who signify the beginning of a nobler 
creative period of English music. 

II. Evidence of musical culture in Eng- 
land begins with the report that Gregorian 
chant was introduced there during Greg- 
ory’s lifetime (r. 600) by St. Augustine of 
Kent, the first Archbishop of Canterbury. 
Later (loth century) special rites (Uses) 
developed in Salisbury (*Sarum Use), 
Hereford, and at other great cathedrals. 
In the loth century we hear of a remark- 
able activity in organ building, particu- 
larly in Winchester where, around 950, a 
giant organ having 26 bellows and 400 
pipes was built, as is reported by a monk 
Wulstan (d. 963) [see *Organ XII]. 

Musical and theoretical sources of the 
nth century {Winchester Troper, new 
ed. by W. H. Frere, 1884), treatise by 
John Cotton (c, 1100; cf. GS ii, 230) 
show England participating actively in 
the development of "‘free organum” [see 
*Organum]. The spread of French po- 
lyphony to England is also demonstrated 
by the fact that the earliest of the four 
preserved MSS containing the repertoire 
of the ^School of Notre Dame (before 
and after 1200) was written in Scotland 
(St. Andrews, now Wolfenbiittel 677; see 
^Magnus liber organi). Although the 
bulk of its contents is French music, it con- 
tains in a separate fascicle a great number 
of short pieces which show certain pecul- 
iar traits and which are therefore believed 
to be of “insular origin” (Handschin). 

An English contribution of great im- 
portance is the singing in parallel thirds, 
usually known under the 14th-century 


name *gymel, and its more developed va- 
riety in parallel thirds and sixths, com- 
monly known as *fauxbourdon. Writers 
of the 14th century praise this type of 
music as “merry to the singer and to the 
hearer.” This characterization is interest- 
ing because it indicates a typically English 
penchant for harmonic euphony which 
possibly accounts for the striking changes 
from artistic greatness to mediocrity en- 
countered in English music history. A 
very noteworthy, though somewhat over- 
praised example of English music is the 
canon *Sumer is icumen in (c, 1310). 
Important 13th-century theorists, study- 
ing and working in France, are Johannes 
de Garlandia (born c. 1195), Anonymus 
IV [C 5 i; see ^Anonymous], and Walter 
Odington (born c. 1250). 

III. During the 14th century English 
music (known to us chiefly through some 
fragmentary MSS from Worcester) em- 
ployed a simple *conductus style which is 
strikingly backward in comparison with 
the highly developed melodic and rhyth- 
mic resources of contemporary French 
and Italian music [see *Ars nova], but 
which is historically important owing to 
the extended use of progressions in sixth 
chords, called English discant [ see *Faux- 
bourdon (2); examples in HAM, no. 57 
a, b]. A great number of early 15th-cen- 
tury English composers are known to us 
from various MSS, partly of English ori- 
gin (Old Hall MS; see ^Sources, no. 25), 
partly of Continental ('•^Trent codices; 
Bologna, sec ^Sources, nos. 20, 22). Since 
the composers (as well as the musical 
style) represented by the latter differ 
strikingly from the former, they are be- 
lieved to belong to two schools, an insular 
school of strictly conservative trends 
(Cooke, Damett, Sturgeon, Typp, and 
others), and a Continental school of pro- 
gressive tendencies (Dunstable, Leonel 
Power, Bedingham, Benet, and others; 
examples in HAM, nos. 60-64). Among 
these, John Dunstable (c, 1370-1435) 
stands out as a composer of the highest 
artistic significance. His invigorating in- 
fluence on the French music of the 15th 
century (^Burgundian School) is attested 
in a poem “Le Champion des dames” (c. 


[241 ] 



ENGLISH MUSIC 


ENGLISH MUSIC 

1440) saying that Dufay and Binchois i6th century also saw the rise of English 
“ont prins de contenance Angloise et en- chamber music, mainly for viols [see 
suy Dunstable” [cf. ReMMA, 412]. The ♦Fancy; *Innominc; ♦Consort], 
most striking trait of this “English coun- V. Practically all the composers of the 
tenance” is a most beautiful type of mel- Elizabethan period died around 1625. In 
ody based on the degrees of the triad [see an almost tragic manner the development 
♦Third] . Unfortunately, Dunstable had of English vocal and keyboard music came 
no English successors worthy of his rank, to an end, and only in the field of cham- 
IV. A new trend in English music, ber music was the tradition carried on, 
leading from the sacred to the secular, though in a somewhat conservative man- 
becomes discernible in the compositions ner, by composers such as John Jenkins 
of Robert Fayrfax (d. 1521), William (1592-1678), Henry Lawes (1595-1662), 
Cornyshe (c, 1465-1523), and their royal William Young (d. 1672), and Matthew 
patron. King Henry VIII. They wrote Locke (1630-67). Roger North, in his in- 
secular part-songs to English or French teresting account of English musical life 
texts, frequently of a humorous or even during the 17th century {Memoires of 
satirical character [examples in HAM^ Music\^ 1728), tells us that Locke’s con- 
nos. 85, 86] . Fayrfax is also noteworthy sorts were “the last of the kind that hath 
for his activity in the field of the motet been made.” As a matter of fact, around 
(little cultivated by his predecessors), in 1670 the character of English music 
which he was followed by the T-triad of changed completely, owing to the intru- 
carly Tudor composers, John Taverner sion of French (Lully) and, somewhat 
(1495—1545), Christopher Tye (1500— later, Italian (Cazzati, Vitali) elements. 
72), and Thomas Tallis (1505-85) [sec This change is apparent in John Blow 
♦Editions XXVIII]. Tye and Tallis were (1648—1708), whose numerous anthems 
the first to make contributions to the and Services, influenced by the Italian 
church music of the Reformation, in their aria style, show facility rather than crea- 
♦anthems and ♦Services. Only brief men- tive imagination and whose main impor- 
tion need be made here of the numerous tance lies in the fact that he established 
composers who contributed to the glory of the basis upon which his pupil Henry 
the Elizabethan era, notably Tallis’ pupil Purcell (r. 1658-95) created a number of 
William Byrd (1543-1623), and the nu- truly great works, anthems, secular songs, 
merous English madrigalists [see the list and ♦dramatic music, particularly his only 
of The English Madrigal School, under full opera. Dido and Aeneas {c. 1689). 
♦Editions X]. The i6th century also sees English Baroque music reached its peak 
the rise of English keyboard music. After in Handel (1685-1759), Bach’s contem- 
the strikingly advanced ♦Hornepype of porary and compatriot, who spent practi- 
Hugh Aston {c. 1480?-! 522?) there fol- cally all his creative career in England and 
lows a large repertory of liturgical organ whose late oratorios and organ concertos 
music (organ verses, organ hymns, ♦Felix are the most perfect embodiment of the 
namque, by John Bedford, 1485-1545 [cf. spirit of English music, while his operas 
C. Pfatteicher, John Redford] and many incline more towards the Italian tradition, 
others [cf. H. Miller, in MQ xxvi]), a See also ♦Browning; ♦Catch; ♦Ground; 
repertory which, in turn, is followed by ♦Masque. 

that of the ♦Virginalistic School. English VI. Typically English productions of 
Renaissance music, vocal as well as instru- the i8th century are the ♦ballad opera, the 
mental, reached an expression of fin-de- ♦glee, and the ♦voluntary. Among the 
sieclc refinement in Orlando Gibbons more important composers of this period 
(i583”i 625) and in the lutenist and song- arc Thomas Arne (1710-78; numerous 
writer John Dowland (1563—1626) who operas, glees), William Boyce (1710—79; 
is the most outstanding among numerous anthems, publication of Cathedral Mu- 
others active in the field of lute songs [see sic), Benjamin Cooke (1734-93; odes, 
tlie list no. XI under ♦Editions] . The late glees, catches), and Samuel Webbe ( 1740- 

[242] 



ENGLISH MUSIC ENGLISH MUSIC 

i8i6; glees, catches). There followed tically colored mysticism and wistfulness, 
Samuel Wesley (1766-1837), famous for a spiritual heritage of his pardy Irish 
his organ improvisation and well known blood, has earned him the title of “Yeats 
for his initiative on behalf of Bach’s mu- in music.” In the third group we find 
sic, composer of anthems and Services as Gustav Holst (1874-1934) and Arthur 
well as of Masses, motets (he joined the Bliss (b. 1891) who, in their later works, 
Roman Catholic Church in 1784) and of show the neo-classical influence of Stra- 
organ music (organ concertos, volunta- vinsky. The most hopeful among the 
ries). His son Samuel Sebastian Wesley youngest English composers is William T. 
(1810-76), influenced by Mendelssohn Walton (b. 1902), whose Concerto for 
and Schumann, contributed much towards Viola ( 1929) and Symphony (1935) have 
raising the low standard of English church raised high expectations among music- 
music, in his anthems and Services. The lovers and critics. Alan Bush (b. 1900) 
musical Romanticism is more clearly rep- takes a particular interest in “socialistic” 
resented by John Field (1782—1837; *noc- music. Constant Lambert (b. 1905) works 
turnes) and William Sterndale Bennett in jazz idioms, and Benjamin Britten 
(1816-75; pi^no and orchestral music), (b. 1913) can, at the age of thirty, look 
Around 1880 the English opera found its back at an astonishingly copious number 
greatest national representative since Pur- of works written with an easy and yet 
cell in Arthur S. Sullivan (1842-1900). technically reliable hand, and embracing 
VII. At about the same time English pieces for film, stage, radio, as well as for 
music in general took a start to a new pe- the concert hall. 

riod of artistic production. The develop- See also reference to other articles under 
ment from 1880 till 1940 may be conven- * Anglican Church music, 
icntly divided into three periods: that of Lit.: H. Davey, History of English Mu- 
German influence, that of national and sic (1^21); E,Wa\ktr , A History of Music 
impressionistic tendencies, and that which in England (1924); Wm. H. Hadow, 
stands under the influence of *New music. English Music (1931); W. Nagel, Ge- 
To the first period belong Ch. H. Parry schichte der Musi\ in England ( 1894/ 9 ?) *> 
(1848-1918), Charles Stanford, and Ed- J. Pulver, A Dictionary of Old English 
ward Elgar (1857-1934). The first two Music and Musical Instruments (1923); 
of these were influenced by Schumann, /W., A Biographical Dictionary of Old 
Wagner, and Brahms, although individ- English Music (1927); H. O. Anderton, 
ual traits are by no means missing, par- Early English Music (1920); Wm. H. G. 
ticularly in some works of Stanford in Flood, Early Tudor Composers (1925); 
which elements of his native Ireland are E. H. Meyer, Die mehrstimmige Spiel- 
prominent. Elgar wrote in a rich and musi\ des ly, fahrhunderts . . . (1934); 
strongly emotional style which sometimes H. Davey, English Music, i 6 o^-igo^ 
tends to ostentatiousness and even vul- (1906); J. A. F. Maitland, English Music 
garity. The second group includes “na- in the igth Century (1902); W. A. Bar- 
tionalistic” composers such as Frederick rett, English Church Composers (1926); 
Delius (1862—1934), Ralph Vaughan Wil- G. Cecil, The History of Opera in England 
liams (b. 1872), Percy Grainger (b. 1882), (1930); C. Forsyth, Music and National- 

Arnold Bax (b. 1883), “impres- ism, a Study of English Opera (1911); F. 

sionist” Cyril Scott (b. 1879). Vaughan Kidson and M. Neal, English Fol\ Song 
Williams took an active part in the revival and Dance ( 1915) ; C. J. Sharp, Fol\songs 
of old English folk song and embodied of England, 5 vols. (1908); F. W. Galpin, 
its archaic idiom into his compositions. Old English Instruments (1932); H. 
Grainger, now living in America, com- \lug\izs,^EarlyEnglish Harmony 
bined English folk elements with a certain Dorn Anselm Hughes, '\Worcester Medi- 
open-air frankness which is probably de- aeval Harmony (1928). D. Attwater, 
rived from his native Australian back- “English Folk Song” {ML ix, no. 2); M. 
ground. Bax’s leaning towards a roman- Bukofzer, “The First Motet with English 

1*431 



ENGLISH SCHOOL OF LUTENIST SONGWRITERS 


ENHARMONIC 


Words’* (ML xvii); id.y “The First Eng- 
lish Chanson on the Continent” (ML xix) ; 
A. H. Fox Strangways, “English Folk- 
songs” (ML V, no. 4); A. Hughes, “Old 
English Harmony” (ML vi, no. 2); J. 
Mark, “Dryden and the Beginnings of 
Opera in England” (ML v, no. 3); J. Pul- 
ver, “Music in England during the Com- 
monwealth” {AM vi, no. 4); H, Reichen- 
bach, “The Tonality of English and Gaelic 
Folksong” (ML xix, no. 3); J. B. Trend, 
“The First English Songs” (ML ix, no. 
2); S. T. Warnei, “An Aspect of Tudor 
Counterpoint” (ML ii, no. i). 

English School of Lutenist Song- 
writers, The. See ^Editions XI. 

English violet. See ^Viol IV 4. 

Enharmonic, (i) In Greek music, the 
term enharmonic denotes a tonality (scale, 
tetrachord, genus) which includes quar- 
ter-tones [see *Greek music II (b); cf. H. 
Husmann, in JMP xliv; C. del Grande, in 
RMI xxxvi]. 

(2) In modern theory, the term is used 
for tones which are actually one and the 
same degree of the chromatic scale, but 
arc named and written differently, e.g.r 
g# and ab, ct and db, etc., according to the 
key in which they occur. Enharmonic in- 
tervals are intervals consisting of the same 
tones, but “spelt” differently, e.g.; 


A well-known example of “enharmonic 
equivalents” is the ^diminished seventh 
chord which can be written in four or 
more different ways. Enharmonic change 
is the change of meaning of a tone or a 
chord (frequently a diminished seventh 
chord) from sharp to flat, or vice versa, as 
is frequently the case in modulations, e.g. 
(to quote one of the earlier instances, from 
Handel’s Samson ) : 



t**- 

5^^ 

d.r«ss 





The statement regarding the identity in 
pitch of enharmonic tones is correct only 
in our modern system of well-tempered 
tuning, but not in other systems of ei- 
ther theoretical or historical significance 
(^Pythagorean system, *just intonation, 
mean-tone systems; see ^Temperament). 
In just intonation, e.g., ct (upper third of 
25 . 16 

a) is — while db (lower third of f) is — ; 
24 ^15 

the difference between these tones is the 
128 

enharmonic *diesis, = 41 *cents (very 

125 

near one-fifth of a whole-tone). While 
piano-players naturally have fully adopted 
the view that enharmonic tones are iden- 
tical in pitch, violinists and singers fre- 
quently insist that they differ and that this 
difference should be brought out in per- 
formance. Thus, in the example (a) given 


r rT ffT f 

below, the db would sound nearly a quar- 
ter-tone lower than the preceding cjf. The 
main objection against this procedure is 
that it arbitrarily introduces a dash of just 
intonation into a performance which in 
all other respects is based upon equal 
temperament, e.g., in the intonation of 
the triad. Moreover, in an example like 
(b), the recommended distinction is ob- 
viously impossible since the “changeable” 
tone is tied over. Finally, it should be no- 
ticed that the enharmonic change is by no 
means restricted to chromatic tones such 
as ct and db, but that it may occur also on 
any of the diatonic degrees of the scale. 
For instance, example (a) in exact trans- 
position a major third upwards becomes 
example (c). However, even the most 
sensitive violinist would probably not 
think of playing this passage as it should 
be played in enharmonically correct in- 
tonation, that is, as indicated under (d). 

(3) Enharmonic instruments are key- 
board instruments which provide separate 
keys and strings (pipes, etc.) for the dif- 
ferent enharmonic tones. The most com- 
plete instrument of this type was Bosan- 

[244] 




ENIGMATIC CANON 


ENSEMBLE 


quet’s 53-tone clavier of 1851. For a 16th- 
century construction see ’"‘Arcicembalo. 
Cf. also W. Dupont, Geschichte der mu- 
si\alischen Temperatur (1935). 

Enigmatic canon. See under *Canon 
II. Enigmatic scale, see *Scala enigmatica. 

Enigma Variations. Theme with va- 
riations, for orchestra, by Edward Elgar 
(op. 36, 1899), so called because each vari- 
ation is addressed to one of his friends, the 
dedication being indicated enigmatically 
by their initials. 

Ensalada [Sp., medley, potpourri]. 
Spanish 16th-century songs of a humorous 
character. An early example contained in 
the *Cancionero musical (c. 1500) is a 
*quodlibet [cf. RiHM ii.i, 203] . Whether 
the ensaladas by Matea Flecha (1581) 
were also quodlibets cannot be ascertained 
since the bass part only is preserved. It 
would seem that the name refers here only 
to the choice of humorous texts, dealing 
with scenes from the life of soldiers, stu- 
dents, muleteers, etc. Cf. LavE i.4, 201 iff. 

Ensemble [F., the whole]. The term 
generally denotes the cooperation of sev- 
eral performers. Thus, one speaks (i) of 
a “good ensemble” or a “bad ensemble” 
with reference to the degree of balance 
and unification attained in the perform- 
ance of a string quartet, etc. — (2) In op- 
eras, ensemble is a piece for more than 
two singers (duet) or for the soloists to- 
gether with the chorus. Such pieces usu- 
ally occur at the end of an act (finale). 

(3) In the study of early music (prior 
to 1600), a distinction between ensemble 
music (i.e., music performed by more than 
one participant) and soloist music (i.e., 
music for a single performer) is of funda- 
mental importance, since it explains many 
features of style and clarifies various prob- 
lems of *Auffuhrungspraxis, e.g., the 
question of improvised coloraturas, which 
are possible only in soloist music, either 
monophonic (e.g., the soloist portions of 
Gregorian chant) or polyphonic (i.e., key- 
board and lute music). Similarly, *Frei- 
stimmigkeit is restricted to (polyphonic) 
soloist music as was also free variability of 


tempo [sec ^Expression III]. It may be 
noticed, however, that the “soloist-versus- 
ensemble” point of view can also be suc- 
cessfully applied to the question as to how 
ensemble music is performed. In fact, 
motets or chansons may be reproduced 
either in “ensemble performance,” i.e., 
with more than one singer to each part, or 
in “soloist performance,” i.e., with only 
one singer to the part. While ensemble 
performance calls for strict adherence to 
the music as written, soloist performance 
leaves the singer free to insert improvised 
coloraturas, particularly in the highest 
part. There is ample evidence to show 
that, toward the end of the i6th century, 
ensemble performance of motets was fre- 
quently superseded by soloist performance 
(including improvised coloraturas), a 
procedure which evidently foreshadows 
the *monodic style of the 17th century. 

The distinction between ensemble mu- 
sic and soloist music plays a basic role in 
the study of the notation of polyphonic 
music [see ^Notation V]. It also may be 
recommended to supplant the customary, 
but unsatisfactory, classification of early 
polyphonic music as “vocal music” and 
“instrumental music.” The following de- 
fects of this classification may be noticed: 
(a) Prior to 1550 (i.e., prior to the period 
of strict "^a-cappella music) instrumental 
participation was frequently called for, or 
admitted, in the performance of “vocal” 
music; this admixture is particularly con- 
spicuous in the accompanied songs (bal- 
lades, etc.) of the 14th century, and in the 
frottole of the early i6th century, (b) 
Several publications of the i6th century 
[e.g., Willaert, Ricercari . . . (1559)] bear 
the remark: “da cantare e suonare d’ogni 
sorte di stromenti,” showing that such 
textless pieces could be sung (in *vocali- 
zation) as well as played on any type of 
melody instruments (viols, recorders, cor- 
nettos). Evidently such pieces cannot be 
classified as either instrumental or vocal 
music; however, they are definitely “en- 
semble music.” (c) The field of “instru- 
mental music” includes such strongly 
heterogeneous styles as that of a keyboard 
toccata and a lute prelude on one side, and 
a ricercar by Willaert or Padovano [see 


[245] 



ENTfi 

(b) ] on the other side. This contrast of 
style is easily explained if it is recalled 
that the former types are soloist music, 
the latter ensemble music. Parenthetically 
it may be mentioned that ensemble music 
may well be changed into soloist music, a 
method which was generally known in 
the 1 6th century as *Intabulierung. This 
practice, however, does not invalidate the 
basic distinction between genuine ensem- 
ble music and genuine soloist music, as 
little as the existence of 19th-century ar- 
rangements (e.g., of a Beethoven string 
quartet) invalidates the distinction be- 
tween chamber music and piano music. 
Cf. ApNPM, xxi f ; L. Hibberd, The Early 
Keyboard Prelude . • . (unpubl. diss. Har- 
vard 1941); id. in MO xxii, no. 2. 

Ente [F., grafted]. Motet ente is a spe- 
cial type of 13th-century motet, the texted 
upper part being constructed in a manner 
suggestive of “grafting” a fresh twig upon 
an old tree, that is, by inserting a new text 
(and melody) between portions of a pre- 
existing text (and melody). The “old ma- 
terial” is usually one of the numerous 
popular ^refrains taken from the ballades, 
rondeaux, etc., of the trouveres and split 
into two or more portions between which 
new words are interpolated. For instance, 
the refrain ail Ke ferail Je mur 
d' amour etc comant garirai?” of a trou- 
vere ballade [cf. F. Gennrich, BalladeUy 
Rondeaux und Virelais (1921) i, 148] 
leads to the following triplum of a motet: 
""He^ ha^ que ferais? Belle, jc vous ai Tant 
amee . . . Et nuit et jour je chant: }e muir 
d* amouretesl Se vostre amour n’ai . . . ou 
je languirai, Et coument en garrai?** [cf. 
Y. Rokseth, Polyphonies du xiiie sihle 
(1936) iii, 52]. For another example 
{**He amours . . . avoir merci”) cf. AdHM 
i, 242. Obviously this method of textual 
amplification is derived from the identical 
procedure used in the liturgical *tropes. 
See ^Refrain III; *Farcc. 

Entfuhrung aus dem Serail (“The 
Abduction from the Seraglio”). Comic 
opera (*Singspiel) in three acts by W. A. 
Mozart, text by G. Stephanie, first per- 
formed in 1782. The action takes place 
at a Turkish casdc where Belmont (Ten- 


ENTREe 

or) and his servant Pedrillo (Tenor) seek 
Constanze (Soprano) and her maid 
Blondchen (Soprano), who are held cap- 
tive in the seraglio of the pasha Selim 
(speaking part), guarded by the terrible 
Moor Osmin (Bass). Pedrillo’s success in 
making Osmin drunk gives the two cou- 
ples a chance to reunite and to flee. They 
are, however, trapped and brought before 
Selim who, to the delight of Osmin, con- 
demns them to die and then, touched by 
their love and grief, pardons them. 

The Entfuhrung is Mozart’s first real 
opera in the German language and actu- 
ally the first German opera of significance. 
It was written as a sort of wedding gift 
for his wife, Constanze Weber, whom he 
married one month after its production, 
and it truly reflects the happiness of this 
period in its long array of arias and scenes 
of irresistible charm and overflowing hu- 
mor. See ^Janizary music. 

Entr’acte. A piece (usually instrumen- 
tal) performed between the acts of a play 
or opera, e.g., Beethoven’s compositions 
for Goethe’s play Egmont^ or Bizet’s 
entr’actes for his opera Carmen, The mu- 
sic of Lully’s * come die -ballets is mostly 
in the form of entr’actes (intermedes) for 
Moliere’s plays, e.g., he Bourgeois gentiU 
homme [see ^Ballet]. Purcell’s instru- 
mental entr’actes are known as act-tunes 
or curtain tunes. The term ^intermezzo 
is sometimes used for entr’acte. 

Entrada, entrata [It., Sp.]. See *In- 
trada; *Entree. 

Entree. In Lully’s operas and in similar 
works, pieces of a march-like character 
which are played during the entry of 
dancing groups or of important person- 
,ages. The term also occurs in connection 
with non-operatic compositions of a sim- 
ilar character, e.g., in Bach’s Suite in A 
for violin and harpsichord [see *Intrada] . 
In the French ballet of the lyth-iSth cen- 
turies an entree is a subdivision of an act, 
roughly corresponding to a “scene” in 
opera [see ^Quadrille (2)]. It also occurs 
as equivalent to “act,” e.g., in Rameau’s 
Les Indes galantes\ in these works, each 

[246] 



ENTREMES 

entree has its own plot, unconnected with 
that of any other entree. D. J. G. 

Entr ernes [Sp.]. The Spanish variety 
of the operatic ’^intermezzo. 

Entremet [F.] . In the French and Bur- 
gundian courts of the 14th and 15th cen- 
turies, a short entertainment performed 
between the courses of a banquet, often 
including dancing to vocal or instrumen- 
tal accompaniment. 

Entriickt [G.]. As if “removed” from 

earth. 

Entry. The “entering” of the theme in 
the different parts of a fugue, at the be- 
ginning as well as in the later expositions, 
particularly if preceded by a rest, as is fre- 
quently the case. 

Entschieden [G.]. Determined. 

Entschlossen [G.]. Resolute, deter- 
mined. 

Enunciation. A term occasionally used 
as a synonym for “exposition” in sonata 
form. 

Epechema. Same as ^enechema. 

Epidiapente, epidiatessaron. See 
*Diapente, *Diatessaron. 

Epilogue. Synonym for *coda (in so- 
natas, etc.). 

6pinette [F.]. Spinet, harpsichord. 

Epiphonus. See *Neumes I. 

Episema [Gr., superior sign]. In neu- 
matic MSS of the 9th and loth centuries, 
written in chironomic neumes, episema 
is a subsidiary sign in the form of a verti- 
cal dash attached to a neume. It occurs 
most frequently in connection with the 
clivis, as illustrated here. It plays a promi- 


nent part in the present-day studies of 
Gregorian rhythm [see ^Gregorian chant 
VI] . The name is also used for other sub- 
sidiary signs, e.g., those which have been 
believed to indicate quarter-tones [cf. 
WoHN i, 45]- 


ERBE DEUTSCHER MUSIK 

Episode. Secondary sections of a com- 
position, chiefly fugue and rondo, in which 
the principal subjects are missing, being 
replaced by subordinate subjects (as in 
the rondo) or by motives derived from 
the principal subjects (as frequently in 
the fugue). Episodical form is another 
name for *rondo form. 

Epistle. In the Catholic liturgy, a pas- 
sage from the Scriptures, usually from 
the Epistles of St. Paul, which is mono- 
toned, or chanted with simple inflections 
{tonus epistolae\ cf. GR^ 114*) *Mass 
after the Collect. 

Epistle sonata. A 17th- and i8rh-cen- 
tury instrumental piece designed to be 
played in the church before the reading 
of the ^epistle. Mozart composed several 
foi organ and violin, etc. 

Epithalamium [It. €pitalamio\ from 
Gr. ihalamoSy bed]. In Greek poetry 
(Sappho) poems designed to be sung by 
a chorus at wedding ceremonies. Hence, 
organ pieces intended for use at weddings. 
J. J. Kuhnau’s program composition 
“Jacob’s Heyrat” {Biblische Historien^ 
1700) contains an epitalamio. 

Epitrita. Greek term, used by some 
16th-century theorists, for proportio ses- 
quitertia [see ^Proportions] . 

Equale [Aequale, Eguale]. A compo- 
sition for ^equal voices, i.e., all male or 
all female, or for equal instruments. In 
particular, a composition for four trom- 
bones, written for solemn occasions. Bee- 
thoven composed three such pieces (1812) 
which, arranged for male chorus, were 
performed at his funeral. 

Equal temperament. See ♦Tempera- 
ment. 

Equal voices. The term is used to des- 
ignate compositions for male voices only, 
or for women’s voices only, in contradis- 
tinction to mixed voices. Less frequently, 
it is used in the meaning of: for soprano 
voices (or others) only. See ♦Equale. 

Erbe deutscher Musik, Das. See 
♦Editions XII. 



ERGRIFFEN 

Ergriffen [G.]. Deeply moved. 

Erhaben [G.]. Sublime. 

Erhohungszeichen ; Erniederungs- 
zeichen [G.]. Sharp; Flat. 

Erloschend [G.]. “Extinguishing,” dy- 
ing away. 

Ermattend [G.]. Tiring, weakening. 

Ernst [G.]. Serious. 

Eroica [It., heroic]. Beethoven’s Third 
Symphony, in E-flat, op. 55, composed in 
1803. It was written in homage to Na- 
poleon whom Beethoven admired as a 
hero of democracy. However, upon Na- 
poleon’s assuming the role of a dictator 
and the title of an emperor, Beethoven, 
greatly infuriated, withdrew the planned 
dedication and changed the title from: 
“Sinfonia grande; Buonaparte” to: “Sin- 
fonia eroica, per festeggiar il sovvenire 
d’un gran uomo” (. . . to celebrate the 
memory of a great man). See remark 
under *Contredanse. 

Eroticon. A love song, or an instru- 
mental piece portraying passionate love. 

Ersatzklausel [G.j. See ^Clausula. 

Erschuttert [G.j. “Shaken,” deeply 
moved. 

Ersterbend [G.]. Dying away. 

Erstickt [G.j. Suffocated. 

Erzahler [G.j. ^Narrator. 

Erzlaute [G.j. *Archlutc. 

Es, eses [G.j. See *Pitch names. 

Esaltato [It.], “Exalted,” excited. 

Escapement. See under *Pianoforte. 

Eschequier. See *Echiquier. 

Eserzicio [It.]. Exercise, *Etude. 

Eskimo music. Lit.: H. L. Thuren, 
The Es\iTno Music (1912); E. Vogelcr, 
Lieder der Eskimos (1930); W. Thal- 
bitzer, Legendes et chants esqutmaux du 
Greenland (1929); D. Jenness, in MQ 


ESTAMPIE 

viii; H. J. Thuren, in Z/M xii; id,, in 
BS/M vii. 

Espringale. Medieval name for a 
jumping dance as distinguished from 
*carole, a round dance. 

Esquinazo [from esquina, corner]. A 
Chilean type of serenade, in 3/4- or 6/8- 
meter, with dotted rhythms. It is also 
sung as a Christmas carol. 

Esquisse [F.]. Sketch. 

Estampie, estampida, istanpitta 
[probably from old F. estampir, to re- 
sound]. The most important instrumen- 
tal form of the 13th and 14th centuries. 
Similar to the (vocal) sequence [see 
^Sequence (2)] from which it was evi- 
dently derived, it consists of several sec- 
tions (four to seven), called puncti, each 
of which is repeated: a a; b b; c c; . . . 
Different endings, called ^ouvert and 
clos [It. aperto and chiusso^, are pro- 
vided for the first and second statement 
of each punctus, as in the modern prima 
and seconda volta. In some cases the 
same two endings are used for all the 
puncta, so that the following scheme re- 
sults: a~x, a-y; b~x, b-y; c-x, c~y; . . . 

The earliest known example of this 
form is the troubadour song “Kalenda 
maya” (The Month of May; cf. HAM, 
no. i8d; AdHM i, 190) the text of which, 
according to a pretty story, was written 
by the troubadour Raimbaut de Vaquei- 
ras (fl. 1180-1207) to the melody of an 
“estampida” played by two “joglar de 
Fransa” (French jongleurs) on their 
♦vielles [cf. AdHM i, 190]. All the other 
existing examples are purely instrumen- 
tal monophonic pieces. Eight estampies 
are contained in the 13th-century Chan- 
sonnier Roy [see Lit., Aubry; cf. HAM, 
no. 41c], while the 14th-century MS Brit. 
Mus. Add. 2gg8y [see ^Sources, no. 12] 
contains eight “istanpittas,” with sub- 
titles such as “Belicha,” “Palamento,” 
“Isabella,” “Tre fontane” [Ex. in HAM, 
no. 58; SchGMB, no. 28]. These charm- 
ing pieces are in the character of idealized 
dances, thus suggesting the theory that 
the estampie originally was a true dance. 
Among the earliest preserved pieces for 


[248] 



ESTEY ORGAN 

organ is an estampic called “Petrone” 
[HAM, no. 58]. 

Owing to the similarity of name and 
structure, the estampie is usually identi- 
fied with the stantipes, a form described 
by Johannes de Grocheo (r. 1300; see 
^Theory II) as consisting of from five to 
seven “puncta.” This theory, however, 
has not remained unchallenged (C. 
Sachs). Grocheo distinguishes the stan- 
tipes from the *ductia, characterizing the 
latter as having four (or fewer) puncta. It 
may be noticed, however, that the “estam- 
pida” Kalenda maya has only three 
puncta. The problem is further compli- 
cated by the fact that two 14th-century 
treatises on poetry describe a ‘‘vocal” 
estampie which apparently lacked the 
puncta but possessed a refrain. See also 
*Ductia; *Dance music II. 

Lit.: P. Aubry, '\Estamptes et danses 
royales (1906); C. Sachs, A World His- 
tory of the Dance (1937), pp. 292!; 
L, Hibberd, “Estampie and Stantipes” 
{Speculum, 1944); J. Wolf, “Die Tiinze 
des Mittelalters” {AMW i); J. Handschin, 
“Ober Estampie und Sequenz” (ZMW 
xii); H. J. Moser, “Stantipes und Ductia” 
(ZMWii), 

Estey organ. See ^Harmonium. 

Estinguendo [It.] . “Extinguishing,” 
dying away. 

Estinto [It.]. “Extinct,” i.e., 

Estompe [F.]. Toned down. 

Estribillo [Sp.]. See under *Copla. 

fiteint [F.]. “Extinct,” i.e., p/7/7. 

Ethiopian church music. Lit.: GD, 
Suppl. Vol., 1791!; AdHM i, 138; J. M. 
Harden, The Anaphora of the Ethiopic 
Liturgy (1929); M. Cohen, Chants ethi- 
opiques (1931); E. Wellesz, in Oriens 
Christianus (1920). 

Ethos. In ancient Greek music ethos 
designated the “ethical” character of 
the various modes (harmoniai). The 
(Greek) Dorian (similar to our Phryg- 
ian) was considered manly and strong, 
representing the ancient tradition; the 


ETUDE 

Phrygian, ecstatic and passionate; the 
Lydian, feminine and lascivious; the 
Mixolydian, sad and mournful. Similar 
characterizations, doubtless influenced by 
the Greek ideas, occur in the 16th-century 
discussions of the church modes. For in- 
stance, Diruta, in 11 Transilvano II 
(1609), describes the primo tono as 
“grave e modesta,” the secondo tono as 
“mesta e calamitosa,” ... the settimo 
tono as “allegro e suave,” the undecimo 
tono (practically our C major) as “vivo e 
pleno di allegrezza.” Cf. also the ragas 
of ’^'Hindu music. 

Lit.: ReMMA, 42; L. Harap, m MQ 
xxiv; E. M. von Hornbostel, in Festschrift 
fur Johannes Wolf (1929). 

Et in terra pax. See ^Gloria. 

^Itouffe [F.]. Damped, muted (kettle- 
drums, violins). Fltouffoir is the French 
name for the damper of the pianoforte. 

Etude. A piece designed to aid the stu- 
dent of an instrument in the development 
of his mechanical and technical ability. 
An etude is usually devoted entirely to 
one of the special problems of instrumen- 
tal technique, such as scales, arpeggios, 
octaves, double stops, trills, etc. While 
etudes are written in the form of a com- 
plete piece, finger-exercises are short 
formulae which have to be repeated many 
times, either on the same pitch, or mov- 
ing through the degrees of the scale. 
Many modern teachers prefer the finger- 
exercises because they are more efficient 
than etudes. 

Finger-exercises were already known in 
the early i6th century. The tablature of 
Oswald Holtzach (1515, Univ. Bibl. 
Basle) contains sequential passages in 
i6th-notes, entitled: “Lauflwerck, mit 
beiden Handen zu bruchen” (“running 
passages, to be used with both hands”). 
A similar piece is contained in Leonard 
Kleber’s tablature (c. 1520, St. Bibl. Ber- 
lin). Towards the end of the 17th cen- 
tury the Italian ^toccata became a sort of 
etude, owing to the large use of stereo- 
typed passage work and to the deteriora- 
tion of the musical quality [Al. Scarlatti, 


[249] 



EUNUCH FLUTE 


EXPRESSION 


Pasquini; cf. F. Boghen, Antic hi maestri 
Uaiiani: Toccate], A publication by F. 
Durante (168^-1755), 6 Sonate per cem- 
baloy danse in studii e divertimentiy con- 
tains 6 ^‘sonatas,” each consisting of a 
“studio” and “divertimento,” the former 
being somewhat serious and difficult to 
play, the latter in the lighter vein of the 
“gallant style” [see ^Editions VI, ii]. 
The originator of the modern etude is 
Muzio dementi (1752-1832), whose 
Preludes et Exercises (1790) and Gradus 
ad Parnassum (1817) mark the l^egin- 
nmg of the enormous literature of the 
19th-century etude. Outstanding collec- 
tions of etudes for the pianoforte were 
written by Cramer, Czerny, Moscheles, 
Rertini; for the violin by Kreutzer, Rode, 
Paganini, d’Alard, Beriot. Chopin, in his 
27 Etudes (op. 10, op. 25, and three single 
pieces), created the concert etude which 
is designed not only for study purposes 
but also for public performance and which 
combines technical difficulty with high 
artistic quality. His example was fol- 
lowed by F. Liszt {Etudes d' execution 
transcendantCy and others), Scriabin (op. 
8, op. 42, op. 65), and Debussy (twelve 
EtudeSy dedicated to the memory of 
Chopin, 1915). 

Lit.: E. Cork, Die Entwic^lung der 
Klavier-Etude von Mozart bis Liszt (Diss. 
Vienna 1930). 

Eunuch flute. See *Mirliton. 

E u o u a e. In the liturgical books of the 
Roman rites, the usual abbreviation for 
“seculorum. Amen” [cf. the vowels of 
these two words], the closing words of 
the Gloria Patri [sec *Doxology]. It is 
given at the end of the Introitus and of 
the Antiphons in order to indicate the 
proper ending (*diflerentia) which leads 
back to the final repetition of the Introitus 
or of the Antiphon. For more details, see 
’‘‘‘Psalm tones. The spelling Evovae, fre- 
quently found in older books, has been 
confused by some writers with the ancient 
Greek word Evoey causing wonderment 
and indignation over the use in the Cath- 
olic service of a bacchanalic exclamation 
of joy. 


Euphonium. See ♦Brass instruments 
III (d). 

Evangelium [G.]. ♦Gospel. 

Evangelist. In passions, the ♦narrator 
who recites the text of the Gospel. 

^iveille [F.]. Awakened. 

Evensong. Same as ♦vespers. 

Evirato [It.]. Same as ♦castrato. 

Evovae. See ♦E u o u a e. 

Exalte [F.]. Excited. 

Exequiae [L.]. Exequies, i.e., music 
for funeral rites. 

Exotic music. The musical cultures 
outside the European tradition. The term 
is frequently used in a rather thoughtless 
manner, as if “exotic” were synonymous 
with “barbaric” or “primitive.” Actually, 
how’ever, the field of exotic music includes 
phenomena of widely different degrees of 
cultural evolution, for instance, the Chi- 
nese music which as far back as 3000 years 
ago reached a stage of “classicism,” the 
Javanese music with its highly developed 
orchestral technique, the Japanese music 
with its lyrical songs and traditional op- 
era, the Hindu music with its ancient 
theory of scales and modes, — all these 
side by side with really primitive cultures 
which show no evidence of methodical 
training and historical development. The 
latter receive treatment in this book under 
the head ♦Primitive music, while the oth- 
ers are treated separately: see ♦Arabic 
music; ♦Chinese music; ♦Elindu music; 
♦Japanese music; ♦Javanese music. See 
also the articles on ♦Comparative musicol- 
ogy; ♦Oriental music. 

Exposition. The initial section of mu- 
sical forms (sonata, fugue) which contains 
the statement of the chief subject. The 
German term for the exposition of a so- 
nata is Themenaufstellung; for that of a 
fugue, *Durchfuhrung. See ♦Sonata- 
form; ♦Fugue. 

Expression. Expression may be said to 
represent that part of music which cannot 


[250] 



EXPRESSION 


EXPRESSION 

be indicated by notes or, in its highest tion that they do not appear as an extra 

manifestation, by any symbol or sign element of independent importance. It 

whatsoever. It includes all the nuances of was in the symphonies of the Mannheim 

tempo, dynamics, phrasing, accent, touch. School that devices of expression for its 

bowing, etc., by which the mere combina- own sake, such as sudden ff and pp, long 

tion and succession of pitch-time-values is crescendos and decrescendos, were for the 

transformed into a living organism. Al- first time exploited. While in these works 

though, as far as the written notes are con- the details of expression are not always 

cerned, the performer is strictly bound to justified by the music itself, but frequently 

the composer’s work, he enjoys a consid- appear as a somewhat extraneous admix- 

erable amount of freedom in the field of ture, a complete amalgamation of “expres- 

expression, which may be said to represent sion” and “composition” is reached in the 

the creative contribution of the performer, classical works of Haydn, Mozart, Bee- 

In early music, i.e., prior to 1600, the line thoven, and Schubert. Here we find ex- 

of demarcation between “composition” pression in complete harmony with the 

and “expression,” i.e., between written musical substance which has become ex- 

pitch-time-values and nuances of perform- pressive in itself. In the Romantic move- 

ance, is very clear, since composers never ment, the possibilities of expression were 

provided anything but the bare notes, exploited to the fullest extent. An im- 

leaving the matter of expression entirely mense array in shades of subtlety ap- 

to the performer [see below. III]. With peared, and composers spent a good deal 

the gradual rise of more specific and de- of their ingenuity in the invention of new 

tailed manners of expression, composers nuances as well as of words or signs to in- 

more and more felt the necessity of pro- dicate them. Although this tendency has 

viding at least some basic indications, in greatly enriched the musical palette, it has 

order to clarify their intentions and to pre- not always been to the advantage of cre- 

vent mistakes or arbitrariness on the part ative progress. There can be no doubt 

of the performer. This trend led to the that the late 19th-century over-indulgence 

gradual introduction of ^tempo-marks, in “expressiveness” and in expression signs 

^dynamic marks, signs for touch, bowing, or words [cf. the works of Scriabin, Re- 
phrasing, and, in the 19th century, of the ger, R. Strauss, Debussy, FI. Schmitt] has 

numerous terms such as “dolce,” “amare- ^en the cause (or the result.?) of a 

vole,” “passionato,” which are meant to marked deterioration of the musical in- 
describe the general character of the com- vention. The anti-Romantic movement 

position or a passage thereof. It goes with- of the 20th century [see *New Music] 

out saying that, however detailed and brought with it a marked reversal of atti- 

subtle these indications may be, they give tude. Erik Satie was probably the first to 

only the general outline and still leave write intentionally unexpressive (dry) 

ample room for what has been termed music, and to ridicule the Romantic ten- 

above the “creative contribution of the dencies by ironic expression marks, such 

performer.” In the following explanation as: “corpulentus,” “caeremoniosus,” “de- 
separate treatment is given to (I) the com- venez pale,” etc. Recent composers such 

poser’s and (II) the performer’s share in as Poulenc, Stravinsky, Hindemith, f re- 
expression; a third paragraph (III) deals quently write in an intentionally unex- 

with the question of expression in early pressive style, use expression signs very 

music. sparingly, and sometimes indicate their 

I. Expression in musical composition is intentions by remarks such as “sans ex- 
one of the many important innovations of pression,” “Mit wenig Ausdruck.” 
the ’•^Mannheim School {c, 1750). This II. Expression in performance. The 
does not mean that earlier music lacks in ideal performer is the one who succeeds 

expression, but only that its nuances are in bestowing upon the composition a per- 

so limited in scope and follow so closely sonal and original expression within the 

the design and structure of the composi- stylistic frame of the work and in full 

[251] 



EXPRESSION 

compliance with the intentions shown by 
the composer’s indications. Unfortunately, 
the second part of this postulate is seldom 
realized. The arbitrariness of so many vir- 
tuosos is partly responsible for the excess 
of expression marks to be found in the 
works of composers who thus hoped to 
forestall distortion and misinterpretation. 
Yet, complete control over the performer 
is not only impossible but also undesirable. 
The only remedy is to improve the educa- 
tion of performers in matters of musical 
style and taste. The most common fault is 
the application of a Romantic, i.e., a high- 
ly expressive, treatment to non-Romantic 
music, such as the works of Bach, Mozart, 
Beethoven. The deplorable result is an 
overdoing of all nuances: the use of pres- 
tissimo instead of allegro, of larghissimo 
instead of adagio, of /// and ppp instead 
of / and py of frequent crescendi and de- 
crescendi instead of an even level of so- 
nority, of numerous rubatos, ritardandos, 
and accelerandos instead of strictly kept 
tempo, etc. In view of all these tendencies 
nothing seems to be more important for 
the student than to learn to play without 
expression. Only the pianist who has 
learned to play Bach’s Chromatic Fan- 
tasia or Beethoven’s Appassionata in the 
most rigid way will be able to add that 
amount of nuances and shades which 
these works properly require. 

III. Expression in early music. The ab- 
sence or extreme scarcity of expression 
marks in music prior to 1750 does not 
mean that the compositions of the Middle 
Ages, the Renaissance, and the Baroque 
period were always played without any 
gradation of intensity or of tempo. Al- 
though no gradation of intensity was pos- 
sible on the organ and the harpsichord, it 
would be foolish to assume that singers or 
players of stringed instruments performed 
the expressive lines of a 14th-century bal- 
lade or the dramatic curves of a Bach can- 
tata in an intentionally uniform tone. 
However, no special signs were needed 
since these gradations remained within 
modest and natural limits, following close- 
ly the rise and fall of the melody. It was 
not until the advent of the 17th century 
with its characteristic technique of con- 


EXPRESSION 

trasting bodies of sound [see *Stilc con- 
certato; *Echo] that the necessity of in- 
troducing indications for forte and piano 
was felt. The earliest pieces provided with 
such indications (forte, piano) arc Gio. 
Gabrieli’s Sonata piane forte [SchGMB, 
no. 148] and several organ pieces by 
Adriano Banchieri [ApMZ i], all dating 
from about 1600. Shortly after this, ab- 
breviating letters must have been used, 
because Domenico Mazzochi, in the Pref- 
ace to his Partitura de Madrigali ... of 
1638, says that “the . . . letters F. P. E. t 
for Forte, Piano, Echo, and trill are al- 
ready common affairs known to all.” In 
Th. Mace’s Music](s Monument (1676) 
dynamic contrast is indicated by Lo: 
(loud) and So: (soft) [cf. WoHN ii, 226] . 

Prior to the middle of the i8th century 
crescendo and decrescendo were used 
chiefly for the vocal performance of single 
sustained tones [see *messa di voce\. 
Mazzocchi seems to have been the first to 
indicate these effects by signs, a F for a 
crescendo (called by him messa di voce)y 
and a C for a crescendo followed by a 
diminuendo (the messa di voce proper) 
[see Harding, p. 91]. The modern signs 
for crescendo and diminuendo were much 
later to appear, the earliest known instance 
being in Geminiani’s Prime Sonate of 
1739. Crescendos and diminuendos ex- 
tending over lengthy musical phrases 
were also known throughout the 17th 
century, but were always indicated by 
prescriptions such as: “forte, piano, pia- 
nissimo” (Mazzocchi), or “Lowd, Soft, 
Softer” (M. Locke), or “lowder by de- 
grees” (M. Locke, Curtain Tune in The 
Tempest y 1675). The members of the 
^Mannheim School were the first to culti- 
vate all the dynamic effects in the modern 
way, for the purpose of orchestral coloring 
and of climactic or anticlimactic effects. 

As regards the history of tempo marks, 
it must be noted in the first place that in 
music prior to 1600 indications such as al- 
legro, adagio, etc., were unnecessary since 
the tempo of a piece or a section thereof 
was clearly expressed in the notation itself 
[see *Tactus]. It is significant that the 
earliest instances of free tempo variability 
occur in soloist music [see ^Ensemble 


[ 252] 



EXPRESSIONISM 

(3) ] , namely, in the lute book El Maestro 
(1535) of Luys de Milan who prescribes 
for certain passages of his fantasias “a 
priesa” (quick), for others, “a espacio” 
(slow). Particularly interesting is the de- 
tailed information regarding free tempo 
(rubato) which Frescobaldi gives in the 
preface to his Fiori musicali (1635; cf. 
TaAM iv, p. x). 

The monodic style of the early Baroque 
made musicians conscious of the impor- 
tance of subtly shaded expressions. Cac- 
cini, in the preface of his Nuove musiche 
(1601), illustrated the new style of singing 
by sample pieces provided with remarks 
such as: “Esclamazione spiritosa,” “senza 
misura quasi favellando,” etc. [cf. GD v, 

20]. Pieces by Banchieri (c. 1600) arc 
among the earliest to show the use of 
tempo indications such as: “Allegro,” 
“Adasio,” “Presto” [cf. ApMZ i]. About 
100 years later Francois Couperin made 
consistent use of captions such as: “grave- 
ment sans lenteur,” “gayement,” “gra- 
cieusement et legerement,” etc. [cf. his 
Pieces de Clavecin^ 4 vols. (1713-30)]. 

Expression marks in Bach are practi- 
cally limited to a handful of pieces in 
which different degrees of sonority are 
indicated by /, p, and pp. In view of the 
excessive amount of expression marks 
found in modern editions of Bach it may 
be stated that the entire manuscript of the 
W ell-tempered Clavier contains nothing 
but the notes and signs of ornamentation. 

Lit.: R. E. M. Harding, Origins of Mu- 
sical Time and Expression (1938); G. 
Langley, in PM A xxxviii; A. Heuss, “Die 
Dynamik der Mannheimer Schule” 
(ZMW ii); M. Brenet, “Sur Torigine du 
crescendo” (BSIM, 1910); G. Cucuel, in 
BSIMf 1911; C. Mennicke, Hasse und die 
Briider Graun als Sinfoni\er, p. 317 (Diss. 
Leipzig 1906); RiHM ii.2, 146. 

Expressionism. A term which was 
widely used in the second decade of the 
present century to denote certain radical 
trends of modern music [see *New mu- 
sic], particularly Austrian and German. 

It was taken over from the Fine Arts in 
which it designated a school of the early 
years of the century (Picasso, Kandinsky, 

[253] 


EXPRESSIONISM 

Feininger, Klee) who represented a re- 
action against the “impressionistic” school 
(Degas, Renoir, Monet, Manet). The 
provocative replacement of the prefix “im” 
by “ex” was meant to indicate a complete 
reversal of thought, i.e., the change from 
“impressions gained from the outer 
world” to “expression of the inner self,” 
more properly, of the “subconscious self,” 
in the psycho-analytical sense of the word. 
Technically this meant the replacement 
of a highly refined naturalism and color 
technique by abstract and strangely dis- 
torted forms combined in utter disregard 
of the traditional principles of “beauty,” 
“symmetry,” etc. In music, a roughly 
parallel change took place around 1910, 
leading from the sensuous program music 
and the coloristic effects of Debussy to an 
avowedly abstract type of music in which, 
likewise, distorted melodies, discordant 
harmonies and disintegrated lines were 
used in utter disregard of all traditional 
principles of musical art. Since the paint- 
er’s term “impressionism” had already 
been adopted in the musical vocabulary 
as a designation for Debussy’s school, the 
champions of the new movement point- 
edly designated themselves as expression- 
ists, in order to emphasize their sympathy 
with the new ideas of their colleagues in 
the Fine Arts, and to demonstrate their 
antagonism against the musical impres- 
sionism and romanticism. Unfortunately, 
in music such a designation was bound to 
lead to a misunderstanding, that is, to 
confusion with the term “expression" 
(which, it may be noted, hardly exists in 
the Fine Arts). Actually, expressionistic 
music is no more “expressive” than im- 
pressionistic or Romantic music. In a 
way, one might say that “expressive” and 
“expressionistic” music stand in the same 
relation as “emotion” to “psycho-analyti- 
cal complex.” 

The main representatives of the expres- 
sionistic school are Arnold Schonberg and 
his followers Anton von Webern, Alban 
Berg, and Ernst Krenek [see *Atonality; 
*Twelve-tone technique; *Quarter-tones] . 
The earlier works of Hindemith (be- 
tween 1920 and 1925) also seem to fall 
under the classification of expressionism. 



EXPRESSIVE ORGAN 


FALSE 


The new and more constructive tendencies 
which appeared after 1925 (*Neoclassi- 
cism) mark the end of expressionism. 

Expressive organ [F. orgue expressif ] . 
^Harmonium. 

Extemporization, See ^Improvisation. 

Extended phrase. A phrase which, by 
some sort of modification, is extended to 


include one or several measures more than 
in its original form. A famous example is 
the third statement of the initial motive 
of Wagner’s Tristan, 

Extravaganza. A term applied to mu- 
sic of a caricaturing character [see ^Satire 
in music] . Gilbert and Sullivan used it as 
a title for Trial by Jury, 


F 


F. (i) See *Pitch names; ^Letter nota- 
tion; *Hexachord. — (2) Abbreviation 
for *forte; fl (fff), abbreviation for fortis- 
simo. F-clef, see *Clefs. F-holes, see 
*Sound-holes. 

Fa. See *Pitch names; *Solmization; 
^Hexachord. Fa fictum means, in Guido’s 
system of hexachord and mutation, the ja 
(fourth degree) of the hexachordum molle 
(beginning with f), i.e., B-flat; or, the 
same degree of the transposed hexachord 
starting on B-flat, i.e., E-flat. Both tones 
belong to the ^musica ficta, hence the 
name. 

Fabordone, faburden. See *Faux- 

bourdon (4). 

Facilmente [It.] . Easily, without strain. 

Fackeltanz [G., torch dance]. A tradi- 
tional dance of the Prussian court-cere- 
monial of the 19th century, for weddings 
and similar celebrations, in the manner of 
a slow procession with torches. Spontini, 
Flotow, and Meyerbeer have written mu- 
sic for such occasions. 

Fado (also Fadinho). The popular mu- 
sic par excellence of the cities of Portugal, 
frequently heard in the cafes and on the 
streets. It consists of song and dance to 
the accompaniment of the guitar. Cf. G. 
Chase, T he Music of Spain ( 1941 ), p. 241 ; 
R. Gallop, in MQ xix, xx and in ML xiv, 
nos. 3 and 4. 

Fa fictum. See •Fa. 


Fagott [G.], fagotto [It.]. Bassoon. 
Fagottino is the tenor oboe (tenoroon), 
fagottone the contrabassoon. F agottgeige 
is a large viol of the i8th century, the 
strings of which were overspun with silk 
and therefore produced a buzzing sound 
reminiscent of that of the Fagott. Fagott- 
zug is a stop-mechanism of old pianofortes 
(around 1800) which produced a buzzing 
effect by means of a paper strip coming in 
contact with the strings. 

Fa-la, fa-la-la. A special type of 16th- 
century songs in which the syllables “fa 
la la” or similar ones are used as a refrain, 
e.g.: “Now in the month of maying. When 
merry lads are playing. Fa la la la la, fa la 
la la la” (Th. Morley). An early example, 
with the refrain “san san san sarir . . . ,” 
occurs in Baldassare Donati’s Villanesche 
alia Napoletana (1550?), numerous oth- 
ers in the works of Gastoldi, Lasso, Vec- 
chi, and others. Through Gastoldi’s Bal- 
letti di cantare sonare e ballare (1591) the 
fa-la’s became known in England (Mor- 
ley; Weelkes; Hilton) and in Germany 
(Hans Leo Hassler; Widman; Staden; 
Friderici). Expls. in HAMy nos. 158, 159. 

Falsa musica. See •Musica ficta. 

False. False cadence y same as deceptive 
•cadence. False fifth {triad) y old term for 
the diminished fifth (triad). False modu- 
lation, see •Modulation. False relation, 
see •Cross relation. 


[254 1 



FALSETTO FAMILIAR STYLE 

Falsetto [It.]. An artificial method of earlier works [see ^Number opera] and 

singing used by male singers, particularly adopted something like Wagner s unend- 

tcnors, to obtain notes above the ordinary ing recitative. In view of this influence it 

range of their voice. Since such tones are is interesting to note that he remained 

somewhat nasal in timbre and rather completely untouched by the harmonic 

weak when compared with the normal innovations of Wagner whose chromatic 

tones of a voice, falsetto is usually consid- harmonies (*Tristan, 1865) are conspicu- 

ered as of inferior quality. In early music, ously absent in Falstaff, 

however, falsetto singing was highly es- 
teemed, and was much used for the higher Familiar style [translation of It. stile 

parts of polyphonic masses and motets, famigliare], A term used to denote vocal 

when boys were not available. In England, music in which the voices (usually four) 

particularly, falsetto singing was widely move uniformly regarding note-values as 

practiced [see *Alto]. In fact, a well- well as syllables of the text, as in a church 

trained falsetto voice, though lacking the hymn. From the point of view of musical 

powerful volume and the dramatic ex- texture, familiar style is co-terminous with 

pressiveness of a tenor, has its own charm “strict *chordal style,” the only difference 

of a veiled and undynamic transparence; being that the latter term is not restricted 

it stands in the same relationship to the to vocal music and, hence, carries no im- 

normal tenor voice as the recorder to the plication as to textual treatment. See 

flute, the viol to the violin. ^Texture. 

Falsobordone. See *Fauxbourdon (4). . famigliare probably orig- 

mated m the loth century. Bami, in his 
Falstaff. Opera in three acts by Giu- Memorie . , , di Palestrina (1828) ii, 415, 

seppe Verdi (1813-1901), libretto by A. speaks of “lo stilo semplice di nota e sillaba 

Boito, after Shakespeare’s The Merry che fu denominato familiare,” and men- 

Wives of Windsor^ composed in 1893. The tions Josquin’s Mass Dung aultre amer as 

libretto relates, with slight alterations, the the first model. Actually, the history of 

well-known episodes from Shakespeare’s familiar style goes back to the earliest 

play, with the “merry wives” Mistress periods of part music. Prior to 1100 *or- 

Ford (Ford’s wife, called Alice in the li- ganum is essentially in note-against-note 

bretto; Soprano), Mistress Page (Sopra- texture with syllabic treatment. Likewise, 

no), and Mistress Quickly (Contralto) most of the conductus of the 13th century 

plotting against the lecherous Sir John move in chordal blocks (two to four 

Falsta§ (Baritone) and, at the same time, parts), one each to the syllable; hence the 

succeeding in marrying Ford’s daughter name “conductus style” as another syno- 

Anne (called Nanetta\ Soprano) to the nym for familiar style, used preferably 

young Fenton (Tenor), instead of to with reference to the 13th and 14th cen- 

Ford’s proteg^. Dr. Caius (Tenor). turies. In the works of the ^Burgundian 

It will always remain one of the mir- School frequent use is made of three-voice 

acles of creative genius that a man 79 years chordal sections in *fauxbourdon chords, 

of age could write an opera which, for its For an interesting example of three-voice 

brilliance and bustling humor, might well harmony around 1425, cf. HAM, no. 56. 

be the work of a youthful composer, were Longish sections in four-voice harmony 

it not for the fact that in every measure it appear in the works of Obrecht who there- 

displays a consummate skill (final fugue fore has been considered the inaugurator 

“Tutto nel mondo”), a lucid plasticity, of familiar style, a statement which over- 

such as only lifelong experience can pro- looks or dismisses the previous develop- 

duce. Falstaff, together with the earlier ment outlined above [regarding the transi- 

^Otello (1886), represents the climax of tion from three-part to four-part harmony, 

Verdi’s operatic work. Influenced by see *Flemish School]. In the motets of 

Wagner’s music drama, Verdi largely Josquin and his successors the prevailingly 

abandoned here the “number style” of his polyphonic (more properly, *polyrhyth- 

r 255 ] 



FANCY 


FANDANGO 


mic) texture is usually balanced by sec- 
tions in familiar style. This style became 
increasingly prominent in the later course 
of the 1 6th century, particularly in the 
more popular forms [chanson, frottola, 
canzone, villanella; see also ''•‘Fauxbour- 
don (4)]. After 1600 it persisted chiefly 
in the harmonized hymns and chorales. 
Cf. H. Bush, The Development of Chordal 
Style (Diss. Cornell 1939). 

Fancy (Fantasy). A 17th-century term 
for instrumental ensemble music of Eng- 
lish origin. Though fancies occur in the 
virginal and organ books of the period 
[see ^Fantasia (5) ], they were more com- 
monly performed by the consort of viols. 
The fancy stems from the Italian ^fantasia 
of the 1 6th century. Throughout the first 
half of the 17th century the contrapuntal 
style of the fantasia-ricercare was rather 
strictly kept by the English musicians, 
but towards the end of the development 
(r. 1680) the influence of the new Italian 
melodic style (Carissimi, Italian opera) 
was strongly felt. It goes without saying 
that the fancy does not include any ele- 
ments of ‘‘free fantasia” such as character- 
ize the fantasia of Bach, Mozart, Beetho- 
ven, etc. However, from the 17th century 
point of view, the name was wholly ap- 
propriate, being indicative of a greater 
freedom and variety of style, form, struc- 
ture, etc., than was admitted in the ricer- 
care [see ^Fantasia (5)]. The earliest 
type of fancy is described by Morley {A 
Plaine and Easie Introduction . . . (1597), 
p. 1 81] as follows: . . . “when a musician 
takcth a point at his pleasure, and wresteth 
and turncth it as he list, making either 
much or little of it according as shall seeme 
best in his own conceit. In this may more 
art be showne then in any other musicke. 
. . . And this kind will beare any allow- 
ances whatsoever tolerable in other mu- 
sick, except changing the ayre & leaving 
the key, which in fantasie may never bee 
suffered.” [For the meaning of the term 
“ayre,” see *Ayre (2).] In the 17th cen- 
tury a more sectional treatment, similar to 
that of the contemporary *canzona, and 
a more instrumental type of melody were 
introduced. Towards the middle of the 


century this form adopted suite-like fea- 
tures by combining with dance type move- 
ments, such as the pavan, galliard, alle- 
mand, saraband, etc., to make longer 
works. Example for the older ricercare 
type: Byrd, in The English Madrigal 
School, xvi, 71; for the canzona-type: 
Byrd, ibid., 166; for the suite type: Locke, 
in Ed. Warlock and Mangeot, Six String 
Quartets. 

The most important composers of fan- 
cies were William Byrd (1543-1623), 
Thomas Morley (1557-1603), John Co- 
perario (1570-1627), Alfonso Ferrabosco 
(1578-1628), Richard Deering (d. c. 
1630), Orlando Gibbons (1583-1625), 
Thomas Lupo (.?), Thomas Tomkins (d. 
1656), William Lawes (d. 1645), John 
Jenkins (1592-1678), and Henry Purcell 
(1658-95). Their works constitute a 
treasure of early chamber music which 
Roger North, in his Musicall Grammarion 
(c. 1725) aptly characterized in the words: 
“If ye musick was not so Ayery, it was 
sound and good.” 

Lit.: E. H. Meyer, Die mehrstimmige 
SpielmusiJ^ des ly. Jahrhunderts . . . 
(1934); E. H. Walker, “An Oxford Book 
of Fancies” (MA iii); R. Erlebach, “Wil- 
liam Lawes and his String Music” (PM A, 
1932-33); C. W. Hughes, “Richard Deer- 
ing’s Fancies for Viols” (MQ xxvii); H. J. 
Sleeper, “John Jenkins and the English 
Fantasia-Suite” (BAMS iv); E. Fellowes, 
fO. Gibbons. Nine Fantasias . . . (1924); 
E. Warlock and E. Mangeot, ^Locke. Six 
String Quartets (1932); id., ^Purcell. 
Three, Four and Five-Part Fantasias for 
Strings (1927); E. Meyer, ^Englische 
Fantasien . . . (1934); E. Mangeot, ^Three 
Fancies for String Quartet (1936); '\Nine 
Fantasias in Four Parts (New York Pub- 
lic Library). H. J. S. 

Fandango. A Spanish dance in moder- 
ate to quick triple time with rhythms 
such as Ex. i, danced by a single pair to 
the accompaniment of guitar and casta- 
nets, in alternation with sung couplets. 
The fandango appeared in Spain in the 
early i8th century. A popular melody 
[Ex. 2] was used by Gluck in his ballet 
Don Juan (1761), as well as by Mozart in 


[256] 



FANFARE 


FANTASIA 


his Figaro (1786; finale of the third act, 
section in % time). More recently, Rim- 
sky-Korsakov {Caprice Espagnol, 1887) 
and E. Granados {Goyescasy 1912) have 





written fandangos. Local varieties of the 
dance are the *Malaguena (from Malaga), 
the Granadina (from Granada), the Mur- 
ciana (from Murcia), the Rondena (from 
Ronda), etc. 

Fanfare, (i) A short tune for trumpets, 
used as a signal for ceremonial, military, 
or hunting purposes. Since they are in- 
tended for natural instruments, they in- 
clude the tones of the triad only. The 
various nations possess a large repertory 
of such melodies. — Fanfare-like motives 
have been frequently used in art-music. 
They already occur in the *caccias of the 
14th century [cf. also the virelai in 
BeMMRy 141], in Josquin’s Fanfares 
royales [SchGMBy no. 62], in Jannequin’s 
program-chanson La Guerre (c, 1525), 
and in other ’"‘battle pieces [cf. ApMZy 
Banchieri], in the introductory “Toccata” 
of Monteverdi’s Orfeo (1607), and in 
Bach’s Capriccio sopra la lontananza dello 
suo fratello dilettissimo. Various operatic 
composers have made a highly effective 
use of the fanfare, e.g., Beethoven in his 
Fidelio (Act II, arrival of the governor; 
see also his Leonore Overture), and Wag- 
ner in the horn-call scene of his Tristan 
(introduction to the first scene of Act II). 

Lit.: G. Schiinemann, “Sonaten und 
Feldstiicke der Hoftrompeter” (ZMW 
xvii); G. Schiinemann, IfTrompeterfan- 
fareny Sonaten und Feldstiicke (1936) 
[see ^Editions XII A (7)] ; K. Taut, Bei- 
tr 'dge zur Geschichte der Jagdmusik (Diss. 
1926). 

(2) French term for a brass band, either 
military or civilian. 

Fantasia [F. fantaisie; G. Fantasicy 
Phantasie], Generally speaking, a com- 
position in which the “free flight of fancy” 
prevails over contemporary conventions 


of form, style, etc. Naturally, the term 
covers a great variety of types which may 
be tentatively classified into five groups, 
(i) Pieces of a markedly improvisatory 
character; written records, as it were, of 
the improvisation-technique of the various 
masters. Examples are Bach’s Chromatic 
Fantasia and his (lesser known) Fantasia 
in A minor for harpsichord (ed. Peters, 
vol. xviii), Mozart’s Fantasia in D minor 
for pianoforte and Beethoven’s Fantasia 
op. 77. The numerous “Fantasien” by 
C. P. E. Bach also belong to this category. 
— (2) ^Character pieces of the Romantic 
era. Here, fantasia is one of the various 
titles used to indicate dream-like mood, 
or some other whim of fancy. Examples 
are Brahms’s Fantasien op. 116. — (3) 
Sonatas in freer form, or of a special char- 
acter; for instance, Beethoven’s op. 27, 
nos. I, 2, the latter being known as Moon- 
light Sonata, both of which deviate in 
various respects from the normal form 
and style of the sonata; Schubert’s Wan- 
derer-Fantasie in which a song of his 
(“Der Wanderer”) is used as the main 
subject for all the movements [see *Cy- 
clic] ; Schumann’s Fantasie op. 17, which 
is a Romantic hybrid of sonata form. — 
(4) Operatic potpourris of a free and 
somewhat improvisatory treatment, as if 
written in remembrance of a performance; 
e.g., F. Liszt’s Don Juan Fantaisie (1841). 

(5) In the 1 6th and 17th centuries the 
name fantasia occurs frequently with in- 
strumental pieces which are written in a 
more or less strict contrapuntal style, ap- 
parently lacking any features of “free flight 
of fancy.” Although the use of the name 
fantasia for such pieces seems strange 
from the modern point of view, it is en- 
tirely reasonable from that of the 16th- 
century musician, to whom the fantasia 
was a free variety of the strictly contra- 
puntal and learned *ricercare. In this 
meaning, the term was adopted first by 
the lutenists who, although anxious to 
include in their repertoire the motet-like 
technique of the ricercare, found them- 
selves handicapped by the technical limi- 
tations of their instrument, but succeeded 
in developing a free instrumental adapta- 
tion of the motet, the fantasia. A large 


[257] 




FANTASIA 


FARCE 


literature of lute fantasias exists in the 
publications of Marco d’Aquila (1536; 
SchGMBy no. 94), Luis de Milan (1536), 
Francesco da Milano (1547; SchGMB, no. 
1 15), etc. 

In the field of keyboard music the “les- 
sening of rigidity** which characterizes 
the fantasia may have originated in the 
16th-century practice of improvising ricer- 
cares, a practice which existed particularly 
in connection with competitions for the 
position of an organist [Lit., Definer]. 
At any rate, it is important to notice that 
the name fantasia seldom occurs in the 
keyboard literature prior to about 1580, a 
piece in Kotter*s tablature of 1515 (actu- 
ally a “Prelude and Fugue’*; cf. W. Me- 
rian, Der Tanz in den deutschen Tabula- 
turbiichern^ 1927, p. 58) and A. Gabrieli’s 
“Fantasia allegra” (see ^Editions II (3), 
p. 67) being practically the only examples. 
The latter composition, with its free mix- 
ture of imitation and figuration, fore- 
shadows the English fantasia of the late 
i6th and early 17th centuries, which, un- 
der the hands of W. Byrd (4), John Bull 
(2), Giles Farnaby (10), John Munday 
(2), Peter Philips (2), and others, became 
a somewhat more clearly defined type of 
keyboard music (the numbers in paren- 
theses indicate the number of fantasias 
contained in the Fitz william Virginal 
BooJ(), Nonetheless, the name fantasia 
covers here a wide range of forms and 
styles, such as free ricercares, program 
pieces, and intabulated chansons. In the 
17th century, also, the name was applied, 
as may be expected, to compositions of 
widely different types of keyboard music, 
as a comparison of the fantasias by Swee- 
linck with those of Frescobaldi and Fro- 
berger readily shows. 

The instrumental (more properly *en- 
semble) fantasia is represented chiefly by 
the English *fancy of the 17th century. 
The meaning of the term in publications 
such as A. Willacrt, Fantasie et Ricercari 
. . . (1549; also 1559) and G. Tiburtino, 
Fantasie e Recercari a 3 voci (1549) is not 
clear, since the contents of these books do 
not show any differentiation such as might 
be expected from the title [see ^Ricercare 
I (a) J . H. Expert edited 6 vols. of Fanta- 


sies pour S et 4 instruments by Claude 
Lejeune and Eustache Caurroy (around 
1600). 

Lit.: O. Deffner, Vber die Entwic 1 {lung 
der Fantasie fur Tasteninstrumente bis 
Sweelinck^ (1927); E. H. Meyer, Die 
mehrstimmige Spielmusi\ des 77. ]ahr- 
hunderts (1934); P. Hamburger, “Die 
Fantasien in Emanuel Adriansen’s Pra- 
tum Musicum, 1600” {ZMW xii). See 
also under *Fancy. 

Fantasia section. Same as develop- 
ment section in *sonata-form. 

Fantasiestuck [G,] . See ^Fantasia (2). 

Fantastic Symphony. See ’"‘Sympho- 
nic phantastique. 

Fantasy, (i) See ’"‘Fantasia; *Fancy. — 
(2) The development section (fantasy 
section) in ’*^sonata-form. 

Farandole. A Provencal dance which 
is performed in a long chain of men and 
women, holding each other by the hands 
and following the leader through a great 
variety of evolutions, to music played on 
the ’"‘pipe and tabor. The dance seems to 
be of very ancient origin (symbolic cele- 
bration of Theseus* escape from the laby- 
rinth ? ) and is still danced today, usually 
under the name of polonaise. For similar 
dances see *Branle and ’"‘Cotillon. The 
music of the farandole is usually in moder- 
ate % meter. The dance has been intro- 
duced into opera by Bizet (U Arlesienne) 
and by Gounod {Mireille), Cf. G. Beau- 
caire, in RMC v. 

Farbenklavier [G.]. *Color organ. 

Farce, farse [It. farza; from L. farsa, 
farcitura, stuffing, filling] . (i) Originally 
designation for interpolations, chiefly the 
liturgical troj^es which appear as inser- 
tions between two words of the authentic 
text, for instance, the farced Kyrie: Kyrie 
— fons bonitatis — eleison [see *Trope 
(4)]. For another example of farcing see 
’"‘Ente. — (2) In plays and operas, chiefly 
of the 1 8th century, farcing means the in- 
troduction of alien elements, usually of a 
humorous, comical, or even lascivious 
nature [see ^Intermezzo]. This meaning 


[258] 



FAREWELL SYMPHONY FAUXBOURDON 


persists in present-day usage in which 
farce is a light comedy, sometimes vulgar, 
frequently a travesty of a serious model. 
Around 1800, Italian comic operas in one 
act were called farza, e.g., Rossini’s La 
Cambiale di matrimonio (1810). 

Farewell Symphony [G. Abschieds^ 
symphonic], Haydn’s Symphony in F- 
sharp minor, composed in 1772 (no. 45 of 
the B.u.H. edition; cf. GD ii, 586). The 
name refers to the last movement, the close 
of which is so designed that the players 
can leave one by one, the last measures 
being played by only two violinists. The 
charming jest was meant to convey to the 
Prince of Esterhazy, whom Haydn served 
as a conductor, the desire of the orchestra 
to leave for Vienna. 

Fasola. A system of *solmization, much 
used in England and in America during 
the 17th and i8th centuries, in which only 
four of the six Guidonian syllables are 
used, the syllables fa sol la being applied 
to c-d-e as well as to the identical pro- 



gression f-g-a, and the mi being used for 
the seventh degree, b. Prior to 1800 the 
fasola method was used in certain Ameri- 
can song books, the letters F, S, L, F, S, 
L, M being placed on a staff (e.g., in The 
Psalms and Hymns . . . , 1737). In 1802 
William Little {The Easy Instructor) in- 
troduced four different shapes of notes for 
each of the syllables, a method which was 
known as “buckwheat” or “four-shape” 
or “shape” note [see Ex.], and which 
proved very successful in the rural dis- 
tiicts of the South. 

Lit.: G. P. Jackson, “Buckwheat Notes” 
(MQ xix); Ch. Seeger, “Contrapuntal 
Style in the Three-voice Shape-note 
Hymns” (MQ xxvi); K. P. Fuller, in 
Etude Ivii, 501; WoHN ii, 369. 

Fassung, Mit [G.]. Calm, resigned. 

Fastoso [It.]. Pompous. 


Fausse relation [F.]. *False relation 
[see *Cross relation]. 

Fauxbourdon [F.; Middle English, 
faburden; It. falso bordone; Sp. fabor- 
done], (i) A 15th-century term which 
has been adopted into modern usage as a 
general denomination for harmonic pro- 
gressions based on parallel sixth chords. 
[In scholarly writings a designation such 
as “sixth-chord style” would seem to be 
preferable, with the term fauxbourdon 
being restricted to its original and proper 
meaning; see (2).] 

Such progressions occur in Bach, Mo- 
zart, Beethoven (Piano Sonata op. 2, no. 
3, last movement), Brahms, and others 
[see Ex. i, from Bach’s Cantata Ach wie 



fluchtig]. Sixth-chord style plays, how- 
ever, a much more important role in the 
music of the late Middle Ages (c. 1300- 
1450). All evidence points to an English 
origin of this style. In fact, the earliest 
instances are found in English MSS of c, 
1300, that is, of the period when French 
music was based chiefly on the principle of 
contrary motion in the “perfect” conso- 
nances (octave, fifth, fourth). For exam- 
ples cf. ReMMAy 399; HAM, no. 57; A. 
Hughes, "^Worcester Mediaeval Harmony 
(1928). Short progressions in sixth chords 
are quite frequent in the works of Landini 
[cf., e.g., RiHM i.2, 330], especially for 
cadences [see *Landini cadence]. The 
sixth-chord style reached its high-point in 
the compositions of Dufay and Binchois 
[see ^Burgundian School] which fre- 
quently include long phrases and even 
entire sections in sixth-chord harmonies 
[Ex. 2; cf. HAM, nos. 65!!; SchGMB, nos. 
39, 40; AdHM i, 299]. 

The introduction of sixth-chord style 
constitutes an important landmark in 

[259] 




FAUXBOURDON 


FAUXBOURDON 


evolution of harmony, since it is the first 
step towards the emergence of the third 
and the full triad as the basic element of 
harmony [see ^Harmony], Sixth-chord 
style proper dropped out largely around 
1475 when Ockeghem and Obrecht es- 
tablished four-part writing [see ^Flemish 
School], Traces, however, survived under 
the name jalso bordone throughout the 
1 6th and 17th centuries [see (4)]. It will 
be noticed that the above description clear- 
ly refutes the theory advanced by H. E. 
Wooldridge (OH ii, 89!!) and adopted in 
numerous books, according to which 
“fauxbourdon” originated as a result of a 
decree of Pope John XXII, issued from 
Avignon in 1322, by which the use in the 
service of elaborate polyphonic music was 
forbidden. See also ^Gymel. 

(2) Historically and properly, faux- 
bourdon is the designation for a French 
(Burgundian) 15th-century technique of 
composition in which a soprano part 
(usually a plainsong hymn transposed to 
the higher octave) is notated together with 
a lower part (contra) moving along in the 
lower sixth or octave, while the middle 
part is extemporized by a singer doubling 
the melody in the lower fourth through- 
out [see Ex. 3, from Dufay’s Juvenis qui 

3 


CahIilS TawCv bourdon. Contratenor 



puellam) cf. WoGM ii, 57!! and iii, 87; in 
the similar section Quamv'is benedixeritis 
(ii, 59) the tenor part is erroneously 
omitted in Wolf ] . The term fauxbourdon 
(i.e., false bass) is explained by the use in 
the lowest part of a “false,” i.e., a deriva- 
tive melody, instead of the cantus firmus 
itself, as was the earlier tradition. The 
first mention of the term occurs in Bur- 
gundian-Italian sources from c, 1430. 

This French method should qot be con- 
fused with an English method described 
as discant in various 15th-century treatises 
(Lionel Power, r. 1425, Pseudo-Chilston, 


c. 1450) and referred to in modern writ- 
ings (Bukofzer) as English discant, in 
order to distinguish it from the (French) 
13th-century discant in contrary motion 
and perfect consonances [see ^Discant], 
Here only one part, the tenor, is notate^ 
and the other two singers improvise melo- 
dies resulting in sixth chords with occa- 
sional open triads (1-5-8). The principle 
may be explained as follows: the tenor 
sings the plainsong as written, e.g.: d-e- 
f-g-f-e-d; the other singers derive from 
this a slightly modified melody, by replac- 
ing each tone, except the first and the last, 
by its lower third, as follows: d-c— d-c- 
d— c— d; this modified melody is sung by 
the highest voice (treble) an octave high- 
er, by the middle voice (*meane) a fifth 
higher. The result is sixth-chord harmony 
with the cantus firmus in the lowest part 
[Ex. 4]. This method was known under 



such names as *discantus supra librum, 
sight (referring to the two different 
“sights” — i.e., ways of looking at, or ren- 
ditions — of the plainsong, one performed 
by the singer of the meane [“meane- 
sight”], the other, of the treble [“treble- 
sight”]), or Latin equivalents such as 
discantus visibilis (visible discant), fictus 
visus (feigned sight), and perjectio ocu- 
laris (ocular completion). For an occa- 
sional practice of five-voice discant see 
under ^Treble. 

English discant, i.e., sixth-chord style 
with the cantus firmus in the tenor (not, 
as in fauxbourdon, in the soprano), was 
used in English compositions as early as 
c, 1300 [see under (i)]. As a result of 
this long-standing method of composition 
there grew up, probably towards the end 
of the 14th century, the above-described 
practice of improvised discant. 

(3) The (French) connotation of faux- 
bourdon persists in English 16th-century 
organ books (period of John Redford, c, 
1550) in which “verses on the faburden of 
the plainsong” denote polyphonic elabora- 
tions, not of the original plainsong, but of 
a derivative melody which is a third above 


[ 260 ] 




FAUXBOURDONI 


FERIA 


the plainsong (with occasional unisons). 
According to the explanations given under 
(2) these faburdens must be properly ex- 
plained as being in the lower sixth above 
the octave-transposed plainsong (with oc- 
cational lower octaves). Cf. H. Miller, in 
MQ xxvi. 

(4) Fauxbourdon harmonization was 
frequently applied to the monotonic reci- 
tations of psalm tones. One of the early 
examples is a Magnificat by Binchois [cf. 
J. Marix, fLes Musiciens de la court de 
Bourgogne (1937), p. 196]. After the 
change from three-voice to four-voice har- 
mony, the name was retained for har- 
monizations of psalm-tones, Magnificats, 
etc., in accordance with the fact that four- 
voice harmonies are frequently fauxbour- 
don (sixth chords) with a bass tone added 
below. Four-voice harmonizations of rec- 
itation chants, called falso bordone [It.] 
or fabordone [Sp.], were particularly fre- 
quent in Italy and Spain during the i6th 



century [see ^Editions XIII]. Cabezon 
wrote similar settings for the organ [Ex. 
5; cf. ApMZ ii] . Such harmonized organ 
verses were used in alternative perform- 
ance with the plainsong verses [see *Mag- 
nificat]. In 16th-century English usage 
simple harmonizations of metrical psalm 
tunes were called faburden, and Heinrich 
Schiitz, in the preface to his Historic von 
der , . , Auferstehung (1623), speaks of 
the instrumental accompaniment to the 
Evangelist’s recitations as “falsobordone.” 
The use of falso bordone compositions 
(particularly Palestrina’s ^Lamentations) 
in alternation with Gregorian chant was 
authorized for special occasions by Pius X 
in his Motu proprio (1903). 

(5) In present-day English usage faux- 
bourdon denotes “a means of giving in- 
terest to hymn-singing by supplying the 
choir sopranos with a freely written part, 
which often soars above the hymn-tune 
as sung by the congregation” [cf. P. A. 

[: 


Scholes, The Oxford Companion to Music 
(1938), p. 305]. This would seem to be 
one of the various more recent meanings 
of the term which are the result of a mis- 
understanding of its proper connotation. 
A more appropriate name for this method 
of singing is descant [see ’"‘Descant (3)]. 

Lit.: M. Bukofzer, Geschichte des eng- 
lischen Dishjints und des Fauxbourdon . . . 
(1936); Th. Georgiades, Englische Dis- 
\anttrahtate aus der j.Halfte des 15. Jahr- 
hunderts (1937); OH ii, 89!!; M. Bukof- 
zer, in MO xxvi; S. S. Meech, “Three Mu- 
sical Treatises in English from a 15th- 
century Manuscript” {Speculum^ July, 

1935)- 

Feeders. In organ building, small bel- 
lows employed to supply the large bellows 
with wind. See *Organ I. 

Fe fa ut, Fefaut. See ’^Hexachord II. 

Feierlich [G.] . In a holy, solemn mood. 

Feldtrompeter [G., field trumpeter]. 
In the 17th century, the military trum- 
peters as distinguished from the Kam- 
mertrompeter (chamber trumpeter), who 
were members of the orchestras [cf. 
SaHMIy 328 J. The pieces of the Feld- 
trompeter were called Feldstuc\ey Feld- 
sonaten, Feldpartitas, They usually con- 
sisted of fanfares in four-part harmonies. 
See Lit. under ^Fanfare. 

Felix namque. Title of 16th-century 
cantus-firmus compositions for the organ, 
chiefly English [Bedford, Tallis; cf. C. F. 
Pfatteicher, John Bedford (1934) and 
Fitzwilliam Virginal Boo 1 (\. The cantus 
firmus (a-c'-c'— d'— c'-b-a . . .) is not that 
of the offertorium Felix namque es of the 
Roman ritual (GR [95] ). See ♦Innomine. 

Fellowships. See ♦Scholarships, Fel- 
lowships, and Prizes. 

Feminine cadence. See *Masculinc 
and feminine cadence. 

Feria, ferial. Any weekday in the cal- 
endar of the Catholic Church on which no 
feast occurs is called feria. This meaning 
is the reverse of the original meaning of 
L. feriay that is, a festival day. The re- 

5i] 




FERMAMENTE 


FESTIVALS 


versal came about by extending the use of 
the word from Sunday to the other days, 
Sunday being named feria prima^ the oth- 
ers jeria secunda, tertia^ etc. Later, Sun- 
day was called Dominica, whereas for 
Saturday the Hebrew name of Sahhato 
was kept. — It should be noted that the 
adjective ferial (days, rites) is used in a 
meaning closer to the original, that is, in- 
cluding Sunday, provided there occurs no 
special feast. The opposite is festal (days, 
riles), which refers to feasts on weekdays 
or Sundays. 

Fermamente, con fermezza [It.]. 
Firmly. 

Fermata [G., It.]. Pause. 

Fernwerk [G.]. Echo organ. 

Feroce [It.]. Ferocious. 

Fervore, Con [It.]. With fervor. 

Fes [G.]. See Pitch names. 

Festal. See *Feria, Ferial. 

Festivals. I. England. The earliest in- 
stances of musical festivals are the French 
*puys which originated with the trouba- 
dours of the 13th century and continued 
until the i6th century. The Sanger \riege 
of the German ^Minnesinger, of which 
Wagner gives a lively picture in his Tann- 
h'duser oder der Sdnger\rieg auf der 
Wartburg, were an imitation. Of similar 
age are the Eisteddfod of the Welsh 
*bards. A new development started in 
England in the 17th century with the 
Festival of the Sons of the Clergy which 
was founded in 1655 and which still con- 
tinues, in the form of a musical service on 
grand lines. There followed, in 1724, the 
Three Choirs Festivals which combine 
the choral forces of Gloucester, Worcester, 
and Hereford and which last for several 
days. Others are the Birmingham Festival 
(1768-1912), the Norwich Festival (1770 
to date, since 1824 triennially), and the 
Leeds Festival (1858, from 1874 trienni- 
ally), all of which are held for the benefit 
of local charitable institutions. The Han- 
del Festivals in the Crystal Palace began 
in 1857 and are now held triennially. 


II. America. The earliest American 
festivals on record are those of the Handel 
and Haydn Society of Boston (1857) and 
at Worcester (1858). In 1869 P. S. Gil- 
more organized his monster festival Peace 
Jubilee as a celebration of the conclusion 
of the Civil War, employing an orchestra 
of 1000 and a chorus of 10,000. In his 
World's Peace Jubilee of 1872 he doubled 
these forces and added electrically fired 
cannons, chimes, and powerful organs. 
The Worcester Festivals (present conduc- 
tor Arthur Stoessel) became an estab- 
lished annual institution in 1869, and 
Cincinnati followed with its biennial 
May Music Festival in 1871 (founded by 
Th. Thomas; present conductor Eugene 
Goossens). The Ann Arbor May Festi- 
vals of the University of Michigan were 
founded in 1879 ( 1 ^^- Stanley till 1921, 
succeeded by Earl V. Moore). At Bethle- 
hem College in Lindsborg, Kansas, annual 
performances of T he Messiah were begun 
in 1882 and have developed into a festival 
week. The Bethlehem Bach Choir of 
Bethlehem, Pa. (preceded by the Bethle- 
hem Choral Union, 1882) was founded 
in 1900 and has given numerous festivals, 
each including a performance of Bach’s 
B Minor Mass. There followed festivals 
in Portland, Me. (1897), Bangor, Me. 
(1897), Springfield, Mass. (1903), and 
Norfolk, Conn. (1906). At Northwestern 
University festivals were established in 
1909 and, after a lapse in 1932, were re- 
vived in 1937 as the Evanston Music Fes- 
tivals (Edwin S. Mills). In the same year 
(1909) began the Spring Festivals of Cor- 
nell University, founded by Hollis Dann, 
now held at irregular intervals (Paul J. 
Weaver). Next in chronological order arc 
the festivals of Peterboro, N. H. (1910), 
Lockport, N. Y. (1916). Outstanding 
among the more recent developments are: 
the Berkshire Festivals of Chambermusic 
at Pittsfield, Mass, (established 1918 by 
Mrs. Elizabeth Sprague Coolidge, held 
irregularly after 1924; numerous first pres- 
entations of chamber music works); the 
Westchester Music Festival (1925, now 
held at White Plains, N. Y., under Hugh 
Ross); the Coolidge Festivals (established 
1925 at the Library of Congress by Mrs. 


[ 262 ] 



FESTIVALS 

Elizabeth Sprague Coolidge; eight festi- 
vals to the present day); the Rochester 
Festival of American Music (i93i> di- 
rected by Howard Hanson); the West- 
minster Festival at Princeton, N. J. (1936; 
programs of American music) ; the Berl{^ 
shire Symphonic Festivals at Stockbridge, 
Mass, (founded by Henry K. Hadley in 
1934, since 1936 in connection with the 
Boston Symphony Orchestra under S. 
Koussevitzky, now held in a permanent 
structure at Tanglewood); and the Silver- 
mine Guild of Artists Festival at Silver- 
mine, Conn. (1937). 

For detailed information on these and 
other festivals see Pierre Key’s Music Year 
BooJ{. 

III. Other Countries. Outside of the 
United States and England music festi- 
vals are found mainly in Germany and 
Austria. Among these the Niederrhein- 
ische Musif^feste (founded 1817; held 
alternately in Cologne, Diisseldorf, and 
Aachen) come closest in character to the 
American or English choral festivals. 
More important from the artistic point of 
view were the Tonf^iinstlerfeste of the All- 
gemeiner deutscher Musikverein^ founded 
by F. Liszt in 1861, and held annually in 
different cities, the last (1932) in Zurich. 
Celebrations of great German composers 
are frequently held in their native cities, 
e.g., the Beethovenfeste in Bonn, the 
Bachfeste in Eisenach, the Mozartfeste in 
Salzburg, Austria. Most famous among 
these are the Bayreuther Festspiele^ dedi- 
cated to the cause of Wagner’s operas. The 
Kdmmermusil(Jeste at Donaueschingen, 
founded 1923, have been very important 
in the development of modern music [see 
^Gebrauchsmusik]. Similar in purpose 
arc the festivals of the International So- 
ciety for Contemporary Music (president, 
Edwin Evans) dating from 1923 which 
have been held in successive years at Salz- 
burg, Prague, Venice, Zurich, Frankfurt 
a.M., Siena, Geneva, Liege, Oxford, Vi- 
enna, Amsterdam, Florence, Prague, Bar- 
celona, Paris, London, Warsaw (1939), 
New York (1941), and San Francisco 
(1942). Complete programs of these fes- 
tivals (from 1923 to 1937) are given in 
Slonimsky’s Music Since igoo (1937). 


FIDELIO 

Festschrift [G.]. Name of German 
publications designed as a present for out- 
standing musicologists (60th birthday, 
etc.). They contain contributions from 
pupils and colleagues. Cf. MoML, 218. 

Festspiel [G.]. See ^Festival III; also 
^Biihnenfestspiel. 

Feurig [G.]. Fiery. 

Ff. Abbreviation for fortissimo. 

F fa ut. See *Hexachord II. 

F-holes. See *Sound-holes. 

Fiato [It.]. Breath. Stromenti da fiato, 
wind instruments. 

Fiddle. Colloquial for violin and the 
like, particularly the American home- 
made varieties. Also used to designate 
the primitive ancestors of the violin, as 
found in many Oriental cultures. See 
^Violin (history). 

Fidelio (or Die Eheliche Lie he, “Con- 
jugal Love”). Opera by Beethoven ( 1770- 
1827), text by }. Sonnlcithner and G. F. 
Treitschke, produced 1805 (revised 1806, 
under the name Leofjore; final revision 
1814). The scene is 18th-century Spain 
in a prison near Sevilla where the noble- 
man Florestan (Tenor) is held captive by 
the tyrannic Pizarro (Baritone). Flores- 
tan’s wife Leonore (Soprano), disguised 
as a boy and under the name of Fidelio, 
enters the service of the jailer Rocco (Bass) 
and, in the second act, helps him to dig a 
grave for Florestan whom Pizarro is de- 
termined to kill. In the last moment trum- 
pet calls are heard heralding the arrival of 
the minister Don Fernando (Bass), who 
frees Florestan and arrests Pizarro. 

In spite of moments of great emotional 
tension (grave-digging scene, trumpet 
calls) the opera lacks, on the whole, that 
dramatic flow which Beethoven, more 
than any other composer, commanded in 
his symphonies and other instrumental 
works. His note to Treitschke: “The whole 
business of opera is the most distressing 
thing in the world” very likely reflects his 
inner relation to opera-writing as well as 
the adverse circumstances which accom- 


[ 263 ] 



FIDICEN 


FIGURED MELODY 


panied the production of Fidelio. Never- 
theless, the music shows Beethoven’s hand 
in many scenes, and the opera, though not 
“Beethoven at his best,” certainly belongs 
to the classical operatic repertoire. Re- 
garding the various overtures, see *Leo- 
nora Overtures. See also reference under 
♦Melodrama. 

Fidicen [L., from fides, stringed instru- 
ment]. Humanistic (16th-century) name 
for a string player. 

Fiedel [G.]. (i) Colloquial for violin 
and the like. — (2) Generic term for me- 
dieval violin-instruments {vielle^ fidula) 
and modern imitations thereof. 

Fiero [It.]. Proud. 

Fife. A small flute with six to eight 
finger-holes and usually no key, used 
chiefly in military bands. It has been re- 
placed in the Drum Corps by the piccolo. 

Fifteenth. Name for organ stops sound- 
ing two octaves (fifteen notes) above nor- 
mal. Hence, 2-foot stops. 

Fifth. The fifth degree of the diatonic 
scale, or the interval formed by a tone and 
the fifth tone above it. See ♦Intervals; 
♦Consonance; ♦Circle of fifths; ♦Triad; 
♦Parallel motion; ♦Organum; ♦Blas- 
quinte. 

Fifre [F.]. ♦Fife. 

Figaro’s Marriage. See ♦Nozze di 
Figaro, Le. 

Figura [L.] . In medieval theory, generic 
name for the notational signs. Franco 
(CS i, 1 19) distinguishes the figurae sim- 
plices^ i.e., the single notes {longa^ brevis^ 
semibrevis)y from the figurae compositae, 
i.e., the ligatures. Figura obliqua means 
the oblique form of ♦ligatures. 

Figural, figurate, figured [G. figu- 
riert]. The terms are rather indiscrimi- 
nately used in two different, though re- 
lated, meanings, (i) As a translation of 
L. musica figurata, a 15th- and 16th-cen- 
tury term for any polyphonic music, in 
contradistinction to musica plana, i.e., 
plainsong. In particular, the term figural 


music or style [G. Figuralmusi\, figu- 
rierter Stil\ is used with reference to the 
highly florid polyphonic style of the early 
Flemish composers such as Ockeghem 
and Obrecht, as distinguished from the 
less complex style of Josquin and his suc- 
cessors [see ♦Musica reservata]. — (2) 
With reference to 17th- and 18th-century 
music the terms denote the use of stereo- 
typed figures or ♦motives, particularly in 
variations or in the accompanying parts 
of organ chorales [see ♦Figuration; ♦Fig- 
ured chorale]. The ambiguous and in- 
consistent use of these terms is to be de- 
plored, particularly since the term “fig- 
ured” is used with still another meaning 
in the designation: ♦figured bass. Tenta- 
tively the following distinctions may be 
recommended: Figurate = florid [see 
Webster]; figural = using musical figures 
[see under ♦Motive] ; figured = provided 
with numerals. Hence: figurate melody; 
figural variation or chorale; figured bass. 
Sec the subsequent articles. 

Figuration. The use of stereotyped fig- 
ures, particularly in variations of a theme. 
See ♦Figural (2); ♦Variations III [Ex. 
var. i]. 

Figure. See under ♦Motive. 

Figured bass. A bass-part provided 
with figures (numerals) to indicate har- 
monies [see ♦Thorough-bass]. 

Figured chorale [G. Figurierter Cho- 
ral], A species of ♦organ chorale (chorale 
prelude) in which a certain ♦figure — i.e., 
a short and characteristic group of notes 
— is used consistently in one or several of 
the contrapuntal parts, against the plain 
notes of the chorale which usually occurs 
in the soprano. Most of the chorales in 
Bach’s Orgelbuchlein belong to this class 
(e.g., nos. 2, 10, 12, 13, 17, 20, 24, 25, etc.). 
No. 24 (Ich ruf zu Dir) is an especially 
good example. A more appropriate de- 
nomination would be “figural chorale” 
[see ♦Figural, figurate, figured]. 

Figured melody. Same as ornamented 
or florid melody. A more appropriate de- 
nomination would be “figurate melody” 
[see ♦Figural, figurate, figured]. 


[ 264 ] 



FILAR IL TUONO 


FINGERING 


Filar il tuono [It.], filer le son [F., 
“to spin the tone”] . An 18th-century term, 
properly synonymous with ^messa di voce. 
Modern writers and singers frequently 
use it in a different meaning, i.e., as call- 
ing for sustained notes without the cre- 
scendo and decrescendo implied by messa 
di voce. 

Film music. The interested reader is 
referred to the description (and criticism) 
in A. Copland, Our New Music (1941). 
Cf. also C. Austin, in ML v, no. 2; E. Ir- 
ving, in ML xxiv, no. 4. 

Final, finalis. See *Church modes I. 

Finale [It.], (i) The last movement of 
a sonata or any of the cognate forms, 
symphony, quartet, etc. In the classical 
sonata it is usually a quick movement 
either in *rondo-form or in *sonata-form; 
occasionally it is written as a slow theme 
with variations (Beethoven, Piano Sonata 
op. in; Brahms, Clarinet Quintet op. 
1 15). While Haydn and Mozart planned 
their finale as a “happy end,” Beethoven 
frequently bestowed upon it a character 
of final triumph and apotheosis. In this 
respect, Bruckner followed and even sur- 
passed him. — (2) The last piece of an 
operatic act. The operatic finales are usu- 
ally of greater length and elaboration than 
the other pieces (arias), since a good deal 
of the dramatic action is likely to take 
place at the end of an act. They frequently 
include various sections of contrasting 
character [cf. the finales in Mozart’s Fig- 
aro], Alessandro Scarlatti is considered 
the originator of the dramatic finale. Ni- 
cola Piccinni (1728-1800) introduced the 
sectional construction, including change 
of tempo, of key, etc. 

Lit.: M. Fuchs, Die Entwic]{lung des 
Finales in der opera buffa vor Mozart 
(Diss. Vienna 1932); A. O. Lorenz, “Das 
Finale in Mozart’s Meisteropern” {DM 
xix.9) ; E. J. Dent, “Ensembles and Finales 
in 18th-Century Italian Opera” {StM xi, 
xii). 

Fin’ al segno [It.] . “As far as the sign,” 
indicating repetition from the beginning 
to the sign §. 


Fine [It.]. End, close. 

Finger board. In stringed instruments 
a long strip of hard wood (black ebony) 
fixed to the neck, over which the strings 
are stretched. The finger boards of older 
instruments such as the lute, guitar, viola 
da gamba, lyra, etc., were provided with 
*fiets. 


Fingerfertigkeit [G.]. Agility of the 
fingers, virtuosity. 


Fingering [F. doigt€\ G. Finger satz^ 
Applicatur (obs.)]. The methodical use 
of the fingers in the playing of instru- 
ments. More than any other instrument, 
the pianoforte has what might be called a 
“natural system of fingering,” owing to 
the natural conformity which exists be- 
tween the arrangement of the fingers and 
that of the keys. Three chief types of 
fingering may be distinguished: (i) Nor- 
mal fingering. This applies to passages 
involving no more than five keys, e.g., 

cegdfec / \ contracted or expanded 
1352431’^^ ^ 


fingering, e.g., 


g' g a b c' a f g c 

513454231 


. This 


fingering usually leads to a “shift of posi- 


tion,” that is, the thumb does not return 


to its original key. It is very frequent 
in extended passages of “zigzag” design 
(bent figures) which have no more than 
five tones in either direction (e.g., in the 
first etude of Chopin); (3) passing finger- 
ing, i.e., the thumb passes under a finger 
(second, third, fourth) or any of these 
fingers pass over the thumb. This finger- 
ing must be used whenever there are more 
than five tones in the same direction. 


hence, particularly in scales. 

The modern principles of fingering are 
of a rather recent date, their definite estab- 


lishment by dementi (1752-1832) being 
practically simultaneous with the replace- 
ment of the harpsichord and clavichord 
by the pianoforte. The earlier fingering 
is distinguished from the modern method 
chiefly by the very sparing use of the 
thumb and of the fifth finger in scale 
passages. Throughout the i6th and 17th 
centuries, scales were played with a finger- 


[ 265 ] 



FINGERING 


FINNISH MUSIC 


ing such [see 

6 2323234323232^ 

Ex.; also the article in GD ii, 236 and 



Weitzmann-Seifert, Geschichte der Kla- 
viermusik, (1899), pp. ii, 13, 70, 82, 84, 
160, etc.]. This method of passing one 
finger over the other, which from the 
modern point of view appears the extreme 
of clumsiness, was considerably less awk- 
ward on the old instruments whose keys 
had a smaller “fall” than those of the 
pianoforte and required much less force 
of touch. Particularly on the clavichord, 
passages sound more even if played with- 
out the thumb. The normal position of 
the hand was with the middle fingers 
lying almost flat on the keys, and with 
the thumb hanging down in front of the 
keyboard. On the other hand, it is en- 
tirely possible that great virtuosos such as 
John Bull, Sweelinck, and Scheldt used a 
more advanced method of fingering which 
they kept secret. The modern fingering 
for the descending scale (5432 1321) oc- 
curs in the keyboard works of Al. Scarlatti 
with each finger represented by a special 
symbol, *, /, etc. (cf. the modern edition 
by Shedlock). f. S. Bach was one of the 
first to make systematic use of the thumb 
and to develop more considered methods 
of fingering [cf. his Klavierbuchlein jiir 
Friedemann Bach, new ed. by H. Keller 
(1927), pp. 15 and 23]. He played with 
curved fingers and brought the thumb to 
the surface of the keyboard. An interest- 
ing document is Johann Kirnberger’s 
Klavierubungen nach der Bach' schen Ap- 
plikjitur (1762-64). Another step to- 
wards modern fingering was made by 
Bach's son C. P. E. Bach [cf. his Versuch 
iiber die wahre Art das Klavier zu spielen, 
new ed. by Niemann (1906)]. The next 
in line was Clementi. 

Until recently, English musicians used 
an older method of numbering the fingers, 


known as English fingering: x i 2 3 4, i.e., 
with a cross for the thumb and with i for 
the index finger (as in violin playing). 
This is now almost completely abandoned 
for the “German fingering” 12345. 
curious to note that the “English system” 
was widely used in Germany as well as in 
other countries during the i8th century 
and that, on the other hand, the first rec- 
ord of the “German fingering” occurs in 
English virginal books (c. 1600). Purcell 
used the English fingering, but in reversed 
order for the left hand, i.e., with the x for 
the fifth finger. For the system of finger- 
ing utilized for stringed instruments, see 
^Positions. Cf. H. Gleason, “Organ In- 
struction before Bach” {BAMS iv). 

Finlandia. Sec ^Symphonic poem II. 

Finnish music. Finland possesses a 
large wealth of folk songs, ancient and 
modern. The earliest, called joil^u, are 
recitative-like in character. Next follow 
the runos (sung to the traditional poems 
of epic character, called “runes”), which 
are melodic and rhythmically vigorous, 
fiequently employing a characteristic %- 
measure. The most famous of these epic 
poems is the Kalevala which has been used 
by numerous Finnish composers as a basis 
for songs or for symphonic poems (Sibe- 
lius). The latest manifestation of Finnish 
folk music consists of modern folk songs 
which, in spite of their relatively recent 
origin, have retained certain ancient fea- 
tures, particularly in their use of modal 
progressions. The traditional Finnish folk 
instrument is the \antcle, a *psaltery in 
the form of the wing of a bird, originally 
with 5, today with 20 to 30 strings. 

The development of Finnish art music 
started around 1850 with the activity of 
German musicians, e.g., Friedrich Pacius 
(1809-91; born in Hamburg; professor 
of music at Helsingfors University from 
1834; composer of the opera Kung Karls 
]a}{t, 1852, and of the Finnish ^national 
anthem Maamme) and Richard Faltin 
(1835-1918; professor at Helsingfors Con- 
servatory, 1871-96; compiler of a collec- 
tion of Finnish folk songs). The first na- 
tive-born composer was Martin Wegelius 


[266] 



FIORITURA 

(1846-1906), who became director of the 
new Helsingfors Conservatory in 1882 and 
who wrote a number of theoretical books 
(inSwedish) . Robert Kajanus ( 1 856-1933) 
cultivated Finnish folk music in his sym- 
phonic poems Aino and Kullervo^ but it 
was Jean Sibelius (b. 1865) who estab- 
lished the national Finnish style and who 
made Finnish music an important factor 
of international musical life. His sym- 
phonic poems {Finlandia, 1899; Pohjolas 
Daughter, 1906; Tapiola, 1925, etc.; see 
Symphonic poem IV) and his seven sym- 
phonies have become standard works of 
the orchestras, particularly in America 
and in England. Modern composers of 
lesser importance and fame are: A. Jarne- 
velt (b. 1869; symphonic poems Kors- 
holma, Luvattu Maa; choral works Laula 
vuo\s€lla, Suomen synty, etc.); Erkki 
Melartin (1875-1937; opera Aino\ sym- 
phonies, symphonic poems, etc.); Selim 
Palmgren (b. 1878; opera Daniel Hjort; 
piano concertos “The River” and “Meta- 
morphoses”; numerous lyrical piano 
pieces); Leevi Madetoja (b. 1887; sym- 
phonies, numerous symphonic poems; 
opera Pohjalaisia)\ Armas Launis (b. 
1884; operas, orchestral and piano music; 
also scholar and writer; see Lit,). Repre- 
sentatives of the youngest generation, 
somewhat influenced by the trends of 
*New music, are Yrjd Kilpinen (b. 1892; 
songs), Aarre Merikanto (b. 1893; much 
symphonic and chamber music), and 
Vaino Raitio (b. 1891; ten symphonic 
poems, two operas, some chamber mu- 
sic). 

Lit.: A. Launis, Ueber Art, Entstehung 
und V erbreitung der estnisch-finnischen 
Runenmelodien (1910); I. Krohn, Geist- 
liche V olbjmelodien in Finland (1899); 
AdHM ii, ii22ff; LavE i.5, 2586!!; K. 
Flodin, “Entwicklung der Musik in Fin- 
land” {DM, 1903/04); F. Bose, “Typen 
dei Volksmusik in Karelien” {AMF iii); 
J. H. Kruisinga, “La Melodie populaire 
des Finnois” {Revue Musicale Beige xv); 
H. Pudor, in SIM ii. 

Fioritura [It., from fiore, flower]. Em- 
bellishment, either written out or impro- 
vised. See ^Ornamentation. 


FLAMENCO 

Fipple flute. Same as ^Whistle flute. 

Firebird, The (L’Oiseau de Feu). Sec 
♦Ballet III. 

Fireworks. See ♦Symphonic poem IV. 

First-movement form. Same as ♦so- 
nata-form. The term is unfortunately 
chosen, since the same form also occurs 
frequently in the slow and in the final 
movement of a sonata. 

Fis, fisis [G.j. See ♦Pitch names. 

Fistelstimme [G.j. ♦Falsetto. 

Fistula [L.j. Medieval name for flute, 
organ pipe {fistula organica). Fistula 
panis, ♦panpipe. 

Fitzwilliam Virginal Book. See 

♦Virginal book. 

Five, The. Designation for a group of 
five Russian composers who, around 1875, 
united their efforts toward the creation of 
a truly national school of Russian music. 
The group included: Cesar A. Cui (1835- 
1918), Alexander P. Borodin (1833-87), 
Mily A. Balakirev (1837-1910), Modest 
P. Moussorgsky (1839-81), and Nicolas 
A. Rimsky-Korsakov (1844-1908). See 
♦Russian music II. 

Five-three chord. The common ♦triad, 
so called because, in figured bass, it is in- 



above the root. 

Fixed-do (h). See under ♦Movable- 
do(h). 

Flagellant songs. See ♦Geisslerlieder. 

Flageolet. See under ♦Whistle flutes. 
Flageolet tones, see ♦Flageolett-tone. 

Flageolett-tone. German term for the 
♦harmonics of stringed instruments. The 
English term flageolet tones is rarely used. 

Flam. See under ♦Percussion instru- 
ments B, I (Side drum). 

Flamenco. The “gypsy” style of Spanish 
dance and dance music. It is this style, 
characterized by fanciful and colored cos- 


[ 267 ] 



FLAT 


FLEMISH SCHOOL 


tumes, alluring and pointedly erotic move- 
ments, stamping of the feet {zapatead 6 )y 
and clapping of the hands {palmada)y 
which is commonly thought to be “typi- 
cally Spanish.’* Truly Spanish dancing, 
however, is of an entirely different char- 
acter, darkly glowing rather than brilliant, 
silent rather than noisy, introvert rather 
than extrovert in its expression of passion 
and love. The gypsy style is supposed to 
have originated in the early 19th century 
from the cante hondo or jondo (“deep 
song”) of Andalusia, a highly emotional 
and tragic type of song, probably influ- 
enced by the Sephardic Jews and cultivated 
particularly among prisoners (carcelerd)y 
many of whom were gypsies. In the mid- 
dle of the century it was taken up by the 
educated people, as was the case with jazz. 
The meaning of the name “flamenco” 
(Flemish? flamingo-colored?) is obscure. 
Cf. LavE i.4, 2391; D. Duff, in MM xvii, 
no. 4; M. de Falla, in LRM xi. 

Flat [F. bemol'y G. Be] It. bemolle]. The 
sign b which indicates the lowering of the 
pitch of a note by a half-step. See *Acci- 
dentals; *Pitch names. The term is also 
used to indicate incorrect intonation on 
the under side. 

Flatte, flattement. In French 17th- 
century viol music an agrement equiva- 
lent to the pince of the clavecinistes [see 
*Mordent]. After the middle of the i8th 
century the term is occasionally applied to 
the Schleifer [see *Appoggiatura, dou- 
ble], probably due to a mistaken transla- 
tion. 

Flatterzunge [G.]. Flutter tonguing 
[see *Tonguing]. 

Flautando, flautato. See *Bowing ( 1 ). 

Flautino [It.]. A small flute, either the 
flageolet or the descant flute. 

Flauto [It.]. Flute. Flauto a beccOy 
fauto dirittOy flauto dolce, ^recorder; 
flauto d'amorCy see *Flute II (b); flautonCy 
alto flute or bass flute; flauto piccolo y pic- 
colo (flute). Until the middle of the i8th 
century, c.g., in Bach, flauto always means 
the recorder, the flute being called flauto 


traverso [see *Flute III]. In the same pe- 
riod, flauto piccolo means, not the trans- 
verse piccolo, but a small recorder [see 
* Recorder]. 

Flaviol. A small Spanish one-handed 
flute, used for dance music. See *Pipc 
and tabor. 

Flebile [It.]. Mournful. 

Flehend [G.]. Imploring. 

Flemish School. I. The leading school 
(or schools) of the ^Renaissance, r. 1450- 
1600, following the ^Burgundian School. 
The name Flemish, which has by now 
been fairly universally adopted instead of 
the earlier name Netherlandish [regard- 
ing the ramifications of these names, see 
^Netherlands Schools], expresses the fact 
that practically all the numerous members 
of this school came from Flanders, i.e., the 
southern part of the present Belgium 
(Antwerp, Brussels), and the adjoining 
section of northern France (Cambrai, 
Arras, Lille). Nonetheless, the Flemish 
School is not a national school in the nar- 
rower sense of the word — as was, for in- 
stance, the French or the Italian *Ars 
nova — but an international movement 
of great dimensions. This characteristic 
trait is due to the fact that the Flemish 
composers seldom stayed in their home 
country, but emigrated to other countries 
where they held high positions in church 
choirs and in the chapels of princes. In 
the first half of the i6th century their 
stimulating influence brought about the 
rise of national talents in France, Ger- 
many, Italy, England, and Spain. The 
second half of the i6th century presents a 
unique picture of artistic rivalry and co- 
operation between the Flemish teachers 
and their “foreign” pupils, 

II. The origin of the Flemish School is 
still veiled in obscurity. Early musicians 
of Flemish extraction such as Willem Mal- 
beke (fl. c. 1430) and Heync van Gize- 
ghem (fl. c, 1450) would seem to belong 
to the late Burgundian School. The ob- 
vious surmise that the Flemish music de- 
veloped from the Burgundian School has 
little weight, considering the sharp cleav- 


[268] 



FLEMISH SCHOOL 


FLEMISH SCHOOL 

age between the style of Dufay and that 
of Ockeghem and Obrecht [see below]. 
More likely there was a line of develop- 
ment leading from Dunstable (via Regi- 
nald Liebert ?) to the early Flemish. 

Following is a list of the most important 
Flemish composers, arranged according 
to generations: 

1425: Johannes Ockeghem (1430--95); 

Jacob Obrecht (1430-1505). 

1450: Caspar van Werbecke (c, 1440-after 
i5i4);HendrikIsaac(i45o-i5i7); 
Josquin des Pres (1450-1521); Pi- 
erre de la Rue (c. 1460-1518). 
1475: Jean Mouton ( 1470-1522) ; Adriaen 
Willaert (c. 1485-1562); Nikolaus 
Gombert (?-<. 1560). 

1500: Jachet de Mantua; Jachet Berchem; 
Jacket (Jacques) Buus; Jacob (Ja- 
chet) Arcadelt (c, 1505-after 1557); 
Clemens non Papa (r. 1510-after 
1557) ; Thomas Craquillon ( ?-after 
1557). (The chronology and, con- 
sequently, the arrangement in this 
generation and in the preceding one 
are open to doubt.) 

1525: Cypriano de Rore (1516-65); Phi- 
lipp de Monte (1521-1603); Jaco- 
bus Kerle (i 531-91 ); Orlando di 
Lasso (1532-94); Jacques Wert 
(1536-96). 

1550: Jacobus Regnart (1540-99); Char- 
les Luython (1556-1620); Gio. de 
Macque (c. 1550-). 

The great contribution of the Flemish 
masters is the establishment of a new poly- 
phonic style characterized by the (ideal) 
equivalence of all the parts and, beginning 
with Josquin, the consistent use of imita- 
tion as the chief means to achieve this 
equivalence. This tendency appears even 
in those compositions in which a cantus 
firmus stands apart from and in balance 
to the contrapuntal web of the other voices 
(tenor masses and motets of the 15th cen- 
tury). Masses and motets are the back- 
bone of the vast repertory of Flemish com- 
posers; to these were gradually added the 
various “national” types of secular music, 
the (French) ^chanson, the (Italian) 
•madrigal, the (German) *Lied, and fi- 
nally the many popular forms of •villa- 


nella, the *canzonetto, the •balletto, etc., 
which indicate the approaching decadence. 

III. Following is a brief account of the 
development within this general frame: 
The contrast between the Burgundian 
School (Dufay) and the first Flemish 
masters (Ockeghem, Obrecht) can be 
briefly characterized as the change from 
three-part writing to four-part writing; 
from a relatively high range to a consid- 
erably lower range (first appearance of the 
bass); from a medieval timbre (•Sound- 
ideal) of “instrumental transparence” to 
a full vocal sonority, probably a-cappella; 
from •fauxbourdon to the full triad; from 
a (decorated) chordal style, frequently of 
the melody-accompaniment type, to a 
truly polyphonic style with highly em- 
broidered lines in all the parts; from aris- 
tocratic subtleness and refinement to pious 
devotion and mystic expression. 

Although Ockeghem and Obrecht are 
usually named in one breath (as “musical 
twins,” like the “two Gabrieli,” or “Schu- 
bert and Schumann”), the difference be- 
tween their styles is considerable. Of the 
two, Ockeghem is by far more purely 
Flemish and presents a much stronger 
contrast to Dufay than Obrecht, who fre- 
quently introduces chordal passages, full 
cadences, and sectional treatment. In fact, 
these two streams can be traced through- 
out the entire development of Flemish 
music: the former (strictly polyphonic, 
continuous, non-cadential, uniform so- 
nority) being represented by the names 
Ockeghem, Isaac, La Rue (?), Gombert, 
de Monte, Palestrina; the latter (partly 
chordal, sectional, cadential, using con- 
trasting sonorities) by Obrecht, Josquin, 
Willaert, G. Gabrieli [regarding the ap- 
pearance of chordal style in Flemish mu- 
sic, see •Familiar style]. Although the 
Flemish composers occasionally made use 
in their Masses of proportional complica- 
tions and of canonic riddles [see •Propor- 
tions; •Canon], an entirely misleading 
impression has been created by numerous 
writers who have made this feature the 
main point of their characterization. Up 
to the present day, books have been pub- 
lished in which Ockeghem is represented 
only by his 36-voiced canon or his Mtssa 


[ 269 ] 



FLEXA 

cujusvis torn [sec *Catholica], and Jos- 
quin by his early canonic Missa Vhomme 
armL In this connection it may be noted 
that English composers of the mid- 15th 
century far surpassed their Flemish col- 
leagues in the devising of canonic enig- 
mas [see ♦English music III] and that the 
proportional complications in the works 
of Ockeghem, Isaac, Josquin, are only a 
modest remainder of those encountered 
in the French music between Machaut 
and Dufay [cf. ApNPM^ “Mannered No- 
tation”]. See also ♦Imitation; ♦Mass; 
♦Motet; ♦Musica reservata. 

Lit.: P. Lang, “The So-called Nether- 
land Schools” {MQ xxv); H. Besseler, 
“Von Dufay bis Josquin” (ZMW xi); see 
also ♦Belgian music. 

Flexa. (i) See ♦Psalm tones. — (2) 
Same as ♦clivis (also flexus). 

Flick-kanzone [G., “patchwork”-can- 
zona] . A term introduced by H. Riemann 
for a special type of canzona [see ♦Can- 
zona (5), II] which shows a particularly 
quick change of extremely short sections 
in contrasting characters and styles. An 
example of this relatively rare type is a 
canzona by Hermann Schein [cf. the com- 
plete ed. by Priifer, vol. i, 41]. For an- 
other example, by G. B. Grillo (1608), cf. 
RiHM ii.2, 127. 

Flicorno [It.]. An Italian make of 
♦Fliigelhorn. 

Fliegende Hollander, Der (“The 
Flying Dutchman”). Opera by Richard 
Wagner to his own libretto, produced at 
Dresden in 1843. The opera centers around 
the legendary Flying Dutchman (Bari- 
tone) who is condemned to range the seas 
eternally unless he can be redeemed by the 
love of a woman. The destined woman is 
Senta (Soprano), daughter of the Nor- 
wegian sea-captain Daland (Bass). She 
deserts the young huntsman Eri\ (Tenor) 
and follows the Flying Dutchman into 
death — and final salvation. 

The Fliegende Hollander, one of Wag- 
ner’s earliest works, approximates with its 
supernatural touch the Romantic opera 
of Weber {^Freischiitz) and Marschner. 


FLOGELHORN 

The musical style also descends from these 
precursors, both in the broad melodic 
style and in the rich and colorful orchestral 
accompaniment, while typically Wagneri- 
an features, such as the use of ♦leitmotifs, 
continuous melody, and symphonic treat- 
ment of the orchestra, are not yet devel- 
oped. 

Fliessend [G.]. Flowing. 

Flote [G.]. Flute. 

Flotenuhr [G.]. See ♦Mechanical in- 
struments III. 

Florid. The adjective is used as synony- 
m.ous with ornamented, embroidered, 
decorated, ♦figurate, etc., chiefly with ref- 
erence to contrapuntal music in which the 
lines move largely in relatively quick notes 
from one beat to the next. Thus, the works 
of the early Flemish masters (Ockeghem, 
Obrecht, Isaac) are said to be in florid 
style [cf. HAM, no. 73; SchGMB, nos. 52, 
55]. Florid counterpoint specifically de- 
notes the use of ornamented lines in the 
teaching of counterpoint [see ♦Counter- 
point]. 

Flos [L., flower]. A 13th-century term 
for embellishments, somewhat like the 
trill, mordent, or vibrato. Johannes de 
Moravia {CS i, 92) likens the flos har- 
monicus to the rippled surface of a water 
moved by a gentle wind. 

Flott [G.]. Quick, without hesitation. 

Flottant [F.]. Floating. 

Flourish, (i) A trumpet call or fanfare. 
— (2) A decorative passage of a somewhat 
showy character, frequently one added by 
the performer. 

Flue pipes (stops, work). See ♦Or- 
gan VIII, IX. 

Fluchtig [G.]. Fleet, agile. 

Fliigel [G., wing]. The grand piano- 
forte, so called because of its wing-shaped 
form. 

Fliigelhorn. See *Brass instruments 
III (b). 


[270] 



FLOSSIG 

Fliissig [G.]. “Fluid/’ flowing. 

Flute. For the general characteristics of 
the flutes, see under *Wind instruments. 

I. Present Forms, (a) Flute [F. flute‘s G, 
Flote; It. flauto]. The modern flute is a 
cylindrical tube with a stopped parabolic 
head at the upper end. In the head is a 
side hole (embouchure) across which the 
player blows, thus setting in vibration the 
column of air inside the tube. The lowest 
octave of the fundamental scale is over- 
blown by increased wind pressure, thus 
providing the second octave of the com- 
pass. The remaining part of its three- 
octave range is produced by further over- 
blowing and by cross fingering. The mod- 
ern flute was largely developed by Th. 
Boehm [see *Boehm system] who devised 
the instrument as described above. It is 
generally made of silver, though older in- 
struments were of wood, and gold is oc- 
casionally used. The timbre varies con- 
siderably at different levels, the lowest 
tones being thick and breathy, the lighter 



ones becoming more bright and penetrat- 
ing. The flute is extremely agile. Most trills 
and tremolos are possible, and rapid reiter- 
ations of a pitch are easy of execution by 
means of *tonguing. Its range is as shown 
in Fig. I, although it appears that some 
instruments had the low Bb, and the high 
C# and D are occasionally written, (b) The 
Piccolo [F. petite flute\ G. Kleine Flote, 
Picl{elfldte\ It. flauto piccolo or ottavino\. 
A small flute, pitched an octave above the 
flute. Its written range is as shown in Fig. 
2, sounding an octave higher. It is one of 
the brightest and most penetrating instru- 
ments of the orchestra, and its upper reg- 
ister must be used with care, (c) The Alto 
Flute [F. flute alto\ G. Altflote; It. flau- 
tone], sometimes called bass flute. An in- 
strument built in G, i.e., a perfect fourth 
lower than the normal flute, with a range 
from g to c'". It is notated as a transposing 
instrument, a fourth above its actual sound 
(c' to £'")• (^) The Bass Flute, sometimes 


FLUTE 

called contrabass flute. An instrument 
built an octave below the regular flute. A 
recent construction is the Alhisiphone 
(invented by A. Albisi, 1910). The body 
of this instrument is held vertically, the 
extension being shortened by means of a 
double U-tube between the embouchure 
and the tuning slide. The mouth part is 
bent horizontally to form the top of a T. 
The fingering is that of the regular Boehm 
system. The compass is from B to f"jt. 
(e) Flutes and piccolos in D are occasion- 
ally encountered. These are treated as 
transposing instruments, having the writ- 
ten range of the regular flute. See also 
*Giorgi flute. 

II. Obsolete Forms, (a) The Third 
flute [G. Terz flote] . So called from being 
built in Eb, a minor third higher than the 
standard instrument, (b) Fliite d’amour 
[It. Flauto d'amore; G. Liebesflote]. A 
flute built a third lower than the regular 
flute. The alto flute [see I (c)] is some- 
times called by this name. 

III. History. Flutes are among the most 
ancient and widespread of all instruments. 
They existed in Sumer, Egypt, and Is- 
rael, as well as in Mexico and in South 
America, where they were frequently 
made from clay. In Europe, the first evi- 
dence of the transverse flute is a miniature 
in the Hortus Deliciarum, an encyclopedia 
from the end of the 12th century where 
it is called swegel [see *Schwegcl]. 
Throughout the Middle Ages, the Renais- 
sance, and the early Baroque periods the 
cross flute was mainly a military instru- 
ment (fife), associated particularly with 
Germany, hence the name German flute 
under which it was generally known. For 
artistic purposes, the end-blown flute, the 
^recorder, was preferred. Around 1650 
the instrument, which formerly had a 
cylindrical bore, was provided with a 
conical bore, a change which procured a 
much smoother tone. Before 1750 the 
flute traversicre became, for the first time, 
an important solistic instrument, as is 
shown by the appearance of Quantz’s 
epochal treatise: Versuch einer Anwei- 
sung die Flote traversihre zu spielen 
(1752). It may be noticed that in Bach 
and Handel the plain name flauto still 


[271 ] 





flote 


FOLIA 


invariably means the recorder, the cross 
flute being called fiauto traverso or tra- 
verso, Lully was probably the first com- 
poser to use the flute in the orchestra, but 
not until the time of Haydn did the flute 
become a permanent member thereof. 
Beginning with c, 1800 attempts at im- 
provement were made, caused chiefly by 
the incorrect position of the side holes 
which were cut to conform with the reach 
of the fingers rather than with the laws of 
acoustics. The final step in this develop 
ment was the system of Boehm, who also 
changed the bore back to its former cylin- 
drical shape. This change made the pitch 
more accurate, but destroyed the sweet 
timbre of the conical flute. It made the 
flute a most useful member of the orches- 
tra, but practically useless as a solo instru- 
ment. 

Lit.: D. C. Miller, The Flute and Flute 
Playing (1922); D. Ehrlich, The History 
of the Flute from Ancient Times to 
Boehm* s Invention (1921); H. M. Fitz- 
gibbon, Story of the Flute (1914); C. 
Welch, History of the Boehm Flute 
(1896); E. Prill, Fiihrer durch die Floten- 
literatur (1899); L. Fleury, ‘The Flute 
and its Powers of Expression” (ML iii); 
T. L. Southgate, “The Evolution of the 
Flute” (PM A xxxiv); id,, “Flute Music” 
(PM A xxxvi); D. C. Miller, “Modern 
Alto, Tenor and Bassflutes” (PAMS, 
1938); J. Wynn, in MO xv. 

Flute [F.]. Flute. Flute traversihe, al- 
lemande, cross flute, i.e., flute. Flute a bee, 
flute douce, ^recorder. Flute d* amour, see 
♦Flute II (b). 

Flutter-tonguing. See ♦Tonguing. 

Flying Dutchman, The. See ♦Flie- 
gende Hollander, Der. 

Focoso [It.]. Fiery. 

Folia, follia, folies d’Espagne. A 
famous melody of the 17th century which 
has been used as a theme for continuous 
variations [see ^Variations II] — similar 
in form and style to the ♦chaconne or passa- 
caglia — by a great number of composers, 
c.g., Michael Farinelli (for violin, 1649; 


hence the name “Farinelli’s Ground” un- 
der which this piece appeared in Playford's 
The Division Violin, 1685); D’Anglebert 
(for harpsichord, 1689; TaAM, vii, 
122); Pasquini (for harpsichord; cf. 
TaAM viii, 117 and 125); Alessandro 
(Domenico.?) Scarlatti (for harpsichord; 
cf. TaAM ix, 112); Marin Marais (for 
viola da gamba; Pihees de viol ... 1681); 
Corelli (for violin; op. 5 no. 12, 1700); F. 
Liszt (Rhapsodie Espagnole, 1863); Rach- 
maninov (Variations on a theme by Co- 
relli, op. 42, 1932). The beginning of 
d’Angelbert’s set is reproduced here. 



The tune itself, without variations, 
already appears in Carlo Milanuzzi’s 
Scherzi delle ariose vaghezze (for guitar, 
1623), in Caliginoso’s Intavolatura di Chi- 
tarra Spagnola (1629; cf. WoHN ii, 183), 
and elsewhere. It was furthermore quoted 
frequently in operas, e.g., in J. P. Fortsch’s 
Die grossmiitige Thalestris (1692), in R. 
Reiser’s Der Idcherliche Prinz Jodelet 
(1726, Overture), in Bach’s Peasant Can- 
tata (1742), in Gretry’s UAmant Jaloux 
(1778), in Cherubini’s UHotellerie Por- 
tugaise (1798), etc. Frescobaldi’s Partite 
sopra la Folia (1615; cf. TaAM iv) arc 
based on a different tune. On the other 
hand, the famous folia melody is clearly 
adumbrated in certain early Spanish 
“pavanas” for lute [Valderravano, Silva 
de Sirenas (1547); Diego Pisador, Libro 
de cifra (1552); see the Ex. under ♦Bar- 
line; also F. Pedrell, Cancionero popular 
. . . (1890), iii, 138]. 

Lit.: P. Nettl, in ZMW i; A, Moser, in 
AMW i; H. Riemann, in DM x.24; O. 
Gombosi, in AM viii. 


[273] 




FOLK SONG 


FOLK SONG 


Folk song. 1 . Folk song may be defined immense wealth of material which is of 

as the musical repertory and tradition of great interest and importance, particularly 

communities, as opposed to art music from the ethnological point of view. Folk 

which is the artistic expression of musi- songs of the different nations have certain 

cally trained individuals. It develops characteristic features which, although 

anonymously, usually among the “lower difficult to describe, are clearly felt to rep 

classes,” together with artless poems deal- resent the general national traits of the 

ing with the various phases of daily life: people. Our example, showing an Amer- 

working songs, love songs, cradle songs, ican (i), an Italian (2), a German (3), a 

drinking songs, patriotic songs, dancing Swedish (4), and a Hungarian (5) 

folk song, will be sufficient to dem- 
onstrate this point. On the other hand, 
there exist numerous examples of melo- 
dies found among different and widely 
separated nations which show a striking 
similarity of melodic or rhythmic design. 
Certain Hungarian folk songs, for exam- 
ple, have been found to be almost identical 
with melodies sung in Anatolia, Scotch 
folk tunes have been said to be similar in 
some respects to those of Arabia, and 
Russian gypsy songs are surprisingly close 
in character to Brazilian melodies. While 
in many cases such similarity may be mere- 
ly incidental, it often points to a common 
origin of such melodies and, in such cases, 
gives a clue as to the presumable age 
of the songs, which obviously must be 
anterior to the period in which the two 
people migrated into different places. By 
such methods (which would be applicable 
in the case of Hungary and Anatolia, but 
certainly not in the case of Scotland and 
Arabia or Russia and Brazil) it has been 
possible to establish scientifically the age 
of certain folk songs. To mention this 
point is all the more important since no- 
where in musical studies have pure fancy 
and wishful thinking been given free rein 
to such a degree as in the study of folk 
music, where millenniums are treated 
with unparalleled generosity, and melo- 
dies are “believed to date back to pre- 
Christian eras” which show unmistakable 
traces of having been invented in the 17th 
or 1 8th century [see under *Bards]. Ac- 
tually, most of the folk melodies of the 
“civilized” nations are of a relatively re- 
cent origin. For instance, practically all 
songs, mourning songs» narrative and epic the folk songs which are in current use in 
songs, etc. Songs of this kind exist among Germany date from the period around 
practically every nation, race, or tribe, 1800. Those of Italy are still more recent, 

and they form, considered as a whole, an while the English ones frequently show 

[274] 






FOLK SONG 


FOLK SONG 


traits of an earlier origin (i6th, 17th cen- 
turies). 

11 . The great majority of folk songs as 
they exist today belong to what might be 
termed “civilized folk song,” i.e., folk 
songs which show the influence of art 
music. That most of our folk songs belong 
to this class becomes immediately clear if 
any of them is compared with a truly 
“aboriginal folk song,” such as are found 
in primitive cultures [see ^Primitive mu- 
sic], and occasionally still in secluded re- 
gions of the Balkan peninsula, of Fin- 
land, of Scotland, etc. Strict meter and 
measure, clear and regular phrases, well- 
defined tonality (sometimes with traces 
of modality), definite form, triadic inter- 
vals, etc., are features which have their 
origin in the rationalized vocabulary of 
art music and which have, in the course 
of one or two centuries, sunk down to the 
lower classes in a characteristic process of 
seepage [G. abgesunkenes Kulturgut], 
(An interesting example illustrating the 
“city influence” on Spanish folk song is 
given by H. Angles in AMF lii, 350.) The 
discovery of this influence “from above to 
below” is, of course, in diametrical oppo- 
sition to the still largely current opinion 
according to which folk song is the “foun- 
dation” of all music, an opinion which is 
reflected in many books on the history of 
music in which the traceable history is 
preceded by an introductory chapter on 
“Folk song.” Such a procedure would 
have some justification if examples of re- 
ally primitive folk music were discussed, 
instead of folk songs which evidently be- 
long to the 17th and i8th centuries. 

It is important and interesting to note 
that the process of seepage has exercised a 
much more penetrating effect on the texts 
than on the melodies of folk songs. Nu- 
merous texts of folk songs have been 
shown to be but modified, frequently dis- 
torted, versions of art poems. Similar ex- 
amples are rare, however, as far as the 
melodies are concerned. Here the influ- 
ence “from above” is of a more general 
character, establishing the general frame- 
work of style and design only, but admit- 
ting original creation within this frame. 
This observation is important because it 


shows that music is much closer to the 
“heart” of the masses than literature or 
poetry. 

Needless to say, in the question of 
authorship, also, modern scholars take a 
much more sober view than earlier writers 
who surrounded the folk song with an 
aureole of “divine origin,” of mystic 
“self-conception,” or of “collective crea- 
tion.” Each folk song is, of course, the 
product of an individual, and the “collec- 
tive” point of view is justifiable only in so 
far as the “original” song has, in the course 
of decades, centuries, or millenniums, 
been modified by others. 

III. Perhaps the earliest true folk songs 
traceable in written form are Icelandic 
songs and the Polish war song Bogaro- 
dicza^ which are preserved in 13th-century 
MSS [see ^Icelandic music; ^Polish mu- 
sic]. A famous 15th-century example is 
^Uhomme arme, and numerous German 
songs from the same century are preserved 
[see *Liederbuch]. One of the most 
beautiful German folk songs of the pres- 
ent day, lnnsbruc\ ich muss dich lassen^ 
is a composition by Heinrich Isaac (1450- 
1517). Particularly interesting is a Hun- 
garian melody preserved in a Cronica of 
1544 because it is the earliest folk song 
showing unmistakable “national” traits 
[cf. LavE i.5, 2615!]. A number of 
charming English folk tunes {Goe from 
my window^ John come kjss me now) are 
preserved in the Fitzwilliam Virginal 
Boo\ (c. 1600) where they are used as 
themes for variations. Most of the Eng- 
lish folk melodies date from the 17th cen- 
tury while those of Germany originated 
mostly around and after 1800. Many of 
the most popular folk songs are of trace- 
able authorship, c.g., the Lorelei (Ger- 
man; text by Heine, music by F. Silcher, 
1789-1860), Dixie (Daniel D. Emmett, 
1859), or Estrellita (Mexico; Manuel 
Ponce). As regards the folk songs of the 
United States, a clear line of distinction 
must, of course, be drawn between the 
aboriginal melodies of the Indians and the 
civilized folk songs of the white settlers 
and the Negroes. For the former, see 
American Indian music; for the latter, 
♦Ballad; *Shanty; *Negro music. 


1275] 



FOLLIA 


FORLANA 


Lit. (selection of books and collections 
of a general character): W. Danckert, 
Das europdische Vol\slied (1939); LavE 
ii.5, 2866-3014 (bibl.); M. E. Scars, Song 
Index (1926; Suppl. Vol. 1934); A. M. 
Buchanan, American Folf^music (Index, 
Bibliography; National Federation of 
Music Clubs, 1939); F. Howes, “Recent 
Work in Folk-Music” (PM A Ixiv); H. 
Mersmann, “Grundlagen einer musika- 
lischen Volkslicdforschung” (AMW iv). 

Collections, (a) International: F. H. 
Botsford, Songs of Many Peoples^ 3 
vols. (1921); G. R. Bantock, One hundred 
FolI{songs of All Nations ( 191 1 ) ; H. Mdl- 
ler. Das Lied der Vdll^er, 3 vols. — (b) 
National: C. J. Sharp, Folksongs of Eng- 
landy 5 vols. (1908-12); Ilmari Krohn, 
Suomen kansan sdvelmid (Finnish), 4 
vols. (1893-1912); J. Tiersot, 60 Folk- 
songs of France (1915); Erk-B6hme, 
Deutscher Liederhort (German), 3 vols. 
(1893-94); L. Chr. Erk, Deutscher Lie- 
derschatz (German), 3 vols. (1859-72); 
B. Bartok, Hungarian Folk ^tisic ( 1931 ) ; 
W. A. Fisher, Sixty Irish Songs (1915); 
D. dc Lange and others, Nederlandsche 
V olkdiederenbook (1900) ; E- Grieg, Nor- 
ges Melodier (Norway); N. A. Rimsky- 
Korsakov, 100 Chants nationaux russes 
(1925); A. Moffat, The Minstrelsy of 
Scotland-^ K. Schindler, Folk Music and 
Poetry of Spain and Portugal (1941); G. 
Hagg, Songs of Sweden, For American 
folk song see under ♦Ballad; ♦Negro mu- 
sic; ♦American Indian music. Add. bibl. 
in MoML, 922!!. 

Follia. See ♦Folia. 

Fonds d’orgue [F.]. Foundation stops 
of the organ. 

Foot, (i) In versification, see ♦Poetic 
Meter. — (2) In organ building, terms 
such as eight-foot (written 8-ft. or 8'), 
four-foot (4'), sixteen-foot (16'), etc., are 
used to differentiate stops which sound at 
the pitch indicated by the corresponding 
key from others sounding higher or lower 
octaves or even other intervals. If, e.g., 
the key C is touched, an 8'-stop sounds C, 
while a 4'-stop sounds c, and a i6'-stop 
sounds Cl. The terminology is derived 


from the fact that, in a normally pitched 
flue-stop, such as 8'-principal, the length 
of the pipe sounding C measures about 8 
feet (the other pipes of the same stop be- 
ing, of course, correspondingly longer or 
shorter), whereas, in a stop of the 4'-class, 
the pipe sounded by the same key is only 
half as long, etc. [see ♦Organ V]. In mu- 
tation stops, i.e., those stops which are 
designed to reinforce the harmonics of 
the unison stops [sec ♦Organ VI, IX(e)], 
still other foot-measurements occur. For 


instance, 2 — is a pipe of one-third 
3 

( 2 — = — ) the length of the normal 

\ 3 

pipes; it therefore produces the third par- 
tial, i.e., the twelfth (g for the key C); 

ri_( = — ) sounds the lower octave of 

3 \ 3 / 

lY 4\ 

this, G, and i — I = — 1 the higher one, 

3 \ 3 / 

g' Similarly, — ) gives the fifth 

partial, i.e., the third two octaves above 
the fundamental, e', while multiples of 

this fraction, such as 3— ( = — ^ — ) and 

6 — ^ ^ give lower thirds, e, E, 

4 ^ 2^ 

and — , — still higher ones, e" e'". The 

5 5 

seventh partial appears in stops such as 


yV 7/ 


This terminology has been borrowed 
for similar distinctions in other fields, 
e.g., for the designation of octaves (8-ft. 
octave, 4-ft. octave) or of instruments, 
e.g., in the term 4-ft. instrument for the 
piccolo flute, etc. 


Forefall. English 17th-century term for 
♦Appoggiatura. 


Forlana, furlana. A dance from 
northern Italy (Frioul). In dance collec- 
tions of the 1 6th century [Phalese, Dan- 
series (1583)] it has a character similar 
to that of the passamezzo (even meter), 
whereas, in Baroque music, it is a gay 


[276] 



FORM 

dance in triple meter (6/4, 6/8) with 
dotted rhythm, similar to the gigue. It 
appears frequently in the ballets of Cam- 
pra [VEurope galante ( 1697), Les Festes 
VSnitiens (1710)]. Bach’s orchestral 
suite in C major includes a forlana. In 
1914 attempts were made (ostensibly 
under the auspices of the Pope) to revive 
the forlana in place of the “offensive” 
tango. Cf. J. ficorcheville, in BSIM x; 
P. Nettl, in RM xiv. 

Form. A term which has different 
meanings depending on whether it occurs 
in the connection: “form in music” or: 
“form(s) 0/ music.” In the former com- 
bination it has a very general and loose 
significance, simply expressing the basic 
fact that music, like all art, is not a cha- 
otic conglomeration of sounds, but that 
it consists of sounds arranged in orderly 
manner according to numerous obvious 
principles as well as to a still greater num- 
ber of subtle and hidden relationships 
which evade formulation. In this mean- 
ing, form is so essential to music that it 
is difficult to imagine a procedure by 
which it could be avoided. Perhaps a 
wild portato up and down the violin 
mingled with some scratching and knock- 
ing of the bow would come pretty near 
to this. Even the simplest melody shows 
relationships of pitch (intervals), of time 
values (rhythm), of grouping (phrases), 
etc., in other words, has “form.” In 
speaking of “forms of music,” however, 
something quite different and much more 
specific is meant, namely the existence of 
certain schemes which govern the struc- 
ture-at-large of a composition and which 
were traditionally used in the various 
epochs of music history, e.g., the fugue 
or the sonata. 

As may well be expected, the ambiguity 
of the term — an ambiguity which has by 
no means been made sufficiently clear in 
numerous writings — has been the source 
of numerous misunderstandings and 
somewhat futile argumentation. Much 
of this could be avoided if, in speaking of 
a specific composition, a clear distinction 
were made between the “form in this 
composition” and the “form of this com- 


FORMS, MUSICAL 

position.” The much-discussed problem 
of “form and contents” offers an example. 
Considering, e.g., a typical statement such 
as: “In the last analysis form and content 
cannot be wholly independent of each 
other,” it appears that this is entirely cor- 
rect if form here means: “form in a. com- 
position.” In fact, in this case the some- 
what cautious and defensive wording of 
the phrase may be replaced by the frank 
statement: “the form in a composition is 
entirely dependent on its contents.” If, 
however, form were meant here to denote 
“form of a composition,” the almost op- 
posite statement would be correct, namely: 
“the form of a composition (if it has a 
‘form’) is essentially independent of its 
contents.” If we conceive of the sound- 
material as a somewhat amorphous sub- 
stance comparable to the flesh and cells 
of a body, then form might be said to 
represent the support by which this sub- 
stance is held and shaped, this support 
being of two kinds: one forming a highly 
complicated inner structure comparable 
to the bones and muscles (form in a com- 
position); the other determining its outer 
contour, somewhat like the skin (form 
of a composition). 

Regarding the details of “form in 
music,” it suffices to say that practically 
all the theoretical and compositional prin- 
ciples of music fall under this category, 
e.g., tones, intervals, scales, tonality, con- 
sonance and dissonance, meter, rhythm, 
phrase, theme, motive, repetition, varia- 
tion, modification (metamorphosis, trans- 
formation), transposition, modulation, 
sequence, inversion, and all the higher 
devices of counterpoint. Most of these 
categories receive treatment under their 
own heading. For “forms of music” see 
*Forms, Musical. 

Formant. See under *Timbre (i). 

Forms, Musical. This means — or at 
least is understood here to mean — the 
general principles and schemes which 
govern the structure-at-large of a compo- 
sition [see remarks under *Form]. In 
other words, a musical form is the plan of 
construction — comparable to an archi- 
tect’s ground plan — which exists in the 


1 277 ] 



FORMS, MUSICAL FORMS, MUSICAL 


mind of the composer when he sets out to 
write, say, a fugue or a sonata. History 
shows that in almost every period of Euro- 
pean music (much less so in Oriental 
music) certain formal schemes became 
traditionally established and were used 
by the composers as molds, setting the 
general frame for their creative imagina- 
tion. The most important — at least, the 
most clearly defined — forms may be 
classified as follows: 

I. Single Forms 

A. Repetition Forms 

(i) a a' a" . . . •Variation form 

(а) a b (properly ||; a : 1 |: b :||) •Binary 
form 

(3) II: a :||: b a :|1 Rounded binary form 

(4) 11 : a :I 1 b a •Sonata-form 

(5) aba Ternary form 

(б) abaca Five-part form (also called 
•Rondo form) 

(7) a b a c a b a •Rondo form (Rondo- 
sonata form) 

(8) a b a c a d ... a Rondeau [sec 
•Rondeau (2)] 

(9) Medieval forms, see •Ballade; •Ron- 
deau (i); •Virelai (•Ballata) 

For the forms (2) to (5) see •Binary and 
ternary, also •Barform. The forms (3) to (7) 
have a structure similar to an arch (“arch form” 
or “bow form”; G. Bogenform)^ while (i) and 
the •sequence resemble the structure of a chain 
(“chain form”; G. Kettenformt Reihenform). 
Forms such as (8) combine both structures. 

B. Continuation forms 

(1) Cantus-firmus forms: •organum; 
13th-century •motet; chorale compo- 
sitions 

(2) Imitative forms; 16th-century •mo- 
tet; •riccrcar; •fugue 

n. Compound Forms (consisting of various 
“movements”) 

A. Instrumental: •sonata; •concerto; •suite; 
•toccata 

B. Vocal: •cantata; •mass; •passion; •ora- 
torio; •opera 

Naturally this list is not complete or 
without serious defects, and should be 
considered only as a general outline illus- 
trating the subject under discussion. 
There exist, of course, a large number of 
“hybrids” which do not fit into the above 
classification or which represent border- 
line cases. For instance the fugue which 
is classified above as a continuation form 
might also be considered in a way a repe- 
tition form, owing to the characteristic 
alternation of expositions and episodes. 


In other cases — in fact, in most of them 
— the evolutionary element has to be 
taken into account. For instance, the 
toccata which, in the period of Bach, is 
a compound form consisting usually of 
five distinct movements, starts out, around 
1550, as a single continuation form (A. 
Gabrieli), and gradually acquires sec- 
tional character (Merulo, c. 1600) which 
finally leads to the breaking up into move- 
ments. Particularly interesting and im- 
portant are the changes of sonata-form 
which, by a complicated process, lead 
from a clearly binary scheme via the so- 
nata-form proper to a ternary scheme [see 
*Sonata-form]. 

The above interpretation of “forms of 
music” as a composer’s ground plan does 
not, of course, claim to represent a gen- 
erally accepted definition. In fact, it 
would be impossible to find a definition 
which would be likely to meet with the 
universal approval of musicians and schol- 
ars. It may be noticed that many writers 
use the term in a wider sense, including 
in it what might be more properly termed 
“stylistic types,” e.g., the chaconne and 
the passacaglia (which are stylistic types 
of variation form), or the allemande, 
courante, etc. (which are stylistic types 
of binary form). Others prefer to use it 
in a narrower sense, by restricting its ap- 
plication to those schemes which are based 
upon the principle of repetition [see cate- 
gory I, A of the above classification]. 
Such restricted usage has a certain advan- 
tage. No doubt, the repetition forms are 
not only more clearly defined than the 
continuation forms, but also conform 
more fully to the general notion of form 
as a “pre-existing mold.” For the continu- 
ation-types the name “procedure” has 
been suggested and, indeed, would ap- 
pear to be appropriate. Thus in the case 
of a fugue, one would speak of “fugal 
procedure” rather than of “fugal form.” 

Although with the fugue one might 
argue whether it is a form or a procedure 
(or both combined), the appropriateness 
of the latter term is clearly indicated in 
many types of vocal music, namely those 
in which the text provides the sole 
“ground plan” of the composer, as in the 



FORMS, MUSICAL FORTSPINNUNG 


recitative, the through-composed song, in 
Wagner's “unending melody,” etc. A 
similar situation exists with regard to the 
“compound vocal forms” [II, B] and to 
the symphonic poem in which the com- 
poser “proceeds” on the basis of the pro- 
grammatical idea. 

There exists a widespread tendency 
among modern composers and writers to 
deny, or at least to minimize, the impor- 
tance of musical forms, the view being 
that each composition creates not only its 
own inner form (form within the com- 
position; see under '•‘'Form) but also its 
outer structure (form o/ the composi- 
tion). As far as the repertory of classical 
music and the greater part of early music 
are concerned, such a statement is obvi- 
ously wrong. It finds its justification 
mainly in the numerous examples of 19th- 
and 20th-century program music, and in 
the attempts of recent composers to mod- 
ify, particularly in their symphonies, the 
traditional scheme of the sonata. None- 
theless, it should be noticed that even 
such compositions as the symphonies of 
Sibelius and Shostakovitch, or the piano 
sonatas of Hindemith, clearly show that 
the composers, in writing them, were 
thinking in terms of the traditional prin- 
ciples of sonata writing. Although in the 
history of music there have repeatedly 
been periods in which there was an em- 
phasis on “free procedure” rather than on 
“established form,” such periods have 
always been of relatively short duration 
and of limited importance. One is prob- 
ably justified in extending this observa- 
tion to the present epoch. 

Lit.: E. Prout, Musical Form and Ap- 
plied Forms (1893/95); D. F. Toyey, 
articles “Contrapuntal Forms” and “So- 
nata Forms” in EncycL Brit,; P. 
Goetschius, Lessons in Music Form 
(1904); St. Maepherson, Form in Music 
(1908); M. H. Glyn, Analysis of the Evo- 
lution of Musical Form; H. Leichtentritt, 
Musi\alische Formenlehre (1927); R. 
Stohr, Musi\alische Formenlehre (i933)’> 
W. H. Hadow, “Form and Formalism in 
Music” (PM A xxiv); E. J. Dent, “Binary 
and Ternary Forms” (ML xvii); A. 
Louri( 5 , “The Crisis in Form” (MM viii, 


no. 4); R. von Picker, “Formprobleme 
der mittelaltcrlichen Musik” (ZMW vii); 
M. Bauer, “Formprobleme dcs spaten 
Beethoven” (ZMW ix); H. Mersmann, 
“Zur Geschichte des Formbegriffs” (JMP 
xxxvii). See also under *Sonata, *Fugue, 
and the bibliography in MoMLy 231. 

Forte [It.], abbr. /, loud; fortissimo, 
abbr. ^ (///), very loud; piu forte, louder; 
forte -piano, abbr. fp, loud followed by 
soft; mezzoforte, abbr. mf, medium loud. 
See ♦Dynamic marks. 

Fortepiano fit.], (i) See *Forte. — 
(2) Older name for the pianoforte. 

Fortfahren [G.]. To continue (e.g., 
with the same speed). 

Fortspinnung [G., spinning forth]. 
In melodic construction, the process of 
continuation, development, or working 
out of material, as opposed to repetition 
in a symmetrical arrangement. In mod- 
ern writings on melodic analysis (W. 
Fischer) a distinction is frequently made 
between Fortspinnungstypus and Lied- 
typus, terms which may be translated: 
continuation-type and repetition-type. A 
melody of the latter type is symmetrical 
in design and structure, whereas one of 
the former proceeds differently, frequently 
from longer phrases to shorter ones. An 
illustration is afforded by the accompany- 
ing two themes [(a) last movement of 



Mozart’s Symphony in G minor; (b) 
scherzo of Beethoven’s Fifth] which arc 
usually cited as an example of “identical 
material” (even of plagiarism!), but 
which are more interesting as an example 
of “contrasting treatment of the same ma- 
terial,” the former being treated in repe- 


1*79] 




FORTY-EIGHT 


freischotz 


tition, the latter in continuation. Other 
terms for the same two types are “static” 
and “dynamic” melody (E. Kurth). Cf. 
W, Fischer, in StM iii. 

Forty-eight, The. Popular name for 
the 48 preludes and fugues of Bach’s 
*W ell-tempered Clavier i and ii (24 in 
each). 

Forzando, forzato [It.]. Forcing, 
forced. 

Fougeux [F.]. Impetuous. 

Foundation stops. Designation for all 
organ pipes except the mutation stops 
[see *C)rgan VI]. 

Fountains of Rome. See ^Symphonic 
poem IV. 

Fourniture [F.]. Mixture-stops of the 
organ. See also *Organ IX (f). 

Four-shape note. See *Fasola. 

Fourth. The fourth degree (note) of 
the diatonic scale, or the interval formed 
by a tone and the fourth tone above. 
While in classical harmony the fourth 
occurs only as the inversion of the fifth 
[see ^Sixth-chord; ♦Six-four chord], it is 
of basic importance in ancient Greek 
music [see *Tetrachord] and in early 
medieval polyphony [see ♦Organum], 
and it has once more acquired independ- 
ent importance in modern harmony. 
Scriabin introduced chords consisting of 
successive fourths, e.g., C-FlP-Bb-e-a- 
d' [see ♦Mystic chord], and contempo- 
rary composers (Stravinsky, Hindemith) 
make extensive use of similar combina- 
tions (fourth-chords). See ♦Harmony II, 
9; ♦Quartal harmony. Cf. O. Beer, in DM 
xxii.2. 

Fox-trot. A species of ragtime which 
dates from 1912. The term has become a 
generic designation for all jazz in duple 
time, except the foreign importations such 
as the rhumba, tango, etc. Thus the 
“Blues” is spoken of as a slow fox-trot, 
and “Swing” can be considered as a fast 
fox-trot with improvised performance. 


Frais, fraiche [F.]. Fresh. 

Frappant [F.j. “Striking,” marking. 

Frauenchor [G.]. Women’s chorus. 

Freddamente [It.]. Coldly, indiffer- 
ently. 

Fredon [F.]. A rather indefinite term 
applied by 17th-century French musicians 
to a trill or a short ♦roulade. In the i8th 
century it is generally used in a deroga- 
tory sense for excessive ornamentation. 

Freemason songs. Cf. P. Nettl, in 
MO xvi; also in Drei Ringe^ 1927. 

Freischiitz, Der (“The Freeshooter”). 
Opera in three acts by Carl Maria von 
Weber (1786-1826), libretto by F. Kind, 
produced at Berlin in 1821. The plot is 
based on the story of “magic bullets” 
which never miss their mark and which 
can be obtained through a pact with the 
spirits of hell. The hunter Max (Tenor), 
on the advice of his sinister companion 
Caspar (Bass), resorts to this scheme 
(nightly scene in the wolf’s glen) in order 
to win Agathe (Soprano), who is to be 
given as a prize to the winner in the 
marksmen’s prize shooting. Six of the 
seven bullets reach their goal, but the 
seventh (Max does not know this) is 
under the control of the hellish spirit 
Samiel (speaking part), who directs it 
against Agathe. She is, however, pro- 
tected by the Hermit (Bass) and by her 
bridal wreath, and Samiel, failing in his 
scheme, seizes Caspar who dies with a 
curse on his lips. 

The Freischiitz marks the beginning as 
well as the peak of the German Romantic 
opera. Folklore, nature, and legendary 
superstition are the roots out of which 
grows a music which is admirable both 
for the charm of its folk-like melodies 
and dance tunes, and for its touches of 
dramatic tension and Romantic excite- 
ment. Particularly remarkable is the bold 
use of the wind instruments: the horns 
which capture the atmosphere of the 
“German forest”; the trombones which 
accompany the hermit; the clarinet which 
characterizes Agathe; and the low regis- 


Fp. Short for forte-piano [see •Forte]. 

[280] 



FREISTIMMIG 

ter of the flute which portrays Samiel. 
See reference under *Mdodrama. 

Freistimmig [G., from /r«, free; 
Stimmcy part]. Modern German term for 
a “pscudo-contrapuntal” style in which 
there is no strict adherence to a given 
number of parts, that is, in which voices 
are allowed freely to enter or drop out, 
and in which also chordal elements occur. 
The natural idiom for such a style is the 
keyboard or the lute. Indeed, it makes its 
first appearance in the 15th- and 16th- 
century preludes for these instruments. 
It is frequently found in the works of 
Frcscobaldi [see Ex.; cf. ApMZ i, no. 19] 



and forms a characteristic trait of the 
style of Froberger. Naturally, the contra- 
puntal treatment in 19th-century composi- 
tions, such as Beethoven’s sonatas, is al- 
ways more or less freistimmig. See also 
^Texture; ^Ensemble (3). 

French chanson. See *Chanson (3). 

French harp. Older name for the 
*mouth-organ. 

French horn. The *horn, in contradis- 
tinction to the English horn, which is a 
member of the *oboe family. 

French music. From a bird’s-eye point 
of view, the history of French music 
shows three climactic periods: an early 
one embracing three centuries (1150- 
1450), during which France was the un- 
disputed leader in musical development; 
another of about 100 years, during the 
Baroque era (Chambonnieres, Lully, 
Couperin, Rameau), and a third one, that 
of modern French music, beginning with 
Berlioz. 

1 . During the 5th and 6th centuries 
there existed in France a special branch of 
Christian worship, the Gallican Rite, 


FRENCH MUSIC 

which had its special music, known as 
^'Gallican chant. After the establishment 
of the Roman Rite (by Pipin, 752-768) 
the cathedral of Metz became the leading 
French center of Gregorian chant, well 
known particularly for its neumatic 
manuscripts written in a special type of 
neumes, the Messine neumes [see 
♦Neumes Ij. In the 9th century the 
monastery of St. Martial in Limoges 
played a leading part in the early devel- 
opment of the *sequence, a development 
which reached its high-point in Adam de 
St. Victor (d. 1192). From the period of 
Charlemagne (76^814), a number of 
songs in the Latin language are preserved 
which, of course, can be claimed with 
equal right as “French” or “German” 
(e.g., the Planctus Karoli; cf. GD v, i; 
AdHM i, 160). The oldest song in the 
French (Proven^ale) language is a Hora 
VOS die dera ratzun of the loth century 
[cf. P. Aubry, Les plus ancients monu- 
ments de la musique fran^aise (1903), 
pi. I], Of slightly later date is the Spon- 
sus-play with a mixed Latin and Pro- 
ven9al text, and the northern French 
Daniel play, from Beauvais [see *Liturgi- 
cal drama]. 

II. The great period of medieval 
French music begins around 1150 in two 
parallel lines of epochal importance: that 
of monophonic secular music, represented 
by the ^troubadours and *trouvhes\ and 
that of polyphonic music, represented by 
the anonymous composers of the School 
of '"'St. Martial {c, 1150), by the School of 
•Notre Dame with Leoninus and Pero- 
tinus (before and after 1200), by the *Ars 
antiqua of the 13th century, and the •Ars 
nova of the 14th century (Philippe de 
Vitry, c, 1290--1361; Guillaume de Ma- 
chaut, 1300—77), which, after a transi- 
tional period (Cesaris, Tapissier, Solage, 
and many others), led to the last period 
of medieval French music, the •Bur- 
gundian School, with Dufay (r. 1400- 
74), and Binchois (r. 1400-67). Late 
Burgundian musicians such as Antoine 
Busnois (d. 1492) and Loyset Compare 
(d. 1518), both pupils of Ockeghem, form 
a group sometimes referred to as the 
School of Cambrai (Dufay lived in Cam- 


[281] 




FRENCH MUSIC FRENCH MUSIC 


brai from 1450 till his death) which al- 
ready shows the influence of the Flemish 
style (figurate counterpoint with imita- 
tion; cf., e.g., BeMMR 212, 213). In the 
works of other French composers such as 
Josquin des Pres (1450-1521), Pierre de 
la Rue (c. 1460-1518), and Antoine 
Brumel (fl. around 1500), the Flemish 
influence is so dominating that they are 
usually classified as *Flemish composers. 

The Flemish style took on a typically 
French tinge with Clement fannequin 
(1485-1560), the founder of the French 
^chanson, that witty and frivolous type 
of music which established France’s lead- 
ership in the field of amorous and hedo- 
nistic music, but also marked the end of 
its artistic eminence. Alongside this, there 
goes an academic strain through the 
French music of the i6th century, char- 
acterized chiefly by the cultivation of the 
*vers mesure (Claudin, Costeley). A 
large repertoire of French 16th-century 
lute music (mostly dances and arrange- 
ments of chansons) exists in the lute 
books of Attaingnant (1530), Morlaye 
{c, 1550), Adrian Le Roy {c, 1550), and 
others [see *Lute music], while only a 
few remnants of 16th-century French 
organ music have been preserved in the 
organ books published by Attaingnant 
around 1530, and in the works of the 
great organ composer Jean Titelouze 
(1563-1633), the “French Sweelinck,” as 
he might be called. 

III. In the 17th century, French music 
was entirely under the patronage of the 
court of Versailles (Louis XIII, 1610-43; 
Louis XIV, 1643-1715), the pomp and 
splendor of which was enhanced by the 
♦ballet (Cambefort, 1605-61; Lully, 
1632-87; Campra, 1660-1744), and by 
the opera (Cambert, 1628^7; Lully; 
Campra; Rameau, 1683-1764) [see 
♦Opera IV]. Here originated the ♦min- 
uet, the *gavotte, the ♦bourree, and 
numerous other dances which were later 
adopted into the ♦suite. Of great artistic 
significance is the French lute music of 
the 17th century, represented chiefly by 
Denis Gaultier {c, 1600-72), and the 
harpsichord music which leads from 
the reserved dignity of Chambonni^res 


(1602-72) and Louis Couperin {c, 1626- 
61) over the Baroque peak of Henry 
d’Anglebert (1635-91) to the Rococo 
hedonism of Francois Couperin (1668- 
1733), coming to its close in the master- 
works of Jean-Philippe Rameau (1683- 
1764), with their almost Beethovenian 
traits of ingenious characterization and 
dramatic surprise. The French organ 
music of the Baroque (Gigault, 1625- 
1707; Le Begue, 1630-1702; Dandrieu, 
1684-1740) is notable for its ventures in 
registration rather than for truly artistic 
achievements. The French song litera- 
ture of this period includes the *air de 
cour^ the ^bergerette^ and the ^brunette 
[see ♦Chanson]. 

The invasion of the Italian opera buffa 
(1752; guerre des ^bouffons) marked the 
end of the French Baroque opera and the 
beginning of the less significant ♦opera 
comique. For an entire century, from 
1750 to 1850, the history of French music 
was practically restricted to the efforts to 
build up a new “great opera,” efforts in 
which the German Gluck (1714-87), the 
Italians Cherubini (1760-1842) and Ros- 
sini (1792-1868), the German Meyerbeer 
(1791-1864) participated side by side 
with French composers such as Gretry 
(1742-1813), Mehul (1763-1817), Boiel- 
dieu (1775-1834), Auber (1782-1871), 
and Halevy (1799-1862). 

IV. Much more important than the 
mediocrities of these operas is the sym- 
phonic work of Hector Berlioz (1803- 
69), the heir to the tradition of Beethoven 
and perhaps the greatest figure in the 
French music of the 19th century. With 
all their “flaws” his compositions show 
an originality, passion, and vigor which 
is rarely encountered in the more aca- 
demic works of his successors, C^sar 
Franck (1822-90), Charles Saint-Saens 
(1835-1921), Gabriel Faure (1845- 
1924), and Vincent d’Indy (1851-1931). 
These four form what might be called 
the classical school of French music. 
They amalgamated the classical forms of 
the symphony, quartet, variations, etc., 
with a romantic vocabulary of harmonies 
and with a thorough study of counter- 
point. Their academic and somewhat 


[282] 



FRENCH MUSIC 

dogmatic leanings became patent in the 
*Schola cantorum (founded by d’Indy 
and others in 1894) which continued the 
tradition of Cesar Franck, combining it 
with the study of Gregorian chant and of 
16th-century counterpoint (Palestrina). 

The tendency towards a greater sub- 
jectivism, a more lyrical expressiveness, 
a richer orchestral palette, and a typically 
French exquisiteness of taste appears in 
the works of Henri Duparc (1848-1933), 
the creator of the modern French song 
[see ’"'Chanson], Ernest Chausson (1855- 
99), and Paul Dukas (1865-1935). Un- 
fortunately, each of them produced only 
a few works of importance. To the fore- 
going may be added Florent Schmitt 
(b. 1870) who, more than any other 
French composer, was influenced by the 
emotional exuberance of German Roman- 
ticism. Modern French music found its 
most characteristic expression in the *im- 
pressionism which was prepared by 
fidouard Lalo (1823-92) and Emmanuel 
Chabrier (1841-94), and brought to full 
realization by Claude Debussy (1862- 
1918) and Maurice Ravel (1875-1937). 

The revolutionary tendencies of the 
after-war period brought a strong reac- 
tion against the refinement of impres- 
sionistic style, a reaction which found its 
clearest formulation in the words of Coc- 
teau: “After the music with the silk- 
brush, the music with the ax.” In this 
movement Erik Satie (1866-1925) played 
a role comparable to that of Arnold 
Schonberg in Germany. He founded the 
school known as Les Six [see *Six] which 
includes the most prominent among the 
contemporary French composers, notably 
Darius Milhaud (b. 1892), Arthur Ho- 
negger (b. 1892), Francis Poulenc (b. 
1899), and George Auric (b. 1899). 
While the first two of these show the in- 
fluence of Schonberg’s *atonality, the last 
two embrace a facile and popularizing 
hedonism which has also been adopted 
by some of the youngest French com- 
posers, e.g., Jean Fran^aix (b. 1912). A 
separate place must be reserved for Albert 
Roussel (1869-1937) who, though influ- 
enced successively by dlndy, Debussy, 
and Stravinsky, has nonetheless devel- 


FRET 

oped a highly personal style of a basically 
contrapuntal construction, but varying 
greatly from one composition to the next. 

The repertoire of the modern French 
opera is characterized by Gounod’s Faust 
(1859), Bizet’s Carmen (1875), Saint- 
Saens’s Samson et Dalila (1877), Masse- 
net’s Manon (1884), Lalo’s Le Roi d'Ys 
(1878), Chabrier’s Gwendoline (1886), 
d’Indy ’s Fervaal (1897), Charpentier’s 
Louise (1900), Debussy’s Pelleas et Meli- 
sande (1900), Dukas’ Ariane et Barbe- 
bleue (1907), Ravel’s Heure Espagnole 
(1911), and Faure’s PenSlope (1913). 
After the first World War French com- 
posers became interested chiefly in the 
ballet [see ^Ballet III.] 

Lit.: LavE i.3, 1176 (till 1814), ii.i, 56 
(modern); P. Lasserre, The Spirit of 
French Music (1917); M. Hargrave, The 
Earlier French Musicians, 

(1917); A. Hervey, French Music of the 
igth Century (1903); A. W. Locke, 
Music and the Romantic Movement in 
France ( 1920) ; E. B. Hill, Modern French 
Music (1924); A. Coeuroy, La Musique 
fran^aise moderne ( 1922); G. Jean-Aubry, 
French Music of Today ( 1919) ; H. Grace, 
French Organ Music, Past and Present 
(1919); A. Cortot, French Piano Music 
(1932); A. Koechlin, “Sur revolution de 
la musique fran^aise avant et apres De- 
bussy” (RM xvi). See *Editions XVI, 
XIX, XXIV. 

French overture. See ♦Overture I, 
II. 

French sixth. See "“Sixth chord. 

Frenetico [It.]. Frenzied. 

Frequency. See under ♦Acoustics I. 

Fresco [It.]. Fresh. 

Fret [F. touche; G. Bund, pl. Bunde; 
It. tasto\ . Frets are raised lines across the 
finger board of certain instruments (lute, 
guitar, viols, balalaika, banjo, and various 
Indian and Arabic instruments) which 
mark the position for the stopping of the 
strings. Formerly they were made from 
pieces of catgut which were tied tightly 
around the neck. In more recent instru- 


[283] 



FRETTEVOLE 


FUGA 


mcnts they are narrow strips of wood or 
metal fixed on the finger board. On Euro- 
pean instruments the frets are always so 
arranged as to give a succession of semi- 
tones [see *Tablature III]. 

Frettevole [It.]. Hurried. 

Friss, friszka. See *Czardas. 
Frohlich [G.]. Happy, joyful. 

Frog. Colloquial term adopted from the 

G. *Frosch^ for the *nut of the violin bow. 

Frog Quartet [G. Vroschquartett\, 
Popular name for Haydn’s Quartet in D 
(no. 50, or op. 50, no. 6), so called on ac- 
count of the character of the main theme 
of the last movement. 

Froidement [F.]. Coldly, indifferently. 

From the New World. See *Sym- 
phonic poem I. 

Frosch [G,, frog]. The *nut (*frog) 
of the violin bow. 

Frottola [It. dimin. of frutto, fruit.?]. 
A type of late 15th- and early 16th-century 
North-Italian poetry and music. As a 
poetic form, the frottola consists of vari- 
ous stanzas of three (or four) double- 
lines each, with a refrain (called ripresa) 
of two double-lines before and after each 
stanza, a form similar to the 14th-century 
*ballata, and the contemporary Spanish 
*villancico. The music always consists of 
several short sections which are arranged 
and repeated in various schemes, the fol- 
lowing one being frequent: 

Text: r r s s s r r 
Music: a b a a b a b 
(r stands for two lines of the refrain, s for 
two lines of the stanza). 

The style of the frottola is essentially 
chordal in three or four parts, with the 
upper part standing out as a melody. 
They were probably performed as accom- 
panied songs, the lower parts being played 
on instruments. There is, however, no 
foundation for the theory, advanced by 

H. Riemann and repeated by others, that 
the textless sections which frequently oc- 
cur at the end of a frottola were “instru- 
mental afterludes” [compare the mis- 


leading renditions in SchGMB, nos. 69, 
70, with the correct (vocalizing) inter- 
pretation in BeMMR, 220] . The most im- 
portant source for these songs are the 
eleven books, Frottolcy published by Pe- 
trucci in 1504-14. In these books, as well 
as in present-day usage, the term frottole 
is also employed as a generic designation 
for Italian secular songs of the period 
around 1500, including, in addition to 
the frottola proper, other poetic-musical 
types such as the ^canzona (4), the *odc 
and the *strambotto. 

The frottola grew up in the social at- 
mosphere of the courts at Verona, Padua, 
Venice, and particularly Mantua, where 
the most fertile composers of frottole 
lived, Marco Cara and Bartolommeo 
Tromboncino. H. Isaac and Josquin des 
Pres also wrote in this form, which be- 
came a forerunner of the *villanella as 
well as of the *madrigal. Expls. in Am- 
bros, Geschichte der Musi^ v; ^Editions 
II, vol. r; HAM, no. 95. 

Lit.: R. Schwartz, cf. '"'Editions XXV, 
vol. 8; A. Einstein, \Canzoni, Sonetti, 
Strambotti e Frottole . . . (1941); W. H. 
Rubsamen, Literary Sources of Secular 
Music in Italy (1943); E. B. Helm, in 
MQ xxvii; E. T. Ferand, in MQ xxvii; 

E. Gizzarelli, in BAMS i; R. Schwartz, 
in VMW ii; id., in JMP xxxi; id., in Fest- 
schrift fur Th. Kroyer; A. Einstein, in 
ZMW x; E. Ferand, in AM x; K. Jep- 
pesen, in AM xi; A. Pirro, in RdM, 1922; 

F. Vatielli, in RMl xxviii. 

Friihlingslied [G.]. Spring song. 

Fullstimme [G.]. A mere “filling” 
voice, lacking in independent importance. 

Fuga [It.;L.]. (i) Italian for *fugue. — 
(2) The original meaning of the (Latin) 
term is not fugue, but canon, particularly 
the canon in which the different voices 
sing the same melody — as in the modern 
canon or in the mensuration canon — as 
distinguished from the enigmatic canons 
[see *Canon II]. In this meaning the 
term is already used by Oswald v. Wol- 
kenstein, 1377-1445 [cf. H. J. Moser, 
Geschichte der Deutschen Musi\ (1930), 


[284] 



FUGATO 


FUGUE 


p. 196], later by J. Ockeghem [Ambros 
V, p. 18], Johannes Buchner [r. 1525; 
sec *Fundamentum], Hans Gerlc {Mu- 
sica Teusch (1532)], A. de Cabezon [see 
^Editions XIII], and Vincenzo Galilei 
[sec ♦Editions XIV, voL 4, p. 12]. 
Around 1600 the word fuga adopted the 
present meaning as a generic term for 
pieces in the fugal style, either canzonas 
[cf. B. Schmid, T abulaturbuch (1607): 
“Fugen oder, wic es die Italianer nennen, 
Canzoni alia Franccsc”], extended ricer- 
cares [S. Scheldt, Tabulatura nova 
(1624); cf. DdT i, 99], or any of the pre- 
cursors of the fugue proper. 

Fugato. A passage in fugal style which 
forms part of a primarily non-fugal com- 
position. Such passages occur frequently 
in the development sections of sympho- 
nies, sonatas, quartets. 

Fughetta. A short fugue. 

Fugue [from L. fuga, flight; F. fugue; 
G. Fuge], The latest and most mature 
form of imitative counterpoint, developed 
during the 17th century and brought to 
its highest perfection by J. S. Bach. 

I. Structure. The main features of a 
fugue are as follows: (a) A fugue is al- 
ways written in contrapuntal style, i.e., 
in a texture consisting of a certain num- 
ber of individual voices, usually three or 
four [see ♦Counterpoint; ♦Texture]. — 
(b) It is based on a short melody, called 
“subject” or “theme,” which is stated at 
the beginning of the fugue in one voice 
alone, being taken up (“imitated”) by 
the other voices in close succession and 
reappearing throughout the entire piece 
repeatedly in all the voices at different 
places according to principles to be ex- 
plained subsequently. — (c) In each voice 
the horizontal space between one state- 
ment and the next of the subject is filled 
out by a freely invented counterpoint 
which, however, is usually rendered 
homogeneous by the consistent use of 
small motives of a unified melodic and 
rhythmic pattern. These motives are de- 
rived either from the subject itself, or, 
more frequently, from its continuation 
which forms the counterpoint to the first 


imitation (second statement) of the sub- 
ject, near the beginning of the fugue. 
Frequently, but not always, this continu- 
ation takes on a rather definite form, 
somewhat comparable in distinctiveness 
and importance to the subject. In this 
case it is called “countersubject,” and will 
then be found reappearing throughout 
the fugue in a similar manner to the main 
subject, though less rigidly. — (d) A sec- 
tion during which the theme appears at 
least once in each voice is called exposi- 
tion. Frequently an exposition includes 
one more statement than the number of 
parts, e.g., four in a three-voiced fugue, 
the subject appearing once more in the 
part in which it appeared for the first 
time. However, this does not usually 
happen in the first exposition which, in 
other respects also, is the most normal and 
strictest of all the expositions. Sometimes 
the term exposition is restricted to the 
first exposition, without any special name 
being applied to the later sections of simi- 
lar construction. — (e) A section of the 
fugue which does not include a statement 
of the subject is called an episode. The 
episodes are based chiefly on short motives 
derived from the subject or its continua- 
tion (countersubject). They frequently 
show sequential treatment [see ♦Se- 
quence (i)]. The accompanying exam- 
ple (J. K. F. Fischer, Ariadne Musica, 


yr" 







rn 

I ' ' 

n 

4 

J 1 

— — 







c. 1700) illustrates the beginning of a 
fugue. — (f ) The structure-at-large of a 
fugue is an alternation of expositions and 
episodes. The episodes, although still in 
strict counterpoint, are somewhat “lighter 
in weight” and stand to the preceding 
expositions in the relationship of relaxa- 
tion to tension. A fugue may have three, 
four, or more expositions, separated from 
one another by episodes. The middle ex- 
positions usually involve modulations 
into other keys, such as the relative minor, 
the dominant, or the subdominant, with 
return to the main key in the last exposi- 





FUGUE 


FUGUE 


tion. — (g) While in the first exposition lesser or greater complexity, somewhat 
the statements of the subject follow in learned in character, but artistically justi- 
rather close succession, they usually occur fied as elements not only of additional 
more widely spaced in the later exposi- interest and variety but also of increased 
tions, separated by what might be called intensity. Most of these are found 
“secondary episodes.” In the accompany- under separate entries [see *Augmenta- 
ing schematic graph of the first fugue tion and diminution; ^Inversion; *Stret- 
from Bach's IF/. C/. ii these are designated to; ^Double Fugue; see also ’•‘‘Art of 

Fugue]. 

II. History, The principle of imitative 
counterpoint, which is the basis of the 
fugue, was established by the early *Flem- 
ish masters (Ockeghem, Obrecht) and 
was consistently applied first in the 
by the symbol ep., in contradistinction to •motets of Josquin, around 1500. The 
the “primary episodes,” designated Ep. style and form of Josquin's motet, char- 
(The figures given underneath the graph actcrized by a great number of relatively 
indicate the measures.) The three sub- short “expositions” (points), each based 
jects of the initial exposition are desig- on a different subject, and following one 
nated Si and S2, in order to indicate that another in a dovetailing fashion, were 
they appear in two different keys, namely, imitated in the organ *ricercare (Cavaz- 
tonic (Si) and dominant (S2) [see *Imi- zoni, 1540), not however without certain 
tation]. With respect to this tonal rela- modifications already foreshadowing the 
tionship they are referred to as “subject future tendencies, i.e., reduction of the 

and answer,” or “antecedent and conse- number of points (i.e., themes), and cx- 

quent,” or “dux (leader) and comes” pansion of each point into a well-defined 
(follower). Usually the answer is not an section including a greater number (up 
exact transposition, but one involving the to 15 and more) of statements of the sub- 
modification of certain steps, e.g., the re- ject. Besides these “poly thematic” ricer- 
placcment of a fifth (c~g) by a fourth cares, which are of considerable exten- 
(g-c', instead of g-d') [see *Tonal and sion, there occur also examples of the 
real answer] . shorter “monothematic” ricercar (e.g., by 

It must be noticed that the above Luzzascho Luzzaschi; cf. TaAM ii, 27). 

scheme of a fugue represents what is Another important forerunner of the 

called a “student’s fugue,” as distin- fugue is the organ •canzona which is 

guished from a “composer’s fugue,” such similar in form to the polythematic ricer- 
as those by Bach, few of which agree car, but more lively in character, less 
with the theoretical description in every scholarly in treatment. The ricercare 
detail. It is interesting to observe that style persists in slow fugues, such as nos. 
Bach treated the fugue much more freely 4 and 22 of Wt, Cl, i, while the canzona 
than Mozart, Haydn, and Beethoven the type leads to the more flexible and indi- 
sonata. The question may well be raised vidual subjects such as occur in the 
whether there really exists such a thing quicker fugues [see •Soggetto]. 
as the “form of the fugue,” and whether The details of the development leading 
it would not be more proper to speak of from the ricercar and canzona of the 
“fugal procedure” rather than “fugal i6oo-period to the fugue of Bach have 
form” [see *Forms, Musical]. At any never been thoroughly investigated and 
rate, the statement repeated in numerous clearly outlined. The problem is very 
books that “a fugue is a three-part form” difficult indeed owing to the enormous 
is rather misleading. wealth of material and the variety of 

While the above explanations indicate trends and schools. In restricting our- 
the basic principles of the fugue, fugal selves to the organ fugue (i.e., omitting 
style includes many special devices of the no less important development of 

[286] 




FUGUE 


FUNCTIONAL HARMONY 


fugal style in instrumental and vocal 
music) it can be said that this develop- 
ment takes place chiefly in Germany 
[“fugues” by Frescobaldi, which have 
been frequently reprinted in modern col- 
lections (e.g., L. Oesterle, Early Keyboard 
Music (1932) i, p. 59) are definitely 
spurious] and that in a slow process of 
gradual changes the typical features of 
the Bach-fugue appear, such as individ- 
ual design of subject and countersubject, 
restriction to one subject, and loosening 
up of the uniformly heavy contrapuntal 
texture by the use of episodes. The inter- 
ested student will find this process illus- 
trated by the following examples, con- 
tained in A. Ritter, Zur Geschichte des 
Orgelspiels^ vol. ii (1884): Wolfgang 
Carl Briegel, 1626-1710 (p. 206); Georg 
Caspar Weeker, 1632-95 (p. 120); Jo- 
hann Christoph Bach, 1643-1703 (p. 
172); cf. also HAMy nos. 215, 234, 236. 
The fugues in Johann Krieger’s Anmu- 
tige Clavier AJebung (1699; new ed. in 
DTE 18) contain practically all the ele- 
ments of fugal style which enabled Bach 
to lead the form to its high-point of artis- 
tic perfection. 

The excellence of Bach’s fugues over 
those of his predecessors results from 
various factors: greater contrapuntal skill, 
clarification of the formal structure, more 
advanced methods of harmonic treat- 
ment, and others. While all these traits 
can be, and must be, understood as repre- 
senting progress by degrees, there is one 
which puts Bach’s fugues entirely into a 
class of their own, namely, the incom- 
parable artistic quality of their themes 
[sec *Melody]. The great master of the 
fugue after Bach is Beethoven who, in 
various movements of his latest piano so- 
natas (opp. 106, no), quartets, and other 
works has shown that the potentialities 
of this form were by no means exhausted 
by the Baroque masters. After Beethoven 
composers seldom used the fugue as a 
serious art form. Recently, however, the 
•neo-classical tendencies of present-day 
music have stimulated a new creative in- 
terest in this form (Hindemith and 
others). 

Lit.: A. Instructive: C. H. Kitson, The 


Elements of Fugal Construction (1929); 
E. Prout, Fugue (1891); /W., Fugal Analy^ 
sis (1892) ; J. Knorr, Lehrbuch der Fugen- 
Composition (1911); A. Gedalge, Traiti 
de la fugue (1901); W. Apel, Die Fuge 
(5 lectures, 1932); S. Levaric, “Fugue 
and Form” (BAMS vii). 

B. Historical: J. Miiller-Blattau, Grund- 
zuge einer Geschichte der Fuge (1924, 2d 
ed. 1931); W. Wesely, Die Entwickjung 
der Fuge bis Bach (Diss. Prague 1928); 
E. P. Schwartz, Die Fugenbeantwortung 
vor Bach (Diss. Vienna 1932); J. S. Shed- 
lock, “The Evolution of Fugue” (PMA 
xxiv); F. Deutsch, “Die Fugenarbeit in 
the Werken Beethoven’s” (StM xiv); M. 
Zulauf, “Zur Frage der Quintbeantwor- 
tung bei J. S. Bach” (ZMW vi). 

Fugue-tune, fuguing piece. Early 
American hymns which make some use 
of imitation. A number of such pieces 
were written by William Billings (1746- 
1800) who declared them to be “more 
than twenty times as powerful as the old 
slow tunes.” Example in HAM^ no. 324. 
Cf. Cl. Dickinson, '^Billings . . . Three 
Fuguing Tunes (1942); E. H. Pierce, in 
MQ xvi. See also •American music I; 
•Hymns, English. 

Functional harmony [G. Fun\tions- 
lehre], A relatively recent system of 
•harmonic analysis, developed chiefly by 
H. Riemann, and aiming not only at a 
simplification of the traditional methods 
but particularly at a clearer insight into 
the essentials of harmonic progressions. 
Its basis is the idea that, in a given key, 
there exist only three “functionally” dif- 
ferent chords, namely, tonic (I), domi- 
nant (V), and subdominant (IV), and 
that all other chordal combinations, even 
the most complex and chromatic, are but 
variants of one of these three chords, in 
other words, that they have either tonic- 
function, dominant-function, or subdomi- 
nant-f unction. The chief substitute for 
each of the three principal triads is its 
relative minor; thus VI stands for I; III 
for V; II for IV. However, the “upper 
relative” may also serve as a substitute: 
III for I; VII for V; VI for IV. The re- 
sulting ambiguity in meaning of, e.g.. Ill 


[287] 



FUNDAMENTAL 


FUSA 


(which may appear in tonic-function or in 
dominant-function) is an essential feature 
of the system in which a chord is deter- 
mined, not as an isolated phenomenon by 
its degree (as is largely the case in the 
current system of harmonic analysis), but 
by its function within a series of progres- 
sions. Particularly the *subdominant oc- 
curs in a great number of substitutes; 
among these is the *Neapolitan sixth 
which, in functional harmony, is simply a 
(doubly altered) S, while in the orthodox 
system it is the “first inversion of the 
lowered submediant.” Another example 
of functional interpretation is the six-four 
chord of the first degree (Ip which func- 
tionally is nearly always a plain dominant 
(V) involving a double appoggiatura. 

Riemann’s system has not gained a foot- 
hold outside of Germany. Although one 
might argue about the advisability of its 
full acceptance, it certainly deserves more 
recognition as a corrective of the tradi- 
tional system with its somewhat dogmatic 
method of labeling which is not always 
conducive to an understanding of har- 
monic life. The accompanying example 


. .. . ■ !.-■ -r--r-h-— U-f-o. 

irair-n i i 












n 



— ^ u- 

' ^ 1 



'^1 


11*1. VP 



zvnvi 










H — ^ 




^ BfcV V» M .IV » 1 n i 

GkV' V* T*^Db V* tb V» FV* I 



(Schumann) illustrates the traditional 
and the “functional” methods. 

Lit.: H. Riemann, Vereinfachte Har- 
monielehre (1893); E. Kirsch, Wesen und 
Aufbau dcr Lehre von den harmonischen 
Funl{tionen ( 1928) ; H. Moser, in ZMW i. 

Fundamental, Fundamental tone. 
The lowest tone, i.e., the bass note of a 
chord. Also, the first *harmonic. 

Fundamental bass [F. basse fonda- 
mentale]. In J. Ph. Rameau’s theory [sec 
•Theory II (d)] basse fondamentale is a 


fictitious bass line which consists of the 
roots of the chords occurring in a succes- 
sion of harmonies. Only if a chord is in 
root position does the basse fondamentale 
coincide with the real bass. Rameau used 
the basse fondamentale in order to dem- 
onstrate his then novel theory of the in- 
verted chords. 

Fundament-instrument [G.]. In the 
•thorough-bass period, all instruments 
used for the playing of the bass part, 
cither the written part only (violone, viola 
da gamba, violoncello, bassoon, etc.), or 
with accompanying chords (organ, harp- 
sichord, chitarrone, theorbo, etc.). 

Fundamentum organisandi. A title 
used by the 15th-century German com- 
poser Conrad Paumann (r. 1410-73) for 
a collection of organ pieces designed main- 
ly to serve as an instruction in composi- 
tion [for the meaning of the term organi- 
sandiy see •Organum (2)]. Aside from 
the MS of 1542 which contains also the 
Lochamer *Liederbuch [facs. ed. by K. 
Ameln, 1925; transcr. in ]MW ii], two 
slightly enlarged collections are preserved 
in the •Buxheim Organ Book. — The 
title was also used by Job. Buchner ( 1483- 
1538) for a collection of similar purpose, 
compiled c, 1520, though much larger in 
scope and more advanced in technique 
(including fugal style) [cf. K. Pasler, in 

Funktionslehre. See *Functional har- 
mony. 

Furiant. A rapid and fiery Bohemian 
dance, in % time, with frequendv shift- 
ing accents. It has been used repeatedly 
by Dvorak [op. 12, Duml^a and Furiant; 
op. 42, Two Furiants; also in his chamber 
music] and by Smetana \The Bartered 
Bride; Czech Dances], A piece called 
“Furie” in Turk’s Klavierschule (1789) 
is an early example of this dance type. 

Furlana. See *Forlana. 

Furniture stop. Same as mixture stop. 

Fusa [Old G. Fusela, Fusel] . See •Men- 
sural notation 1. 


[288] 



FUTURISM 


GALLANT STYLE 


Futurism. The term juturismo was in- 
troduced by the Italian writer Marinetti 
in 1909 in order to denote the extreme 
radicalism in literature and in all the arts. 
His ideas were transferred to music by 
Francesco Pratella, at least theoretically, 
in his Musica Futurista (1912), which 
contains the following characteristic sen- 
tences: “Dare Tanima musicale delle folle 
(of the masses), dei grand! cantieri in- 
dustrial! (industrial ship yards), dei treni 
(railways), dei transatlantic! (steam- 
boats), delle corazzate (battleships), degli 
automobili e degli aeroplani. Aggiungere 
ai grand! motivi central! del poema musi- 
cale il dominio della Macchina ed il regno 
vittoroso della Elettricita” [cf. the full 
text in N. Slonimsky, Music Since igoo 
(1937)]. Pratella also gives a detailed 
description of a composition for an “or- 


chestra” consisting of machine guns, si- 
rens, steam-whistles, etc. His music, how- 
ever, is not more than a mild Debussyism, 
mingled with Puccinian idioms. Real fu- 
turistic music was composed by Luigi Rus- 
solo (b. 1885), who constructed a number 
of noise instruments. Although his few 
performances of futurist music remained 
entirely without success, it is interesting 
to note that the program of futurism (a 
similar French movement was called 
bruitismCy noise-music) was partly real- 
ized by the “machine-music” of Bartok, 
Milhaud, Stravinsky (r. 1920-30). See 
*New music. Cf. J. Ecorcheville, in BSIM 
ix; N. C. Gatty, in MQ ii. 

Fz. Abbreviation of Jorzando, forzato, 
same as *sforzando (sf, sfz). 


G 


G. See ^Pitch names; ^Letter notation; 
*Hexachord; *Clefs. 

GabelgrifT [G.]. *Cross fingering. 

Gagliard, gaillarde. See *Galliard. 

Gai [F.],Gaio [It.]. Gay. 

Gaita. See ^Bagpipe. 

Galanterien [G.]. Eighteenth-century 
name tor short entertaining pieces in 
homophonic, i.e., non-fugal style, such as 
airs, variations, dances. In particular, 
denomination for the more recent dances 
in the optional group of the suite, such as 
the bourree, passepied, gavotte, etc., 
which are composed in a lighter style 
than the traditional allemand, courant, 
sarabande, and gigue. Cf. the title of the 
first part of Bach’s *Clavieruhung: 
“. . . Sarabanden, Giquen, Menuetten 
und anderen Galanterien.” See *Gallant 
style. 

Gallant style [F. style galant; G. galan- 
ter Stil; It. stile sueto\. In the i8th cen- 
tury, the light and elegant style of the 
^Rococo, as opposed to the serious and 


elaborate style of the ♦Baroque era {stren^ 
ger Stily gearbeiteter Stily stile osservato). 
The appearance of this new style indicated 
the change from the church to the “salon” 
as the cultural center, from fugal treat- 
ment to accompanied melody, from ar- 
chitectural greatness to playful pettiness, 
from cantatas and masses to amorous 
songs. This transition is already noticeable 
in the harpsichord compositions of F. 
Couperin and his German imitators (such 
as J. K. F. Fischer, F. X. Murschhauser, 
Th. Muflat) — as well as in the optional 
dances (menuets, bourrees, gavots, etc.; 
see *Galanterien) in the suites of Bach 
[cf. also the (spurious?) dances — menu- 
ets, marches, polonaises — in the Noten- 
btichlein der Anna Magdalena Bach ] . The 
whole-hearted adoption of this style led, 
around 1750, to an unusually low ebb of 
musical production, particularly in the 
works of Italian composers such as Rutini, 
Paganelli, Pescetti [cf. TaAM xii], and 
in England. In Germany it produced more 
important results under the hands of Tele- 
mann, Mattheson, Theophil Muflat. In 
the second half of the i8th century Bach’s 
sons Wilhelm Friedemann and Philipp 


[289] 



GALLIARD 

Emanuel endowed the new style with an 
expressiveness [see *Empfindsamer Stil] 
for which the somewhat derogatory word 
“gallant” is hardly an adequate denomi- 
nation, just as litde as in the case of Mo- 
zart’s works which are directly derived 
from the gallant style of the Italians (in- 
cluding Johann Christian Bach). See 
•Rococo; •Haffner collection. 

Lit.: W. Dahms, “The ‘Gallant* Style 
of Music” {MQ xi) ; P. Gradenwitz, “Mid- 
i8th Century Transformations of Style” 
(ML, xviii, no. 3); E. Biicken, “Der ga- 
lante Stil” (ZMW vi); see also under 
•Rococo. 

Galliard [F. gaillarde\ It. gagliarda, i.e., 
gay, rollicking]. A 16th-century dance in 
moderately quick triple time, with or 
without upbeat. It was executed with 
exaggerated leaps which, toward the end 
of the 1 6th century, took on features of 
gross obscenity. The earliest examples are 
preserved in Attaingnant’s Quatorze gaiU 
lardes^ neuf pavaneSy sept branles et deux 
basses dances (1530) [cf. ApMZ ii, 21, 
22]. A great number of gagliardas, each 
named after a muse or another lady, occur 
in Vincenzi Galilei’s Intavolatura di liuto 
of 1584 [see •Editions XIV, 4, p. loi]. 
After 1550 the galliard usually appears 
as an after-dance to the •pavane. See 
•Cinque-pace; •Dance music II. 

Gallican chant. The French (Proven- 
gal) branch or “dialect” of the plainsong 
tradition of the medieval Western Church 
[see *Chant]. It was in use in France 
until the introduction of the Roman chant 
and rite under Pipin [see •French music 
I]. A small number of melodies survive 
in manuscripts of the nth century. Cer- 
tain portions of the Gallican chant were 
incorporated into the Roman liturgy, e.g., 
the •Improperia and the hymn Crux Fi- 
delis {GR, 204). 

Lit.: A. Gastoue, Histoire du chant d 
Paris ( 1904) ; id., Le Chant gallican ( 1939; 
also published in Revue du Chant Gr 6 - 
gori^n, 1937-39). For additional bibl. cf. 
ReMMA, 436. 


GAPPED SCALE 

such as those shown in the illustration. It 
was executed with many changes of steps 

and with hopping movements. Offenbach 
used it parodistically in his Orpheus in 
the Underworld (1858). F. Liszt wrote a 
Grand Galop Chromatique (1838) and a 
Galop de Bal {c. 1840). See •Dance music 
IV. 

Galoubet. See •Pipe and Tabor. 

Gamba, Gambe [G.j. See •Viola da 
gamba. 

Gambang. A Javanese xylophone, con- 
sisting of a number of wooden or metal 
bars, resting on a boat-shaped resonating 
box. It occurs in a great variety of sizes 
and timbres. 

Gambenwerk. See under •Sostenente 
pianoforte. 

Gamelan. The Javanese orchestra [see 
•Javanese Music]. Cf. G. Knosp, “Le 
Gamelan” {RMl xxxi, xxxiii). 

Gamma [Greek name of the letter g] . In 
medieval theory the lowest tone of the 
scale, the G of the modern scale. In the 
Guidonian terminology it received the 
compound name gamma-ut [see •Hexa- 
chord II ] . Later, the term was metaphori- 
cally used to denote “all the tones from 
Gamma,” i.e., the entire scale. This mean- 
ing persists in the French word gamme 
for scale, and in the English gamut for 
scale or range. 

Gamme [F.]. Scale. See under •Gam- 
ma. 

Gamut. See under •Gamma. 

Ganze Note, ganze Pause [G.]. See 
•Notes. 

Ganzton [G.]. Whole tone. Ganzton- 
leiter, whole-tone scale. 

Ganzschluss [G.]. Full cadence. 

Gapped scale. A scale which is derived 
from a more complete system of tones by 
the omission of some of these. Thus, the 


Galop. A quick round-dance of the mid- 
19th century {c. 1825-75) with rhythms 

[290] 



GARBATAMENTE 

pentatonic scale is a gapped scale of the 
diatonic system, and this, in turn, can be 
considered as a gapped scale of the chro- 
matic scale. Another selection, made from 
the chromatic system, leads to the chro- 
matic scale of the ancient Greek theory. 
Most of the scales of Oriental music are 
gapped scales, as the tones used in actual 
music are only a small selection from a 
more complete system which is designed 
only for theoretical demonstration [cf., 
e.g., the 22 sruti and the 7-tone scales, sa- 
grama and ma-grama, of *Hindu music] . 

Garbatamente [It.]. Gracefully. 

Gassenhauer [G., from Gasse, alley]. 
In present German usage a vulgar street 
song. In publications of the i6th century, 
e.g., in Egenolfl^s Gassenhauerlin und 
Reutterliedlein (1535; facs. ed. by H. J. 
Moser, 1927), the term simply denotes 
popular songs, without the implication 
of vulgarity. In fact, these collections in- 
clude some of the most beautiful lyric 
songs of Isaac, Hofhaimer, and Senfl. 

Gathering note. In hymn singing, a 
note sounded by the organist as a signal 
to the congregation, to give them the cor- 
rect pitch of die hymn. 

Gaukler [G.]. See ^Minstrels. 

Gavotte. A French dance of the 17th 
century the name of which is said to be 
derived from the “gavots,’* i.e., the in- 




AV AV 

n,. f »f— *1 

ia:... 


1 

J 

pg| — : 3" 

— 1 L 



habitants of the Pays de Gap in Dauphin^. 
The dance is in moderate %-time, with 
an upbeat of two quarter-notes, and with 
the phrases usually ending and beginning 


GEBRAUCHSMUSIK 

in the middle of a measure. Earlier ex- 
amples, however, are frequently notated 
without upbeat [see Ex.]. The dance is 
already mentioned in Arrau’s *Orcheso- 
graphic (1588) as a “recueil de branles,” 
but apparently did not come in vogue 
until the middle of the 17th century when 
Lully introduced it into his ballets and 
operas. From here it found its way into 
the ordres of d’Anglebert and Fr. Cou- 
perin, and into the German suites of 
Pachelbel and J. K. F. Fischer. Bach used 
it frequently as one of the optional dances 
of his instrumental and keyboard suites. 
See *Dance music III. 

Gebrauchsmusik [G.]. This recent 
term, for which “utility music” or “work- 
aday music” is occasionally used as a 
translation, denotes music which is de- 
signed for “practical use” by amateurs, in 
the homes or at informal gatherings, as 
opposed to music written “for its own 
sake” {Vart pour Vari) and designed chief- 
ly to be used in concert performance by 
professionals or virtuosos. Characteristic 
traits of Gebrauchsmusik are: forms of 
moderate length; simplicity and clarity of 
style; small ensembles; avoidance of tech- 
nical difSculties; parts of equal interest 
and so designed that they can be played 
on whatever instruments are available; 
soberness and moderation of expression; 
emphasis on “good workmanship.” The 
rise of Gebrauchsmusik is one of the most 
characteristic features of *New Music in 
which it characterizes the reaction against 
the exaggerated individualism and the 
fin-de-sihcle refinement of the late Roman- 
ticism and of the impressionism. The 
movement which started under Hinde- 
mith and others in the festivals of Donau- 
eschingen [see ^Festivals III] gained sup- 
port from two sides: from the socialistic 
tendencies of the German post-war era, 
and from the revival of early music, par- 
ticularly of Bach. In fact, Bach’s cantatas 
were frequently cited as the earliest ex- 
amples of Gebrauchsmusik in the sense of 
“music written for immediate consump- 
tion or on commission” (Bach had to 
write a cantata for every Sunday). While 
19th-century composers would have con- 


f 291 ] 




GEBROCHENER AKKORD 


GENDfeR 


sidcred such a demand as an infringe- 
ment upon the free creative inspiration of 
the artist, musicians such as Hindemith 
and Krcnek have taken a pride in adopt- 
ing the less ostentatious attitude which 
was natural to the masters of earlier pe- 
riods. Hindemith’s introductory notes to 
his Ploner Musi\tag (1932) and to Wir 
baucn cine Stadt (1931) contain many 
pertinent remarks on Gebrauchsmusik. 
Cf. DM xxi.6 and xxiv.3; H. Closson,“The 
Case against Gebrauchsmusik” {MM vii). 

Gebrochener Akkord [G.]. Broken 
chord. 

Gebunden [G.], Legato. 

Gebundener Stil [G. gebunden, tied, 
restricted]. The strict contrapuntal style 
of the 17th and early i8th centuries 
(fugues), as opposed to jreier Stil (free 
style), i.e., either accompanied melody or 
*Freistimmigkeit. The Italian synonym 
is stile osservato [sec *Stile\, 

Gedackt [Old G.], gedeckt [G.]. 
^Stopped. The former term is used for an 
organ register consisting of stopped pipes, 
the latter for modern ‘‘stopped” instru- 
ments such as the clarinet. 

Gedampft [G.]. Muted, muffled. 

Gedehnt [G.]. “Stretched out,” sus- 
tained. 

Gefahrte [G., companion]. The an- 
swer of a fugal subject. 

Gefallig [G.]. Agreeable, pleasing. 

Gefuhlvoll [G.]. Full of feeling. 

Gegenbewegung [G.]. Usually con- 
trary motion (between two voices); some- 
times used in the meaning of inversion 
(of a subject). 


Gehalten [G.]. Sustained. 

Gehaucht [G.]. Whispered. 

Geheimnisvoll [G.]. Mysterious. 

Gehend [G.]. “Going,” i.e., andante. 

Geige [G.]. Violin; see under *Gigue 
(i). Geigenwerf^, see under ’"'Sostenente 
pianoforte. 

Geisslerlieder [G.]. German 14th- 
century songs which were sung during 
the penitential processions of the flagel- 
lants. Cf. P. Runge, Die Lieder und Melo- 
dien der Geissler des Jahres 73^9 (1900); 
ReMMA, 239. 

Geistertrio [G. Geist, spirit, ghost]. 
Popular name for Beethoven’s Pianoforte 
Trio in D, op. 70, with reference to the 
ghost-like character of the slow movement. 

Geistlich [G.]. Sacred, religious, spir- 
itual. Geistliche Konzerte (Schiitz) are 
concerted pieces (vocal and instrumental) 
for the use in the church; see ’•^Concerto 

III. 

Gekkin. A Japanese guitar; see *Guitar 
family. 

Gekoppelt [G.]. Coupled. 

Gelaufigkeit [G.]. Technical fluency. 

Gelassen [G.]. Quiet, calm. 

GemSchlich [G.]. Comfortable. 

Gemassigt [G.]. Moderate. 

Gemeindelied [G.]. Congregational 
hymn, chorale. 

Gemendo [It.]. Moaning. 

Gemessen [G.]. “Measured,” re- 
strained. 


Gegenfuge [G.j. Counter-fugue. Gemischte Stimmen [G.]. Mixed 

voices. 

Gegensatz [G.]. Contrast. In older 

writings the term is used to denote a Genau [G.]. Exact. 

countersubject or second theme. ^ .t t 

Gender. A Javanese metallophone, con- 

Gegenthema [G.]. Countersubject (of sisting of thin bronze slabs over resonat- 
a fugue) or second theme (of a sonata ing bamboo tubes [see * Javanese Music 

movement). I]. 

[292] 



GENERA 


GERMAN MUSIC 


Genera. Plural of L. ^genus. 

Generalbass [G.]. *Thorough-bass. 

Generalpause [G., abbreviated G.P.]. 
In orchestral works, a rest for the entire 
orchestra, coming in unexpectedly after a 
climaxing passage. This effect was one of 
the startling innovations of the ♦Mann- 
heim School. 

Generalprobe [G.]. The dress rehears- 
al of symphonic concerts, usually open to 
the public. 

Gentilmente [It.]. Gently, delicately. 

Genus. See ♦Greek music II (b). 

Gequalt [G.]. Painful. 

German flute. Eighteenth-century name 
for the transverse (cross) flute, as distin- 
guished from the English flute, i.e., the 
recorder. 

German music. The development of 
German music, if compared with that in 
France, England, Italy, started strikingly 
late. In the field of polyphonic music in 
particular, it was not until the middle of 
the 15th century — that is, at the time 
when the great period of ♦French music 
came to its close — that Germany came to 
the fore. From then on, however, Ger- 
man music progressed in a continuous 
line which, even aside from its many out- 
standing summits, has maintained an ex- 
ceptionally high level up to the present 
day, thus making Germany the leading 
nation in the more recent era of music 
history. 

I. Prehistory and Middle Ages. The 
♦lures, beautiful long trumpets of the 
Nordic bronze age, are remarkable as evi- 
dence of a high standard of bronze found- 
ing rather than of ‘‘prehistoric German 
music,” as has occasionally been claimed. 
Late Roman and early medieval writers 
have frequently made unfavorable com- 
ments upon the musical ability of the 
ancient Germans, particularly in regard 
to their singing [see Lit., Moser, p. 47]. 
In the 9th century the monastery of St. 
Gall (founded by Irish monks) became 
one of the most important centers of cul- 


tivation of Gregorian chant, particularly 
remarkable for its contribution to the 
development of the ♦sequence (Notker 
Balbulus, c. 840-912; Tuotilo, d. 915; 
Wipo, nth century) and of musical the- 
ory (Notker Labeo, d. 1022; Hermannus 
Contractus, 1013-54). ^^th cen- 

tury the Provencal troubadour movement 
spread to Germany, leading to a first 
flowering of German secular song among 
the *Minnesinger, with Neithart von 
Reuenthal (d. after 1245) as the outstand- 
ing musical personality. Toward the end 
of the 14th century their tradition deterio- 
rated, but was continued by the ♦Meister- 
singer, with Hans Sachs (1494-1576) as 
the main representative. 

Meanwhile, polyphonic music had made 
a late and slow start in the strikingly 
primitive pieces (written in the style of 
11th-century ♦organum) of the 14th- 
century codex Engelberg 314 [cf. F. Lud- 
wig, in KJ xxi, 48-61, and in AMW v, 
305!!], and in the slightly less archaic 
pieces of the Munch of Salzburg (fl. 
around 1375; cf. Moser, p. 1841!) and of 
Oswald von Wolkenstein (1377-1445; cf. 
BeMMR, 180; SchGMBy no. 46; complete 
works in DTOe 9.!). Attractive examples 
of unpretentious domestic chamber music 
exist in the Lochamer Liederbuch and in 
the Glogauer Liederbuch (both c. 1460; 
see ♦Liederbuch). Closely related to the 
Lochamer MS, which is also an important 
source of German 15th-century folk song, 
is the ^Fundamentum organisandi ( 1452) 
of Conrad Paumann (1410-73), an im- 
portant source of German organ music, 
preceded by the tablature of Adam Ile- 
borgh (1448; cf. W. Apel, in ZMW xvi) 
and followed by the ^Buxheim Organ 
BooJ{ of c. 1470. 

II. Renaissance. The late 15th century 
saw the rise of the first important school 
of German polyphonic music, represented 
by Adam von Fulda (r. 1440—1506; cf. 
W. Niemann, in KJ, 1902), Heinrich 
Finck (1445-1527), and Alexander Agri- 
cola (1446-1506) [see ♦Editions V, nos. 
9, 21, 32]. The Flemish master Heinrich 
Isaac (1450-15 1 7) played a leading role 
in this development, particularly in the 
field of the German part-song (“Innsbruck 


[ 293 ] 



GERMAN MUSIC 

ich muss dich lassen”), to which Paulus 
Hofhaimer (1459-1537), court-organist 
to Maximilian II, Thomas Stoltzer (r. 
1480-1526), and Ludwig Scnfl (c. 1490- 
c, 1550), a Swiss, also contributed many 
examples of great beauty [cf. H. J. Moser, 
Paulus Hofhaimer (1929); DTOe 
DdT 34; HAM, nos. 93, 108-111; 
SchGMB, nos. 76, 84-87; BeMMR, 265!!] . 
Senfl's *quodlibets are an interesting 
source for the reconstruction of the early 
German folk song. Around the middle of 
the 1 6th century this autochthonous de- 
velopment was interrupted to a certain 
extent by the great influx of Flemish com- 
posers who held the key-position in all the 
musical centers (de Monte in Prague; Le 
Maistre and Scandellus in Dresden; Lasso 
in Munich), until their German pupils 
such as Jacobus Gallus (Handl, 1550-91), 
Leonard Lechner (1553-1606), and Hans 
Leo Hassler (1564-1612) were ready to 
continue their tradition. Gallus and Hass- 
ler, together with Heinrich Praetorius 
(1560-1629) and Michael Praetorius 
(1571-1621), contributed also to the dis- 
semination of the * Venetian poly choral 
style. Towards the end of the century a 
number of musicians known as *colorists 
were active in the field of keyboard music. 

III. Baroque, The 17th century found 
German composers active in practically 
all the fields of vocal and instrumental 
music, and soon leading particularly in 
the various forms of church music, the 
*cantata, ^passion, and organ composi- 
tion. Here the Lutheran *chorale pro- 
vided a basis of tradition as well as of 
progress, which largely accounts for the 
spiritual integrity and, as a result, for the 
high artistic quality of German Baroque 
music. An idea of the scope of German 
Baroque music can be gained by glancing 
through the list of the German Den\- 
mdler [see ^Editions VII, VIII, IX] . The 
most outstanding figures are (arranged in 
contemporary groups): 

Schiitz, Schein, Scheidt (b. c, 1585, 100 
years before Bach) 

Tunder, Froberger, Rosenmiiller (b. c. 
1615) 

Buxtehude, Georg Muffat, Biber (b. c, 
1640) 


GERMAN MUSIC 

Johann Ph. Kricger, Fischer, Pachelbel 
(b. c, 1650) 

Bohm, Bruhns, Kuhnau (b. c, 1660) 
Telemann, Walther, J. S. Bach (b. c, i 6 S^). 

At the outset of the 17th century we find 
an interesting activity in the field of the 
instrumental dance and *suite, repre- 
sented by Johann Hermann Schein (1586- 
1630), Valentin Haussmann, Isaak Posch, 
and Paul Peuerl. Simultaneously Hein- 
rich Schiitz (1585-1672) brought the 
vocal church music (*passion, ^oratorio) 
to an artistic height comparable to that of 
Bach, and Samuel Scheidt (1586-1654) 
laid the foundation for the development 
of German organ music [see *Organ mu- 
sic II (a); *Organ chorale, etc.]. The 
next generation saw the rise of harpsi- 
chord music under Johann Jacob Fro- 
berger (1616-67) [see *Suite III], and 
around 1650 the church cantata emerged 
as an exclusively German product [see 
*Cantata III]. Lute music reached an 
artistic climax in the works of Esaias Reus- 
ner (1636-79) and Silvius Weiss (1686- 
1750) [see *Lute music], while violin 
music was cultivated by Johann Schop (d. 
1665), Nicolaus Adam Strlingk (1640- 
1700), and Heinrich Biber (1644-1704), 
masters whose virtuosity paved the way 
for Bach’s pieces for violin solo. In the 
field of orchestral music Johann Rosen- 
niiiller (1620-84) stands out as an early 
master of original significance, while later 
composers such as Georg Muffat (1645- 
1704), and Philipp Erlebach ( 1657-1714), 
incorporated elements of the Italian and 
French orchestral styles. The German 
Baroque lied found an outstanding mas- 
ter in Adam Krieger (1634-66) [see *Lied 
III], and only in the field of the opera 
have German musicians failed to compete 
successfully with their foreign models 
[see *Opera VII]. In all these fields, ex- 
cept the two last-mentioned, the develop- 
ment is climaxed by J. S. Bach (1685- 
1750). 

IV. Rococo, Contemporaries of Bach, 
such as Georg Philipp Telemann (1681- 
1767), Valentin Rathgeber (1682-1750), 
and Gotdieb Muffat (1690-1770), were 
quick to embrace the novel and facile 
style of the *Rococo, and “progressive’' 

[294] 



GERMAN MUSIC 

writers such as Johann Matthcson (i68i~ 
1764) helped to throw overboard the last 
vestiges of a tradition which, from their 
point of view, they were justified in con- 
sidering old-fashioned and useless. After 
a comparatively short period of low ebb, 
German music took a new start in two 
directions: one towards a novel type of 
expressiveness, the *empfindsamer Stil\ 
the other towards the exploitation of mod- 
ern orchestral resources and the formal 
development of the classical sonata, sym- 
phony, and string quartet. In the former 
field Bach’s sons, Wilhelm Friedemann 
Bach (1710-84) and Carl Philipp Eman- 
uel Bach (1714-88), are outstanding; in 
the latter, the numerous musicians col- 
lectively known as the ^Mannheim School, 
Concomitant with this development is the 
rise of the *Singspiel, and of the *volk- 
stiimliches Lied [see also ^Berlin School] . 

V. Classicism, Romanticism, and Mod- 
ernism. The man who molded the formal 
and stylistic elements of the late Rococo 
into a new work of art, thus laying the 
foundation for the musical period known 
as ’•‘‘classicism, was Franz Joseph Haydn 
(1732-1809). From 1770 on, his sym- 
phonies and string quartets, as well as 
those of Mozart (1756-91), show more 
and more clearly that full mastery and 
maturity which has led to the designation 
“classical.” No less immortal than these 
works are Haydn’s oratorios and Mozart’s 
operas. Beethoven (1770-1827) brought 
this development to its acme and, in his 
latest works, prepared the musical ’"'Ro- 
manticism, side by side with Franz 
Schubert (1797-1828), the great master 
of the German lied. The Romantic spirit 
is more clearly patent in the operas and 
piano works of Carl Maria v. Weber 
(1786-1826), and was whole-heartedly 
embraced by Robert Schumann (1810- 
56), who more than any other composer 
represents the Romanticism with all its 
novel wonders and with all its inherent 
defects. 

The story of German music from 1830 
to 1940 may be told here in the form of a 
short account based on a chronological 
list of the important compositions pro- 
duced in this period. 

[295] 


GERMAN MUSIC 

1830—40: The Romantic decade par ex- 
cellence, including practically all the 
important works of Schumann and 
Mendelssohn. 

1840-50: Schumann’s last works (Piano 
Concerto), and Wagner’s (1813-83) 
first operas: Hollander, Tannhduser, 
Lohengrin, 

1850-60: Wagner’s Rhein gold, Walhfire, 
Tristan, F. Liszt (1811-86) establishes 
the ^symphonic poem {Faust, Dante, 
Mazeppa), and writes his itudes trans- 
cendentales and most of the Hungarian 
Rhapsodies. Brahms (1833-97) ap- 
pears with his Piano Sonatas (opp. i, 
2, 5) and D minor Concerto, op. 15. 

1860—70: Wagner and Brahms still domi- 
nate the scene, the former with Sieg- 
fried and Meistersinger, the latter with 
opp. 18-50, including the Handel 
Variations, the Magelone Songs, and 
the Deutsches Requiem, 

1870-80: Wagner’s Cotter ddmmerung, 
the last opera of the Ring des Nibe- 
lungen, Brahms writes his first two 
symphonies and chamber music (up to 
op. 86). Bruckner (1824-96) appears 
with his symphonies nos. 2-6. 

1880-90: Wagner climaxes the opera with 
his Parsifal', Bruckner and Brahms, the 
symphony with their symphonies nos. 
7-9 and 3-4. Brahms writes his last 
chamber works and the Piano Concerto 
in B-flat. Richard Strauss (b. 1864) 
brings new life to the symphonic poem 
in his Don Juan and Tod und Verbid- 
rung, Hugo Wolf (1860—1903) writes 
most of his songs. 

1890-1900: The last works of Brahms 
(opp. 114-121). High-point of Strauss’s 
symphonic poem: Till Eulenspiegel, 
Don Quixote, Zarathustra, Gustav 
Mahler’s (1860-1911) symphonies nos. 
2-4. Heinrich Pfitzner’s (b. 1869) Ro- 
mantic opera Der arme Heinrich, 

1900-1910: The Romantic movement 
comes to its close in Mahler’s Sympho- 
nies nos. 5-9, in Strauss’s operas Salome 
and Plectra, and in the chamber music 
of Max Reger (1873-1916). Arnold 
Schonberg (b. 1874), after the impres- 
sionistic Pelleas und Melisande, writes 
the atonal Drei Klavierstuc\€ (1909), 



GERMAN MUSIC 

the first examples of the radical break 
leading to the *New music. 

1910-20: Last vestiges of the Romantic 
tradition in Strauss’s Rosenf{avalier and 
Alpensinfonie, in Pfitzner’s opera PaU 
estrinUy and in Schreker’s (187S-1934) 
operas Der feme Klang and Der 
Schatzgr 'dber, Schonberg’s Pierrot Lu- 
naire and the completely atonal Seeks 
]{leine Klavierstuc\e, Ferruccio Busoni 
(1866-1924) writes the first *neo- 
classic pieces (Sonatinas and Fantasia 
contrappuntistica ) . 

1920-30: The heterogeneous after-war 
decade with its experiments in twelve- 
tone technique, jazz idiom, primitive 
rhythms, neo-classic forms, etc., brings 
to the fore a group of young composers, 
notably Paul Hindemith (b. 1895) 
with stage works such as CardillaCy so- 
natas, string quartets, Das Marienleben\ 
Ernst Krenek (b. 1900) with Johnny 
spielt auf and piano and chamber 
works; Ernst Toch (b. 1887) with 
chamber and piano music; Kurt Weill 
(b. 1900) with the highly successful 
Dreigroschenoper. 

1930-40: The most outstanding produc- 
tions are Hindemith’s Mathis der 
Maler and Piano Sonatas, conspicuous 
for their return to more conservative 
methods. 

The most recent development of Ger- 
man music deserves a few additional re- 
marks. While Hindemith, in composi- 
tions such as the sonatas for pianoforte 
(3; 1936), organ (2; 1937), violin (1935), 
flute (1937), oboe (1938), arrives at a 
happy synthesis of progressive and con- 
servative elements, Krenek has whole- 
heartedly embraced the radical methods 
of Schonberg’s *twelve-tone technique of 
which he is at present the main champion. 
Practically the whole group of composers 
now working in Germany stands under 
the influence of the “back-to-Bach” idea. 
Heinrich Kaminski (b. 1886) has written 
a number of works of great artistic per- 
fection in what might be called “neo- 
Gothic” style, pieces in which a polyphonic 
texture and a rich vocabulary of chro- 
matic harmonies are used for the expres- 
sion of a deeply religious ecstasy and mys- 


GESANGBUCH 

ticism. Hugo Herrmann (b. 1896) uses 
a linear style frequendy approaching 
atonality. Johann Nepomuk David (b. 
1895) reverts to the Flemish polyphony 
of the 15th and i6th centuries in works 
such as Ricercare (1928), organ hymns 
(1928), Fantasia super Dhomme armS 
(1930). Wilhelm Maler (b. 1902), Hein- 
rich Spitta (b. 1902), Kurt Thomas (b. 
1904), Wolfgang Fortner (b. 1907), 
Hugo Distler (b, 1908), and others, work 
along the same line, trying to put archaic 
idioms to new use. Several of them have 
devoted themselves to the revival of 
church music in a-cappella style. 

Lit.: H. J. Moser, Geschichte der deut- 
schen Musil^y 3 vols. (1920-24); LavE i.2, 
971-1175; H. V. d. Pfordten, Deutsche 
Musifi (1920); Arnold Schering, Deut- 
sche Musi\geschichte im Umriss (1917); 
R. Malsch, Geschichte der deutschen 
Musi\ (1926); J. A. Fuller-Maitland, 
Masters of German Music (1894); J. 
Muller-Blattau, Das deutsche Vol\slied 
(1932); L. Schiedermaier, Die deutsche 
Opefr (1930); AdHM ii, 1002-1038 (“Die 
Moderne”; bibl.). 

German Requiem. A work for solo 
voices, chorus, and orchestra by Johannes 
Brahms, op. 45, composed 1857-68, as a 
memorial for his mother. It consists of 
seven movements based on German texts 
freely selected from Scriptures, instead of 
the authoritative Latin text of the liturgi- 
cal Requiem Mass [see ^Requiem]. Its 
first performance in the United States was 
at the Cincinnati Festival of 1884. 

German sixth. See *Sixth chord. 
Geriihrt [G.]. Moved, touched. 

Ges, geses [G.]. See *Pitch names. 

Gesamtausgabe [G.]. Complete edi- 
tion. Most of the German Gesamtaus- 
gaben have been published by Breitkopf 
and Hartel, Leipzig. Cf. MoMLy 262. 

Gesang [G.]. Song. 

Gesangbuch [G.]. Hymn-book, either 
of the Catholic or of the Protestant 
Church. For the earliest publication of 
Protestant hymn-books see ^Chorale; cf. 
also MoMLy 268, 396. 


[296] 



GESANGVOLL 


GIOCOSO 


Gesangvoll [G.]. Cantabile. 

Geschleift [G.]. Slurred. 

Geschwind [G.]. Quick. 

Gesellschaftslied [G.]. Recent musi- 
cological term for songs which socially 
belong to the bourgeois class, as opposed 
to Hof lied (court-song) or Vol\slied 
(folk song). The term is used particu- 
larly with reference to the German 16th- 
century polyphonic songs of Hofhaimer, 
Send, and others, but it may also be used 
to include the Italian madrigal, the French 
chanson, etc. 

Ge sol re ut, gesolreut. See *Hexa- 
chord II. 

Gesprochen [G.]. Spoken, or “as if 
spoken.” 

Gesteigert [G.]. Increased. 

Gestopft [G.]. The stopped notes of 
the horn. See *Horn I. 

Gestossen [G.]. Detached, staccato. 

Geteilt [G.]. Divided. See *Divisi. 

Getragen [G.]. Sustained, slow. 

Gewandhaus [G.]. See *Orchestras II. 

Gewichtig [G.]. “Weighty,” with im- 
portance. 

Gezogen [G.]. “Drawn out,” sustained. 

Ghironda [It.]. *Hurdy-gurdy. 

Gigelira [It.]. Xylophone, 

Gigue. (i) Medieval name for string 
instruments, perhaps particularly the 
*rebec, the pear-shaped form of which is 
reminiscent of a ham [F. gigot, ham]. 
In the late 13th century a French poem 
mentions the “gigueours de TAlle- 
maigne,” i.e., the gigue-players of Ger- 
many [cf. G<fHM, 400]. Probably the 
German word Geige (Old German gige) 
for violin is derived from the French 
term gigue. 

(2) In the suites of the 1650-1750 pe- 
riod the gigue [It. giga] is one of the four 
constituent dance movements, usually the 


final one [see *Suite; ^Dance music III]. 
Its chief characteristics are: compound 
triple time (%, %), dotted rhythm, 
wide intervals (sixths, sevenths, octaves), 
and fugal writing, usually with the in- 
verted subject [see ^Inversion (2)] used 
for the second section. See the accom- 
panying example from Bach, French 



Suite, no. 4. The gigue developed from 
the 16th-century Irish or English *jig 
which, on the Continent, was subjected 
to two different processes of idealization, 
in France and in Italy. The French type 
(Gaultier, Chambonnieres) is that de- 
scribed above, while the less frequent 
Italian type, the giga, is much quicker 
(presto gigue), non-fugal, with quick 
running passages over a harmonic basis 
[for a similar case, see *courante and cor- 
rente]. This type occurs in the works of 
Vitali [Ballettiy Corrente^ Gighe, Alle- 
mandcy e Sarabande (1688)], Corelli, 
Zipoli [cf. ^Editions VI, 36]. It survives 
in the % -presto pieces of the i8th cen- 
tury [cf. a gigue by C. H. Graun, 1701- 
59, in W. Niemann, '\Alte Meister des 
Klaviers] which, in turn, are the model 
of such movements as the presto-finale of 
Beethoven’s Piano Sonata op. 2, no. 1. 
The gigues in the suites of Froberger, 
Handel, Bach, etc., are usually of the 
French type. Notable exceptions are the 
gigues of Bach’s Partita no. i and of his 
English Suite no. 2. 

Lit.: W. Danckert, Geschichte der 
Gigue (1924). 

Gigue-fugue. Popular name for Bach’s 
Organ Fugue in G major [ed. Peters ix, 
no. 4], so called on account of the giguc- 
like character of the theme. 

Gimel. See *Gymel. 

Giocoso [It.]. Playful. 


[297] 




GIOIOSO GLISSANDO 


Gioioso [It.]. Joyful. 

Giorgi flute. A flute invented by 
Giorgi (1888) which has finger-holes for 
each chromatic tone, thus making cross- 
fingering unnecessary. Cf. SaRM, 158; 
H. Standish, in PMA xxiv. 

Gipsy music. See *Gypsy music. 

Giraffe piano [G. Giraffenkfavier], 
An early 19th-century variety of the 
pianoforte, somewhat like the grand 
piano, but with the wing-shaped part of 
the case put upright, thus vaguely resem- 
bling the neck of a giraffe. 

Giro [It.]. *Turn. 

Gis, gisis [G.]. See *Pitch names. 

Gitano [Sp.]. *Gypsy. 

Gittern. Same as *cittern. 

Giulivamente [It.]. Joyously. 

Giustamente [It.]. With exactitude. 

Giustiniane. Same as ^Justiniane. See 
under *Villanella. 

Glanzend [G.]. Brilliant. 
Glasharmonika. See ^Harmonica. 
Glatt [G.]. Smooth, even. 

Glee. An 18th-century type of choral 
music, unaccompanied, in three or more 
parts, for solo men’s voices (including a 
male alto), comparatively brief and sec- 
tionally constructed. In the course of its 
development its texture often became less 
polyphonic and more in the harmonic 
style of the part song. The glee is one of 
two 18th-century forms (the other being 
the *ballad opera) which arc English 
through and through, demonstrating the 
native English virtues of sincerity and 
forthrightness as no choral music after 
the madrigal has done. In the latter part 
of the century societies both of amateur 
and professional musicians devoted them- 
selves to the composition and perform- 
ance of the glee. Among these were the 
Noblemen’s and Gentlemen’s Catch Club, 
the Anacreontic Society, the Glee Club, 
and the Concentores Sodalcs. During the 


first half of the 19th century glee singing 
was much in vogue, but those qualities of 
the part song which it has assumed finally 
became merged with the part song itself 
and the glee’s artistic virtues were re- 
duced to a shadow in the hands of Vic- 
torian composers of the shorter choral 
forms. Among the most celebrated glee 
writers were Dr. Benjamin Cooke (1734- 
93); Samuel Webbe (1740--1816), per- 
haps the most typical of glee composers, 
who wrote over three hundred glees and 
whose “Glorious Apollo” invariably 
opened the programs of the Glee Clubs; 
Stephen Paxton (1735-87); and John 
Callcott ( 1 766-1821). Representative 
glees are to be found in Novello’s Stand- 
ard Glee Boo\, 

“Glee” is derived from the Anglo- 
Saxon word “gligg'^ which is usually 
translated simply “music”; but it has also 
been taken to include entertainment in 
general, especially such entertainment as 
was connected with minstrelsy — playing, 
singing, dancing, and perhaps even acro- 
batic feats. Up to fairly recent times it 
was in the spirit of this latter definition 
that American College Glee Clubs, with 
rare exceptions, interpreted the word glee. 
About 1918, after a few years in which 
their programs were made up of a mix- 
ture of college and classical music, the 
Harvard Glee Club began to devote itself 
to the latter exclusively, at the same time 
severing its connection with the Instru- 
mental Clubs made up of banjos and man- 
dolins. This step initiated a wave of in- 
terest in the singing of serious music by 
college choral organizations and has had 
no little effect upon the quality of the 
music sung by secondary school glee clubs. 

Lit.: Wm. A. Barrett, English Glees and 
Part-songs ( 1 886) ; D. Baptic, Sketches of 
English Glee Composers (1896); J. Spen- 
cer-Curwen, “Regarding the English 
Glee” (Z/M vi). A.T.D. 

Gleemen. See ^Minstrels. 

Gleichmassig [G.]. Equal, even. 

Glissando [F. glisser, to slide]. The 
execution of rapid scales by a sliding 
movement. In piano-playing, the nail of 


[298] 



GLOCKE 

the thumb or that of the third finger is 
drawn rapidly over the white keys. The 
same technique can also be applied to the 
black keys. A much more difficult feat is 
the glissando in parallel thirds, sixths, or 
octaves which is performed by a sliding 
movement of the hand with two fingers 
held in a strongly fixed position. It is sur- 
prising to note that Mozart already has a 
glissando in parallel sixths in the cadenza 
of his piano variations “Lison dormait.” 
It should be noted, however, that the 
glissando was much easier to perform on 
the old instruments with their light Vien- 
nese action. This fact also explains the 
octave-glissandi in the last movement of 
Beethoven’s Waldstein-Sonata which are 
almost impossible to perform on modern 
instruments. The first record of a glis- 
sando occurs in a publication by Moyreau, 
Premier livre de pieces de clavecin 
(1722). — Glissando is much used in the 
playing of the *harp. — On the violin the 
glissando is a difficult virtuoso effect pro- 
duced by a rapid succession of minute 
distinct movements of the hand. This 
effect should not be confused with the 
^portamento, which is easily produced by 
a continuous movement of the hand. The 
so-called glissando of the trombones prac- 
tically always is a portamento. 

Glocke [G.]. Bell. 

Glockenspiel. See ^Percussion instru- 
ments A, 2. The portable glockenspiel of 
the military bands consists of steel bars 
fixed on a frame in the shape of the an- 
cient Greek lyre, hence the name bell- 
lyra [G. Lyra], In German terminology 
the word Glockenspiel is also used to de- 
note what it properly means, namely a 
set of bells {Glocke ^ i.e., bell], i.e., a 
♦carillon. In the late i8th century there 
existed Glockenspiels to be played from 
a keyboard, similar to the modern ♦ce- 
lesta. This is probably the instrument 
called for in Mozart’s Zauberflote under 
the name strumento d*acciaio (steel in- 
strument). 


GOLDEN SEQUENCE 

Gloria in excelsis. The second item 
of the Ordinary of the Mass, also known 
as greater ♦doxology. See *Mass A; B 
III. In plainsong the first phrase, Gloria 
in excelsis Deoy is sung by the officiating 
priest, and the chorus picks up at Et in 
terra pax. Early (15th-century) poly- 
phonic settings of the Gloria therefore 
begin with the latter phrase, and are 
usually indexed under Et in terra in 
modern editions. 

Gloria patri. See ♦Doxology. 

Glosa [Sp.j. Spanish 16th-century name 
for diminutions [see *Ornamentation I]. 
Diego Ortiz’ Tratado de glosas sobre 
clausulas . . . (1553; reprint by M. 
Schneider, 1913, 1936) contains a great 
number of instructive examples, illustrat- 
ing the methods of ornamenting a caden- 
tial formula {clausula), Cabezon [Obras 
de musica (1578)] uses the term for sim- 
ple figurative variations of harmonized 
psalm tones (fabordone y glosas\ cf. 
ApMZ ii, 18), while more elaborate vari- 
ations are called *diferencias. 

G.O. In French organ music, abbrevia- 
tion for grand orgue, 

Gotterdammerung. See ♦Ring des 
Nibelungen, Der. 

Goldberg Variations. A series of 30 
variations by J. S. Bach, commissioned 
by the Russian Count Kayserling, and 
named after Bach’s pupil Johann The- 
ophilus Goldberg {c, 1720-60), who was 
in the count’s service as a pianist. Bach 
published them in the fourth part of the 
*Clavierubung (1742). The work, which 
is among the greatest in the field of vari- 
ations, is written according to a special 
plan: two variations in free style (fre- 
quently of a highly virtuoso character) 
are always followed by a canonic variation 
(nos. 3, 6, 9, etc.). The latter are unsur- 
passed masterpieces of canonic technique, 
being canons at different intervals within 
the same harmonic frame. The final vari- 
ation is a ♦quodlibet. 


Glogauer Liederbuch. Sec •Lieder- Golden sequence. Popular name for 
buch. the ♦sequence Veni Sancte Spiritus. 

[ 299] 



GOLIARD SONGS 


GRACE 


Goliard songs. Latin poems of the 
loth to the 13th century, written by 
goliards, i.e., wandering students or 
young ecclesiastics who played an impor- 
tant part in the cultural life of that period. 
The most famous collection is the Car^ 
mina Bur ana (named after the monas- 
tery of Benedict-Beuren in southwest 
Germany, where the manuscript was pre- 
served). Some of these poems are pro- 
vided with stafiBess neumes which cannot 
be deciphered. The only decipherable 
melody of a Goliard song is that to the 
10th-century poem O admirabile Veneris 
ydolum [BeMMR^ 72]. Cf. ReMMAy 
200; H. Spanke, in ZMW xiii. 

Gondola song, Gondellied [G.], 

Gondoliera [It.]. See ^Barcarole. 

Gong. See ^Percussion instruments, 
B, 7. See also ’^Chinese, ^Javanese music. 

Gopak. A lively dance of Little Russia, 
in duple time. A well-known example is 
contained in Moussorgsky’s unfinished 
opera Sorotchins\oe Fair, 

Gorgia [It., throat], gorgheggio. 
Generic term for the late 16th-century 
method of improvised coloraturas such as 
were used in the performance of motets, 
masses, madrigals, etc. [see '"‘Ornamenta- 
tion I; cf. F. Chrysander, in VMW vii, 
ix, X (Zacconi)]. Gorgheggio is also a 
modern term for vocal passages in rapid 
speed. 

Gospel [L. Fvangeliuin\, In the Cath- 
olic rites, a passage from one of the four 
Gospels, chanted at *Mass in monotone 
or with inflections {Tonus Evangelii; cf. 
GRy 1 1 5*). — Gospel canticles are the 
three major *canticles. — For Gospel 
hymn, see *Hymn, English. — Texts 
from the Gospels have been very fre- 
quently composed, in motets (Gospel 
motet, Evangelienmotette)y passions, ora- 
torios, and cantatas. Cf. H. J. Moser, Die 
mehrstimmige Vertonung des Evangeli- 
urns (1931). 

Gothic music. A term used by various 


era in architecture, sculpture, and paint- 
ing. It is usually understood to embrace 
the period from 1200 (Perotinus) to 1450 
(Dufay), that is, prior to the beginning 
of the ^Renaissance [see ^History of 
music]. The term also carries a certain 
geographical implication, referring to the 
Nordic cultures (northern France, Eng- 
land, Netherlands, Germany) rather than 
to those of the south. In fact, the music 
of the Italian *Ars nova is perhaps too 
‘'earthly’’ and “lively” (too much: “proto- 
renaissance”) to be termed Gothic. Of 
the two contemporary early Flemish mas- 
ters, Ockeghem and Obrecht, the former 
may be considered as representing the 
end of Gothic, the latter, the beginning 
of Renaissance music [see ^Flemish 
School III]. Cf. LaMWCy passim. 
Metaphorically, the word Gothic is also 
applied to later works showing traits sug- 
gestive of Gothic spirituality and irreal- 
ism, for instance, to the “transcendental” 
organ toccatas of Buxtehude or Bach. 
Modern works showing a similar attitude 
have been called neo-Gothic (Hinde- 
mith, Kaminsky) [see *Neo-classicism]. 

G.P. In German orchestral scores, ab- 
breviation for *Generalpause, In French 
organ music, abbreviation for grand posi- 
tify i.e., great and choir organ coupled. 

G.R. In French organ music, abbrevia- 
tion for grand recitatif, i.e., great and 
swell organ coupled. 

Grace. Term applied by early English 
musicians to any kind of musical orna- 
ment, whether written out in notes, indi- 
cated by sign, or improvised by the per- 
former. In lute and viol playing a dis- 
tinction was made between smooth graceSy 
produced by sliding the finger along the 
finger board (appoggiaturas, slides, and 
Nachschlage), and shaded graceSy in the 
performance of which the finger shakes, 
producing several repercussions of the 
same tone (trills, relishes, and beats). 
Another distinction is that between open 
graces, i.e., those involving a whole fret 
(semitone), and closed graces, i.e., those 
involving a smaller interval (vibrato). 

P.A. 


modern writers to denote music coeval 
with, or culturally related to, the Gothic 

[ 300] 



GRACE NOTE 


GREEK MUSIC 


Grace note. A note printed in small 
type to indicate that its time value is not 
counted in the rhythm of the bar and 
must be subtracted from that of an ad- 
jacent note. Large groups of grace notes 
sometimes make an exception to this rule 
in that together they fill up the time value 
of a single note that has been omitted 
from the score (as in the so-called “ca- 
denzas” by Chopin and other Romantic 
composers), in which case the rhythm of 
the grace notes is flexible and not sub- 
jected to a strict beat. Most grace notes 
are used to represent ^graces, or musical 
ornaments. P. A. 

Gracieux [F.]. Graceful. 

Gradatamente [It.]. Gradually. 

Gradevole, gradito [It.]. Pleasing. 

Gradual [L. Graduate^ from gradusy 
step] . ( I ) The second item of the Proper 
of the *Mass. It belongs to the class of 
responsorial chants. The original name 
was responsorium graduate (i.e., the 
responsorium sung from the steps of the 
altar or ambo), in contrast to other •re- 
sponsoria. The graduals are highly florid 
melodies, in their choral as well as in their 
soloist sections (verse). For the form of 
the graduals, see ^Psalmody II. For poly- 
phonic compositions of the graduals, see 
*Mass B, I. — (2) See ^Liturgical books. 

Gradus ad Parnassum [L., steps to 
Parnassus, the abode of the Muses] . Title 
of two publications designed to lead up 
to the highest perfection in their fields: 
a treatise on counterpoint by J. J. Fux 
(1725), and a collection of piano etudes 
by M. dementi (1817). 

Grail. English name for ♦Gradual, used 
in the Anglican Church. 

Gramophone [G. Grammophon\, See 
♦Phonograph. 

Gran cassa, gran tamburo [It.]. 
Bass drum. 

Grand [F.]. Grand jeu, grand orguCy 
full organ; grand operay i.e., opera (usu- 
ally serious) with fully composed text, as 
distinct from opSra comique. 


Grandezza, Con [It.]. With grandeur. 

Grandisonante [It.]. Sonorous. 

Grandsire. See ♦Change ringing. 

Gran gusto, Con [It.]. Sec ♦Gusto. 

Grasshopper. See ♦Pianoforte I. 

Grave [It.]. Slow, solemn. 

Gravicembalo. Italian 17th-century 
name for the harpsichord, possibly for a 
large variety used especially for orchestral 
accompaniment. The name may be a cor- 
ruption of ♦clavicembalo, or may refer to 
the presence of a “grave” 16-foot stop. 

Grazios [G.], grazioso [It.]. Grace- 
ful. 

Greater perfect system. See ♦Greek 
music II (a). 

Greek music. In the entire history of 
music there is no field so embarrassing to 
the student as that of ancient Greek music. 
There arc two main reasons for this: first, 
the perplexing incongruity that exists be- 
tween the considerable quantity of avail- 
able theoretical information and the small 
number of preserved musical documents, 
that is, five or six complete composi- 
tions and as many fragments; secondly, 
the fact that the theoretical information 
is largely of a highly speculative and 
scholastic character, frequently incom- 
plete, obscure, and contradictory. Stimu- 
lated rather than discouraged by this situ- 
ation, modern scholars have spent — not 
to say wasted — an incredible amount of 
time, labor, and ingenuity trying to clarify 
the many perplexing incongruities and 
hairsplittings of Greek theory. The essay 
on Greek music contained in Lavignac’s 
Encyclopidie {LavE i.i, 377-537) is the 
ne plus ultra of dry and useless scholas- 
ticism, an effusion compared with which 
medieval treatises read like a detective 
story. It is to be regretted that even in the 
most recent books the intricacies of Greek 
theory are treated with a thoroughness 
which can only be explained as the (un- 
conscious) desire on the part of the author 
to make his readers suffer for what he has 
suffered himself in preparing and writing 


[301] 



GREEK MUSIC 


GREEK MUSIC 


his study. The article by C. Sachs in 
Biicken’s Hand buck der Musiktvissen- 
schajt is a noteworthy exception, which 
has served as a model for the subsequent 
description. 

I. History, The fact established by 
modern philologists [Ed. Meyer] that 
Greek culture was not entirely autoch- 
thonous and aboriginal, but developed 
under the strong influence of Egyptian, 
Phoenician, and Asiatic cultures (My- 
cenaean period, c, 2000-1500 B.C.; cf. O. 
Gombosi, in BAMS vi) suggests the 
theory that Greek music, too, owed its 
origin to that of other nations of a more 
ancient cultural life. Indeed, even the 
most typically Greek instrument, the 
•kithara, has an Oriental ancestry, to say 
nothing about the purely Oriental *aulos. 
There developed, however, in the Ho- 
meric era a national Greek culture which 
was looked upon by later generations as 
the Golden Age of music also. The chief 
instrument of the Homeric poems is the 
phorminXy a lyre, with which the aioidos 
(singer, bard) accompanied his recitations 
of heroic deeds. For this he used certain 
traditional standard melodies, called 
nomosy which may have been but short 
phrases repeated over and over again 
(similar to the ♦chanson de geste of the 
Middle Ages.?; see also ♦Melody types). 
While Olympos, said to have “invented” 
music, remains legendary, Terpander of 
Lesbos {c. 675 B.C.) is the earliest definite 
figure of Greek music. By his time the 
nomos must have been a much more 
elaborate composition, since he increased 
the number of its “sections” to seven. 
While Terpander appears to us as the 
climaxing figure of the Greek “ars an- 
tiqua” (to use a term of medieval music 
history), a younger contemporary, Archil- 
ochos, introduced novel features, such as 
triple rhythm, quicker tempo, and pos- 
sibly folklike elements. The lyrical poetry 
of Sappho, Alkaios, Anakreon, was, no 
doubt, a musical as well as a literary art, 
probably created simultaneously by the 
poet-musician. The 6th century sees the 
rise of the Greek drama in which music, 
chiefly choral, played an important part. 
Occasionally scenes were accompanied by 


the Dionysian *auloSy while the ^^ithara, 
the instrument of Apollo, remained re- 
stricted to the field of religious and 
hymnic music. Around 500 began a new 
period of Greek music which has been 
compared to the Baroque era of our musi- 
cal history. Its chief characteristics are 
subjective expression, free forms, more 
elaborate melody and rhythm, the intro- 
duction of chromaticism, and even 
quarter-tones, the emergence of the pro- 
fessional musician and of the virtuoso. 
Phrynis of Mythilene (c, 450), Euripides 
(d. c, 406), and Timotheos of Milet (c, 
400) appear as the main representatives 
of this new movement. Practically no 
details are known regarding the devel- 
opment — or rather decline — of music 
in the remaining period of Greek his- 
tory. 

II. Theory, a. Tetrachord and Scale. 
The point of departure of Greek musical 
theory is the tetrachord, i.e., a succession 
of four descending tones forming the in- 
tervals T T S (T = whole tone; S = semi- 
tone), e.g., a-g-f-e. A complete two- 
octave scale (descending, like all Greek 
scales) was arrived at as a succession of 
four tetrachords plus an added lowest 
tone, as follows: 


Ncte hyperbolaion a''] 

Paranetc hyperbolaion g' I 

Trite hyperbolaion V j 

Ncte diezeugmenon 1 

Paranetc diezeugmenon d' I 

Trite diezeugmenon c' f 

Paramesc b J 

Mese a ^ 

Lichanos meson g 1 

Parhypate meson f f 

Hypate meson ® 1 

Lichanos hypaton d I 

Parhypate hypaton c f 

Hypate hypaton B J 

Proslambanomenos A 


I. Tctr. 
hyperbolaion 

n. Tctr. 

diezeugmenon 


III. Tctr. 
meson 

IV. Tctr. 
hypaton 


Judging from the names of the tetrachords, 
III was the nucleus of the system; the 
name of II (“disjunct”) refers to the fact 
that its lowest tone lies above the highest 
of the other, while I and IV are added in 
a “conjunct” fashion, i.e., with one note 
in common. The name “hypaton” (high- 
est) for IV is probably explained by the 
fact that the kithara players tilted their 
instrument in such a way that the lowest 


[302] 



GREEK MUSIC 


GREEK MUSIC 


strings were in the highest position [an 
analogous phenomenon exists in the 16th- 
century Italian lute tablatures; see under 
’"‘Tablaturc III ] . The names for the single 
tones also show that the whole system de- 
veloped from the playing of the kithara: 
nete {chorde) means lowest strings (actu- 
ally the highest in pitch); paranete^ next 
to the lowest; trite^ the third, etc. 

The entire two-octave scale was called 
sy sterna teleion (usually translated: 
Greater Perfect System; henceforth re- 
ferred to as disdiapason). There also ex- 
isted a Lesser Perfect System which con- 
sisted of the lowest octave (A to a) plus 
a tetrachord added conjunctly above 
a (therefore called synemmenon^ i.e., 
“hooked”), thus providing the tones (a), 
bb, c', and d'. 

b. Genera, The fundamental tetra- 
chord was capable of certain chromatic 
modifications which, however, affected 
only the pitch of its two middle notes 
{J(inoumenoi^ “movable”), never that of 
the two outer tones {hestotes, “fixed”). 
The alterations were made in such a way 
that the highest of the three intervals of 
the tetrachord was widened from a whole 
tone (a-g) into an interval of three semi- 
tones (a~gb) or, of four (a-f). The re- 
maining interval (gb-e, or f-e) was 
halved, a procedure which, in the latter 
case, involved the introduction of quarter- 
tones. These three types of tetrachords 
were distinguished as diatonic, chromatic, 
and enharmonic. By a procedure identical 
with that described under (a) two modi- 
fied disdiapasons were obtained, the chro- 
matic (a'-gb'-f-c-db'-c'-b'-a . . .) and 
the enharmonic (a'-F-x-e'-c'-y-b-a 
. . .). For still other microtonic experi- 
ments, see *Chroai. See also ^Pyknon. 

c. Octave Species (Harmoniai), In a 
similar manner as in the medieval 
^Church modes, segments each compris- 
ing an octave were cut out of the disdiapa- 
son and named as follows: 

a'-a: Hypodorian (Hyperphrygian, Aeolian, 

Lokrian) 

g~g: Hypophrygian (Hyperlydian, Ionian, las- 

tian) 

f'~f: Hypolydian 
c'-e: Dorian 
d'-d: Phrygian 


c'-c: Lydian 

b'-B: Mixolydian (Hyperdorian) . 

(The alternative names given in paren- 
theses are later usage; some of them prop- 
erly refer to lower or higher octaves, e.g., 
Hyperphrygian — i.e., a fifth above 
Phrygian, hence a'-a; Hypodorian — i.e., 
a fifth below Dorian, hence a-A.) These 
octave-species (harmoniai) have been — 
and still are — frequently referred to as 
“Greek mpdes.” Although there exists a 
certain similarity between the two sys- 
tems, it must be noted that the Greek 
octave-species differ from the medieval 
modes not only in the somewhat external 
matter of denomination (the octave e-e', 
for instance, is Dorian in Greek, Phrygian 
in medieval theory; see the explanation 
under *Church modes) but chiefly in the 
question of the tonic or center tone. In 
the medieval system, this is (considering 
the authentic modes only) the lowest tone 
of the octave; in Greek theory, however, 
the center tone was probably always the 
mesey a. Thus, a medieval and a Greek 
octave of the same ambitus, e.g., f-f', 
have different tonics, the medieval a well- 
characterized /, the Greek, a much less 
clearly defined a or, possibly, no prescribed 
tonic at all. 

d. Transposed Scales ( T onoi) . For prac- 
tical reasons, such as the normal range of 
a singer and, particularly, the limited 
range of the kithara, the above octave- 
species were always used in transposition 
into the e'-e octave of the Dorian and, in 
this transposition, were called tonoi (mod- 
ern denomination: transposition-scales). 
They can be conveniently indicated in 
modern notation by the addition of prop- 
er key-signatures to the standard scale on 
E [ sec Ex. I ] . Some modern writers in- 



sist that the tonoi existed before the har- 
moniai. This may be true to some extent 
since the former are more closely allied to 
musical practice (kithara playing) than 
the latter. The theoretical explanation in 
this reversed order, however, involves 


I303] 



GREEK MUSIC 

considerable intellectual complications 
which might well be avoided. Needless 
to say, the principle of transposition was 
also applied to the chromatic and enhar- 
monic scales; thus, the “chromatic mixo- 
lydian tones” is; e'-d'-eb'-bb-a-gb-f-e. 

Recent investigations have shown how 
the tonoi were obtained on the *kithara. 
A kithara with six strings tuned penta- 
tonically: e' d' b a g e was probably the 
original type. On this instrument, the 
missing tones of, e.g., the Dorian, namely 
c' and f, were obtained by stopping (be- 
tween two firmly pressed fingers) the 
strings b and e so that they sounded a 
semitone higher. For students familiar 
with 16th-century Italian lute *tablature 
the accompanying scheme [Ex. 2] will 





prove clarifying. Around 500 and later 
the kithara and consequently the tonoi 
were frequently used in the compass f'-f, 
a semitone higher than the earlier one. 
Thus, two kinds of Dorian, etc., tonoi 
were distinguished, “low Dorian” and 
“high Dorian.” Finally, the method of 
transposition was extended to the entire 
disdiapason with the result that the char- 
acteristic distinctions of the octave-species 
disappeared and that only a two-octave 
minor scale in the 14 different chromatic 
transpositions from F to g (each in three 
genera, hence the number total of 52) re- 
mained. It is this stage of the theory 
which is represented by the compendious 
tables of Alypios (c, 360 B.C.; cf. GD ii, 
444ff), the main interest of which lies in 
the accompanying notational signs. For 
the Greek notation cf., e.g., WoHN i; also 
C. Sachs, in ZMW vi, vii. 

III. The Musical Documents. The most 
important (because relatively complete) 
documents are two Delphic Hymns to 
Apollo, dating from about 130 B.C., two 
brief Hymns to the Muse, a Hymn to 
Nemesis (probably by Mesomedes, c. B.C. 
130), and the *Seiktlos Song, dated vari- 
ously from 200 B.C. to A.D. 100. Their 
late date renders them rather useless as 


GREGORIAN CHANT 

evidence of the musical practice of Greek 
antiquity. Needless to say, they arc all 
monophonic. We know, however, that 
Greek musicians made use of a primitive 
type of “polyphony,” described by Plato 
as *heterophony. The melodies are not 
unimpressive in their somewhat puristic 
simplicity and reservedness, but, on the 
whole, would seem to confirm the impres- 
sion that the great artistic contributions of 
the ancient Greeks lie in the fields of archi- 
tecture and sculpture rather than in those 
of painting and music. See also: Chroai; 
Dithyram; Ethos; Hydraulis; Hypor- 
chema; Kithara; Lyre; Magadis, Pyknon; 
Pythagorean scale. 

Lit.: C. Sachs, The Rise of Music ( 1943), 
pp. 1981!; id., Musi\ des Altertums ( 1924) ; 
id., “Antike Musik” (in BiiHM); The. 
Reinach, La Musique grecque (1926; con- 
tains all the pieces in transcription); 

ReMMA, 11-53; DavE i.i, 377-537; R. P. 
Winnington-Ingram, in ML x, no. 4; Ph. 
Barry, in MQ v. Additional bibliography 
in ReMMA 427!!. 

The modern development of Greek 
music started around 1850 under the in- 
fluence of the Italian opera (Spiridion 
Xyndas, 1812-96, and others). Particu- 
larly successful was Spiro Samara (1861- 
1917), a pupil of Delibes, with the opera 
Flora Mirabilis (1886). A national move- 
ment started with the songs of George 
Lambelet (b. 1875), and found a more 
definite expression in the works of Man- 
uel Kalomiris (b. 1883) whose opera 
Protomastoras (1916) has been compared 
to Glinka’s A Life for the Czar. The 
compositions of Petro Petridis (b. 1891) 
show neo-classical influence. Other living 
composers are George Poniridis (b. 1892) 
and Mario Varvoglis (b. 1885). 

For Greek church music see ^Byzantine 
chant. 

Greghesca, pi. greghesche. See un- 
der *Villanella. 

Gregorian chant. The liturgical chant 
of the Roman Catholic Church. It is 
named after Pope Gregory I (590-604) 
under whom it received its final arrange- 
ment and codification [see VII]. The 
term Gregorian chant has the disadvan- 


[304] 



GREGORIAN CHANT 


GREGORIAN CHANT 

tage of excluding, strictly speaking, the i.c., the feasts of individual Saints, such 
early development leading up to the Gre- as the Blessed Virgin Mary, St. Stephen, 
gorian period, as v/ell as the (compara- St. Peter; (d) Commune Sanctorumy i.e., 
tively minor) changes introduced after- the feasts of Saints grouped under classes, 
v/ards. Another common name is plain- such as Apostles, Martyrs, Confessors, 
song [F. plain-chant\ L. cantus planus\\ Virgins, etc. On each day [see *Feria] 
this, however, is frequently used in a service is held at certain hours, the so- 
wider and more technical meaning [see called *OfSce hours. The whole repertory 
♦Plainsong]. The most appropriate term of chants falls into two main classes, those 
would be Roman chant, because it prop- for the *Mass, and those for the ^Office, 
erly describes the repertory in question as i.e., for all the other services of the day. 
one of the four “local dialects” of the mu- The former are contained in the Graduale 
sic of the Western Church, the others be- Romanum (GR), the latter in Antipho- 
ing Milanese ('•^Ambrosian), *Gallican, nale Romanum (AR; see *Liturgical 
and *Mozarabic (Visigothic) chant. In books; also the “List of Abbreviations,” 
fact, the earliest name used for Gregorian p. viii). The Antiphonalc falls into four 
chant was Cantilena Romana (9th, loth main sections, one each for the above- 
centuries), while ^cantus planus {musica mentioned categories: (a) pp. 1-209; (b) 
came into use during the 13th cen- pp. 210-577; (^) PP* 57 ^“ 93®5 (^) PP* 
tury, as a distinguishing term from musica [ i ]-[ 103] . To these are added the Toni 
mensuratay i.c., measured polyphonic CommuneSy i.e., the recitation tones for 
music. the psalms, benedictions, orations, etc. ( pp. 

Whereas formerly musicians looked 1^-65*), and an Appendix containing 
disdainfully on Gregorian chant, particu- chiefly the chants for the (extra-liturgical) 
larly because it “lacks” harmony, it is now ’'^Benediction. The Graduale opens with 
becoming more and more fully recognized three sections, each containing the vari- 
as an unsurpassed treasure of purely me- able items of the Mass {proprium missae\ 
Iodic music. In particular, its freely flow- see ♦Mass) for the days of the second, 
ing rhythm, far from being chaotic, shows third, and fourth of the above-mentioned 
subtleties of structure and organization categories: (b) pp. 1-366; (c) pp. 367- 
which are doubtless superior to the com- 606; (d) pp. [i]-[i32]. There follows 
paratively platitudinous devices of rhythm a section: Ordinarium Missae^ pp. i*-94’*, 
in harmonized music, with its meter, containing the invariable chants of the 
measures, beats, regular phrases, etc. The Mass (Kyrie, Gloria, etc.), one containing 
present-day repertory of Gregorian chant the Missa pro defunctis (*Requiem Mass, 
consists of nearly 3000 melodies, all mono- pp. 95*--io8*), one containing recitation 
phonic (unisonous), rhythmically free, tones for the Mass (Lection, Epistle, etc.), 
and sung partly choral (by the ♦jrAo/iZ, i.e., and chants for several special occasions, 
choir) and partly solo (by the *cantor). The Graduale also contains the chants for 
These will be considered subsequently special services introductory to Mass, e.g., 
according to: I. Liturgical categories; II. the *antiphons (Mass antiphon) and 
Text; III. Style; IV. Forms; V. Tonality; ♦responsoria for Ash Wednesday (pp. 
VI. Rhythmic interpretation; VII. His- 73-^6), Palm Sunday (pp. 155-166), 
torical development. Maundy Thursday (pp. 186-191), and 

1 . Liturgical Categories, The days of Purification (pp. 405-410). It may be 
the liturgical year fall into four classes: noticed that the usual form of Antiphonalc 
(a) Ordinarium {Divini Officii)y i.e., printed now is the Antiphonale pro di- 
those Sundays and weekdays on which urnis horis (A. for the day hours; sec 
there is not a special feast; (b) Proprium *Ofiice hours), the service for ♦Matins 
de temporey i.e., the feasts of Our Lord, {matutinum)y which contains chants of 
and of the Holy Trinity (this category great beauty and special interest, being 
includes all the great feasts, Christmas, omitted because this service is celebrated 
Easter, etc.); (c) Proprium Sanctorumy today in monastic churches only. These 

[305I 



GREGORIAN CHANT 

chants are, however, included to some ex- 
tent in the Liber Usualis (LU), a modern 
edition which contains the chants both for 
the Office and the Mass more clearly ar- 
ranged in the way they follow one another 
during the service of the day. The reader 
may compare the service for Christmas 
{Nativitas Domini) as given in LU^ pp. 
364-414 (beginning with Vespers, i.e., 
the evening service of the preceding day), 
wdth the corresponding sections in AR, 
pp. 259-273 and GR, pp. 27-35; PP- 368- 
392 of LU contain the service for Matins, 
which is not given in the two other books. 

II. Text. By far the greater part of the 
chants are based on prose texts, and of 
these the great majority are taken from 
the *psalms. Entire psalms sung to a 
*psalm tone form a regular part of the 
Office; single psalm verses prevail in the 
“verses” (Y) of the Introits, Graduals, 
Alleluias, Tracts, as well as in the opening 
Antiphons and Responses of these chants 
and in the Communions and Offertories 
[see *Psalmody]. Non-psalmodic Scrip- 
tural texts occur in the ^canticles and in 
a number of Introits, Graduals, etc., par- 
ticularly in those which belong to a feast 
of a Saint [e.g., the Gradual of St. John’s 
Feast: “Fuit homo missus a Deo, cui no- 
men Joannes erat: hie venit. y. Ut testi- 
monium perhiberet de lumine, et parare 
Domino plebem perfectam” (GR, 504'^); 
cf. St. John, 6, 7] . In the liturgical books, 
Ps. (in the Introits) always denotes a verse 
from the Psalms, while y. indicates a 
verse either from the Psalms or from other 
Scriptural texts. The most outstanding 
non-Scriptural prose texts are those of the 
Ordinary of the Mass (Kyrie, Gloria, 
Sanctus, Credo, Agnus Dei). The chants 
based on poetic texts (medieval) are the 
♦hymns and the ♦sequences. A semi- 
poetic type of text occurs in the four 
♦Antiphons B.M.V., particularly in the 
At/e regina. However, the musical setting 
of these Antiphons is different from that 
of the hymns and sequences [see the fol- 
lowing chapter]. 

III. Style. Three melodic styles of the 
prose chants are usually distinguished by 
modern writers: (a) syllabic style; (b) 
neumatic or group style; and (c) melis- 


GREGORIAN CHANT 

matic style, (a) Chants composed in syl- 
labic style have one note to each syllable 
of the text; occasionally a group of two or 
three notes will be found to one syllable. 
To this type belong the various recitation- 
tones of the Office (psalm tones, lection 
tones, toni orationum\ AR, i*-57*) and 
of the Mass (toni orationum, epistolae, 
evangelii, praefationum, of the Gloria 
Patri, etc.; GR, io9*-i25^) as well as 
the numerous Antiphons of the Office 
(throughout the Antiphonarium), the 
hymns and the various melodies for the 
Credo [GR, 59*-69^]. The recitation- 
tones are “inflected ♦monotones,” where- 
as the other chants have fully developed 
melodies in ascending and descending 
lines. — (b) The chants in group-style 
show a more frequent use of groups of 
two to four or more notes to one syllable. 
The most important chants of this class 
are the Introitus and Communions 
(throughout the Graduale), and the Re- 
sponsoria of Matins; other examples are 
the Kyries, Sanctus, and Agnus Dei of the 
Ordinary of the Mass [Gi?, i^-59^], 
while the melodies for the Gloria belong 
more to the melismatic type. — (c) To 
the melismatic type, involving extended 
coloraturas, belong the chants of the Prop- 
er of the Mass other than the first (In- 
troitus) and the last (Communion), that 
is, the Graduals, Alleluias, Tracts, and 
Offertories. In the first three of these 
classes, which belong to the category of 
responsorial chants, the melismatic style 
is usually still more clearly marked than 
in the Offertories (and Glorias). See the 
accompanying Ex. i. 

1 a 

a » _ 


Credo in unum Dcum, Pobrem omnl-potewUm 


Pa-er na-tus esfc no-bla 

c 



Al-le-lu^ - Ca. 


The rather strict adherence to a given 
style in any of the liturgical items is one 
of the most remarkable traits of Gregorian 
chant. According to a carefully-laid-out 



GREGORIAN CHANT GREGORIAN CHANT 

plan, each type of chant receives that treat- arc all reductions — more or less drastic 

ment which conforms with its liturgical — of the rondo-like structure of early 

position and significance. In this respect psalmody, responsorial or antiphonal. This 

it is interesting to note that one and the species, which is the most characteristic 

same text is composed in totally different and most interesting in Gregorian chant, 

styles according to whether it is used as receives separate treatment under the 

an Antiphon, a Gradual, or for any other heading *Psalmody. 

purpose. A famous example is the psalm- V. T onality. The melodics of Gregori- 
verse Justus ut palma for which there exist an chant arc based upon the system of the 

more than 20 different melodies, ranging eight *Church modes. With each chant, 

from the simplest to the most ornate [cf. its mode is indicated at the beginning, 

^Editions XXIII A, 2/3]. e.g., Intr. 6., i.e., Introitus in the sixth 

The musical style of the hymns and mode. The indexes of the Graduale and 

sequences is mainly syllabic, but differs the Antiphonarium, in which the modes 

radically from that of the prose chants are given preceding the title (e.g., under 

with regard to rhythm [see VI]. The Introitus: 6. Cantate Domino) make it 

hymn melodies, which generally are much easy to investigate the relative frequency 

later in date than the prose chants [see, of any mode in the entire repertory, or in 

however, ^Ambrosian hymns] are syl- a special rubric. Naturally, a closer study 

labic tunes with regularly recurrent ac- of the chants reveals many deviations from 

cents conforming with those of the text the strictly modal scheme. Scholars are 

(usually iambic dimeters). They are thus now generally agreed upon the fact that 

more closely allied to measured music most of the melodies existed long before 

than any other type of plainsong. the theoretical scheme of the eight modes 

IV. Forms, From the point of view of came into being, and that, after the adop- 

formal structure, the chants fall roughly in- tion of this theory (9th, loth centuries), 

to the following categories: (a) Through- the repertory of the chants was subjected 

composed chants. Under this rubric fall: to a process of adaptation which, however, 

the Glorias, Sanctus, and Credos of the was not carried out completely, thus leav- 

Ordinary of the Mass, and the Graduals, ing (fortunately enough) various discrep- 

Oflertories, and Communions of the Prop- ancies between theory and practice. Among 

er of the Mass [for the last three, see these one finds: (a) The use of B-flat, 

^Psalmody II, III]. Naturally, the classi- chiefly in order to avoid the tritone [see, 

fication of these chants as through-corn- e.g., the tract Beatus vir\ for a melody in 

posed does not preclude the occasional the ‘‘first” mode with a B-flat throughout, 

repetition of motives or more extended and without the *subtonium (therefore 

phrases [cf., e.g., the passages “Benedi- actually in D minor) see the introitus Da 

camus te,” “Adoramus te,” “Glorificamus pacem\. It has been maintained that the 

te” in the G/om X; G/?, 36*; similarly in “classical” tradition of Gregorian chant 

many tracts, e.g., Commovisti\ GR, 67]; utilized also other chromatic alterations 

such reiterations are a peculiarity of the (F-sharp, E-flat), but that these were 

individual chants, not of the category to eliminated later (Cistercian reform of the 

which they belong. — (b) Strophic chants, 12th century) by transposing the chants or 

Practically all the hymns belong to this sections thereof [cf. U. Bomm, Der 

class [e.g., the Aeterne rerum conditor, sel in der Modalitdtsbestimmung in der 

6]. Partly strophic are the ^sequences. Tradition der Messgesdnge im XL bis 

The *Kyries and *Agnus Dei may also be Kill, Jahrhundert ( 1929) ] . — (b) Exccs- 

classified under this category. A chant of sive ambitus of the melodies. These 

particularly complicated structure is the amplifications of the theoretical range of 

*Te deum laudamus. — (c) Cyclic chants, the modes — which, by the way, arc ra- 

This term is used here to denote several ther infrequent — were accounted for in 

types of chants the structure of which in- theory by the introduction of the “mixed 

volves repetition of certain sections. They modes,” combining the range of the au- 

[307 1 



GREGORIAN CHANT 


thcntic (c.g., d-d') with that of the plagal 
(A-a). However, the passage from die 
Gradual Omnes gentes quoted in Ex. 2 



Qaont-a.m bC' 


[GRy 2**] shows that the ambitus was 
occasionally exceeded in a manner not in- 
cluded in the broadened system of the 
modes (range from d to F). — (c) Much 
attention has been given in recent studies 
to the “pentatonic background” of the 
Gregorian melodies. Although the sweep- 
ing contention that all these melodies are 
essentially “pentatonic melodies with or- 
namental ♦pien-tones” [cf. the reference 
in ReMMAy 160] is without foundation, 
the fact remains that a considerable num- 
ber of chants are clearly pentatonic [see 
Ex. 3, from the Communion In splendo- 


3 



spkndo* ri-bus sanc-to - runbtt a • te 



am — telLL-ct- fe-rum uu- 1 te. 


ribus; GRy 30]. Such examples do not 
actually constitute a deviation from the 
modal system, but deserve mention here 
because they are indicative of a stage of 
evolution previous to that of the estab- 
lishment of the full scalar modes. A sim- 
ilar statement can be made with respect 
to the use of fixed melodic patterns in the 
chants belonging to one mode, a procedure 
which occurs also in various other bodies 
of liturgical or Oriental music [see *Mel- 
ody types] . 

VI. Rhythmic Interpretation, This con- 
stitutes the most vexed and disputed prob- 
lem of Gregorian chant, a problem which, 
in spite of the efforts of numerous schol- 
ars, is still far from being solved. It arises 
from the fact that the notation of the 
chants [sec *Neumes; also *Plainsong 
notation] contains no clear and obvious 
indication of temporal values and that, as 
early as the 13th century, the oral tradition 
of the rhythmic performance of the melo- 
dics was lost. Unsuccessful attempts at 


GREGORIAN CHANT 

reconstruction were made in the 19th cen- 
tury when the re-editors of the Edith 
Medicea [see ^Liturgical books] made the 
mistake of interpreting the neumatic signs 
of plainsong as mensural notes and liga- 
tures (longa, brevis, semibrevis, etc.; see 
♦Notation; also *Squarc notation). The 
result is illustrated by Ex. 4. Still more 



distorting is the interpretation of H. Rie- 
mann who applied his principle of ♦Vicr- 
hebigkeit to the Gregorian melodies [cf. 
RiHM i.2, 39]. Today, all scholars arc 
agreed that Gregorian rhythm belongs to 
the category termed “measured rhythm” 
in our article on rhythm, in particular to 
the “chronos-protos” variety thereof [see 
♦Rhythm II (b) ] . There exists, however, a 
sharp cleavage between two main schools, 
one of which maintains that in Gregorian 
rhythm there exists practically only one 
time-value, say, the eighth-note, while the 
other admits the existence of two time- 
values, the above and its double (quarter- 
note), possibly also of its triple (dotted 
quarter-note). 

To the former school belong the accen- 
tualists (Dom Pothier), who consider the 
textual accent as the organizing factor 
within the succession of uniform time- 
values (a theory which would be difficult 
of application in the case of extended 
tcxtless melismas), and their successors, 
the monks of ♦Solesmes (Dom Moeque- 
reau and others) who, on the contrary, 
completely discard the textual accent as a 
basis of musical accentuation. Instead, 
they divide the melody into elementary 
groups of two or three notes, groups 
which in turn are combined into larger 
rhythmic divisions: incises, members, 
phrases, and periods. The beginning of 
each binary or ternary group is marked 
by an ♦ictus. Only at the end of a phrase 
arc notes of longer value admitted. In 
addition to these principles the monks of 
Solesmes have worked out a special man- 
ner of performing Gregorian chant which 
is characterized, among others, by the al- 
most complete absence of contrasts of in- 


[308] 



GREGORIAN CHANT 


GREGORIAN CHANT 

tensity (piano, forte), the voices moving ably stands in the same relation to its 
along, quite impressively, in a subtly medieval counterpart as a Romanesque 
shaded mezzopiano. church of 1880 to its nth-century model” 

Among the adherents of the second [BeMMRy I'y]. Finally, since the history 

school (sometimes called mensuraiists), of Gregorian chant embraces at least six 

the admission of two time-values natural- centuries (600-1300) and numerous lo- 

ly leads to a considerable disagreement as calities, there can be no single “correct 

to which notes of the chants are long, answer.” It would be foolish to assume 

which short. Here the various scholars that the chant was performed in the same 

(Dechevrens, Peter Wagner, Dom Jean- manner at the time of St. Gregory, as it 

nin, Bonvin, Jammers) differ mainly in was in the 9th or 12th century. Even the 

the question as to the correct interpretation current designation of the 9th and loth 

and relative importance of early theorists centuries as the “Golden Age” of Gre- 

as well as of certain special signs found in gorian chant is rather arbitrary, not to 

the early neumatic manuscripts, such as mention the possibility of local differences 

the *cpiscma, the ^Romanian letters, the within this era (Metz, St. Gall, etc.), 

virga and punctum [see *Neumes], etc. VJJ. History. There has been an ex- 
Ex. 5 serves to illustrate the various tended controversy regarding the origin 

methods (a: Riemann; b: Bernouilli- and roots of Gregorian chant. Opinion 

was, and still is, divided among those who 
maintain the Greek lineage and those who 
point to the tradition of the Jewish Syna- 
gogue. An interesting evidence in favor 
of the former opinion was found in the 
striking resemblance between one of the 
few remaining Greek melodies, the Sei- 
kilos song [see *Greek music JII] and the 
Gregorian antiphon Hosanna David [cf. 
ReMMAy 1 15]. However, such a single 
instance weighs little if the dissimilarity 
in general between Greek music (strict 
meter, syllabic style, poetic texts) and 
Gregorian chant (oratoric rhythm, melis- 
matic style, recitation tones, prose texts) 
is considered. Already the fact that prac- 
tically all the early texts of the Roman 
Houdard; c; Wagner; d: Jeannin; e: So- Church are taken from the psalms points 
lesmes). Only the last three are still de- to a strong Jewish influence. Also the 
servingof consideration. Cf. also general character of Gregorian music is 
148. “Oriental” rather than “Greek.” This 

Without attempting an evaluation of point of view has gained considerable 
the above methods, it can be said that the support by the recent investigations of 
mcnsuralists “have an impressive amount Idelsohn [cf. ZMW iv], who has shown 
of historical evidence on their side” that melodics still sung today by Jewish 
[ReMMAy 146], and that the Solesmes tribes living in isolated spots (South 
interpretation would seem to derive its Arabia, Persia) are strikingly similar to 
main justification from the results em- lection tones of the Roman Church, 
bodied in their actual performances and During the early centuries of the Chris- 
recordings which, so far, have not been tian era there accrued a large repertory of 

challenged by similar attempts on the part chants from various sources, pagan (neo- 

of any of the mcnsuralists. As regards the Platonists), heretic (Gnostics, Therapeuts; 

historical truthfulness of the Solesmes in- see *Hymns), East-Christian (Syria, Alex- 
terpretation, it has been said that it “prob- andria), etc. Pope Gregory (590-604) col- 

[309] 





GREGORIAN CHANT 

Iccted the chants and standardized their 
use in the service, a task which was con- 
tinued to some extent by later popes (8th 
century). Already in the earliest preserved 
MSS of Gregorian chant, dating from the 
9th century, the arrangement is largely 
the same as in all the later sources. The 
post-Gregorian development of the chant 
comprises chiefly the '"‘tropes and ♦se- 
quences which flourished from the 9th 
through the 13th century, but were 
mostly abolished by the ♦Council of Trent. 
From the 14th through the 19th centiiry 
the history of plainsong is one of increas- 
ing deterioration, first with regard to the 
rhythmic interpretation, later also with 
regard to the melodies themselves [Editio 
MediceUy Ratisbonensis\ sec under ♦Litur- 
gical books; see also ♦Machicotage; ♦Plain- 
chant musicale]. Simultaneously, the 
monophonic chants were increasingly re- 
placed by polyphonic settings, first by the 
13th-century ♦organa, ♦clausulae, and 
♦motets (portions of the Proper of the 
Mass), later by compositions of the Ordi- 
nary of the Mass (14th and subsequent 
centuries), of the hymns (r5th century, 
Dunstable, Dufay, and successors), and 
of the psalm tones (i6th century; see 
♦Fauxbourdon (4); ♦Verset). The return 
to the medieval tradition of unaccom- 
panied chant is largely the work of the 
monks of ♦Solesmes [see ♦Liturgical 
books II]. 

Sec also (main articles arc italicized): 
Alleluia; Antiphon; Benedicamus; Bene- 
diction; Benedictus; Canticum; Cantus 
planus; Cecilian movement; Chant; Com- 
munion; Cursus; Dies irae; Doxology; 
Euouae; Gradual; Hymn; Ictus; Impro- 
peria; Incipit; Introitus; Jubilus; Lamen- 
tations; Litany; Liturgical boo\s\ Machi- 
cotage; Magnificat; Mass', Miserere; Missa; 
Motu proprio; Neuma; Neumes; OfTer- 
torium; Office hours'. Ordinary; Plain- 
chant musical; Psalm; Psalmody', Psalm 
tones', Requiem; Responsorium; Salve 
Regina; Sarum use; Sequence (2); So- 
lesmcs; Te Deum; Tenebrae; Tract; Tris- 
hagion; Trope. 

Lit.: Practical: Dom Johner, A New 
School of Gregorian Chant (1925); A. 
Robertson, The Interpretation of Plain- 


GRIFFSCHRIFT 

chant J. Schrembs, The Gregorian 

Chant Manual . . . (1935); G. Sunyol, 
Text Boo\ of Gregorian Chant (1930). 
Books on the objectionable practice of 
plaipsong accompaniment are not listed. 

historical : P. Wagner, Einfiihrung in 
die gregorianischen Melodien, 3 vols. 
(1901-21); vol. i appeared in English as 
Introduction to the Gregorian Melodies, 
Part 7 . . . (1907); Dom A. Moequereau, 
Le N ombre musical gregorien . . . , 2 vols. 
(1908, ’27); Dom Gajard, Notions sur 
le rhythme gregorien (in Monographies 
Gregoriennes, 1935); Dom Jeannin, 
Etudes sur le rhythme grigorien (1926); 
E. Jammers, Der gregorianische Rhyth- 
(1937); H. B. Briggs, “The Structure 
of Plainsong” {PM A xxiv); C. H. Phil- 
lips, “The Aesthetics of Plainsong” (ML 
XV, no. 2); E. Wellesz, “Some Exotic Ele- 
ments of Plainsong” (ML iv, no. 3); P. 
Wagner, “Zur Rhythmik der Neumen” 
(/MP xvii); L. Bouvin, “The ‘Measure’ 
in Gregorian Music” (MQ xv); J. Jean- 
nin, “II mensuralismo Gregoriano” (RMI 
xxviii, xxix, xxx). See also ♦Editions 
XXIII; ♦Neumes. Comprehensive bibli- 
ography in ReMMA, 437!!. 

Gregorian modes. See under ♦Church 
modes II. 

Gregorian tones. Same as ♦psalm tones. 

Gr. FI. Short for Grosse Flote [G.j, i.e., 
the ordinary flute. 

Griffbrett [G.]. Finger board (of vio- 
lins, etc.). See ♦Bowing ( 1 ). 

Griffloch [G.j. Finger-hole (of flutes, 
etc.). 

Griffschrift [G.j. A general name for 
systems of notation the signs of which re- 
fer directly to the position of the fingers 
on the instrument, rather than to the re- 
sult of these positions, the tones. While 
the latter method is the normal one, the 
former has been used repeatedly in the 
evolution of musical notation, particularly 
in the lute tablatures of the i6th century. 
A modern instance is the notation for the 
guitar or ♦ukulele in popular music. Sec 
♦Tablatures; cf, also ApNPMy 54. 

[310] 



GRIMMIG 


Grimmig [G.]. Grim, furious. 

Groppo [It.]. Sec*Gruppo. 

Gross, grosse [G., great] . Grosse FlotCy 
the ordinary flute. Grosses Orchester^ full 
orchestra. Grosse Trommely bass drum. 
Grosse Sext {Terz)y major sixth (third); 
Grosse Quinte (Quarte), perfect fifth 
(fourth). Grosse 0 \tavey great octave. 

Grosse caisse [F.]. Bass drum. 

Ground, ground bass. A short me- 
lodic phrase (normally from four to eight 
measures) which is repeated over and 
over again as a bass line, with varying 
superstructures (melodies, harmonies) 
added each time in the upper parts. The 
resulting composition is also called 
“ground.” It is the contrast between the 
fixed framework of the bass and the free 
display of imagination in the upper part 
or parts that constitutes the peculiar charm 
of this form. The ground bass or basso 
ostinato [It.] may vary in elaborateness 
from such simple formations as the de- 
scending tetrachord: a-g-f-^ (one note 
to the measure; see Ex. under ^Chaconne) 
to full-length melodies, as in the accom- 
panying example (Purcell). The ground 



GSP. 

Passacaglia — have the motive occasional- 
ly transferred to an inner or an upper 
voice. To say, however, that passacaglias 
(and/or chaconnes) as a species belong to 
the general category of grounds is a mis- 
leading statement, since many passaca- 
glias (apd chaconnes) lack the main char- 
acteristic of the ground, i.e., the reiterated 
bass motive. For a somewhat different 
type of reiterated bass see ^Strophic bass. 

The statement, found in several books, 
that “the ground had its origin in the 
church music of the polyphonic era, in 
the frequent reiteration of the cantus 
firmus by the tenor” is wholly erroneous. 
The use of the same extended cantus- 
firmus melody (e.g., *L*homme arme) 
for each movement of a Mass is something 
essentially different — technically as well 
as ideally — from the immediate reitera- 
tion of a concise melodic phrase within a 
single composition. The origin of the 
ground must be looked for in variations, 
probably in variations of a dance-like 
character. See under *Ostinato. 

Lit.: R. Litterscheid, Zur Geschichte 
des basso ostinato (Diss. Marburg 1928); 
L. Walter, Die \onstructive und thema- 
tische Ostinatotechni\ des ij. und 18. 
Jahrhunderts (Diss. Munich 1940); L. 
Nowak, Grundziige einer Geschichte des 
basso ostinato . . . (1932); H. Riemann, 
“Basso ostinato und basso quasi ostinato” 
{Liliencron Festschrift^ 1910); id,, in SIM 
xiii; H. Shaw, “John Blow’s Use of the 
Ground” {MQ xxiv); O. Gombosi, “Ita- 
lia: Patria del basso ostinato” {LRM vii). 


is a characteristic form of ^Baroque music 
and was cultivated especially in England 
[cf. HAMy no. 257], frequently with im- 
provisation of the upper parts [see *Divi- 
sion]. 

The ground belongs to the general 
category of “continuous variations” [see 
* Variations I] within which it properly 
applies to those examples which have a 
clearly distinguishable bass motive. Thus, 
many passacaglias and chaconnes [sec 
^Chaconne and passacaglia] arc grounds, 
and there would be little objection in ex- 
tending this denomination to those pas- 
sacaglias which — as, e.g., Bach’s Organ 


Grund- [G.,. basis, foundation]. Grund- 
lage, root position. Grund stimmen, the 
8-foot registers of the organ. Grundton, 
root of a chord. Grundtonart, main key. 

Gruppetto, gruppo, groppo. Italian 
16th-century name for an ornamentation 
in the character of a *trill. See *Orna- 
mentation I. 

G.S. or GS. Short for Gerbert’s Scrip- 
tores, See *Scriptorcs. 

G sol re ut (G solreut). See ♦Hexa- 
chord IL 

Gsp. Short for *Glockcnspicl. 


ts”] 




GUAJIRA 

Guajira, guaracha. Spanish-Cuban 
dances with a characteristic shift from % 
meter to % or to % meter (the eighth- 
notes remaining unchanged in length). 
A charming example is the guarache in 
the ballet of Auber’s La Muette de Portici 
(1828), Act I. 

Guerre des bouffons. See *Bouffons 

(2). 

Guida [It., leader], (i) Subject (dux) 
of a fugue. — (2) ^Direct. — (3) An ab- 
breviated orchestral score [see *Conduc- 
teur] . 

Guidon [F.]. *Direct. 

Guidonian hand. The term refers to 
the use by Guido of Arezzo (born c. 995) 
of the human hand as an aid in memoriz- 
ing the scale and its solmization syllables. 
Although it is nothing but a sketch of a 
hand with the names of tones inscribed in 
its various parts, it attained an almost 
supernatural significance as the symbol of 
the complete mastery of the medieval sys- 
tem of ^hexachord and ’•^mutation, as the 
epitome indeed of the entire system of the 
church modes. Thus, for instance, chro- 
maticism was strongly objected to as late 
as the 1 6th century, because it was not 
contained “in the hand” (“non est in 
manu”). In the accompanying sketch the 



tones are indicated by the modern pitch 
names, instead of the composite solmiza- 
tion-names (Gamma ut, A re, B mi, etc.; 
see *Hexachord II) which are regularly 
used in the early treatises. For Guidonian 
letters, see ^Letter notation. 


GUITAR 

Guimbarde [F.]. *Jew’sharp. 

Guiro. Sec ^Percussion instruments B, 8. 

Guitar [G. Gu'ttarre\ It. chitarra\, A 
plucked stringed instrument, similar to 
the lute, but distinguished by its body 
which has a flat back and inward curving 
sides, somewhat like that of the violin. 
The modern guitar has six strings which 
are tuned: E A d g b e'. The music is 
notated one octave higher than it sounds. 
Today the guitar is chiefly a popular in- 
strument used to provide a simple chordal 
accompaniment to a dance or a song, the 
chords being indicated in a manner sim- 
ilar to the principles of the 16th-century 
lute tablatures [see *Tablatures VI]. 
Most of the great guitar virtuosos were 
Spanish: Dionisio Aguado (1784-1849), 
who established the principles of modern 
guitar playing in a method written in 1825 
and still used today; Fernando Sor (1784- 
1839), who aroused the admiration of 
Mehul, Cherubini, and Fetis, and who 
wrote numerous brilliant compositions for 
the guitar; Francesco Tarrega (1852- 
1909), the greatest of all guitar players, 
who initiated the present-day renascence 
of the instrument; and his pupil Andres 
Segovia (b. 1896), who has made known 
the instrument all over the world and who 
has contributed much to a revival of old 
(16th-century) guitar (*vihuela) music. 
Modern composers for the guitar include 
Manuel de Falla, Joaquin Turina, Rodolfo 
Halffter, Albert Roussel, Alexander Tans- 
man, and others. Percy Grainger has used 
it in several compositions [see C. Forsyth, 
Orchestration (1926), p. 480]. 

The earliest compositions for the guitar 
are contained in Miguel Fuenllana’s Or- 
phenica lyra (1554); they are, however, 
written for a four-stringed guitar tuned 
c-f-a-d' [cf. WoHN ii, 161]. While 
these pieces are entirely in the “pseudo- 
polyphonic” style of 16th-century lute mu- 
sic, a new style, consisting of chordal ac- 
companiment only, was inaugurated by 
G. Montesardo who, in his Nuova Inven- 
tione per sonare It balletti sopra la Chitarra 
Spagniuola (1606), invented a new no- 
tation (stenographic indication of the 
chords) which was broadened by other 


[312] 



GUITAR FAMILY 

guitarists, such as Caliginoso (1629) and 
Lucas Ruiz de Ribayaz (1677). 

In the 17th century, when lute music 
under Denis Gaultier, Esaias Rausner, 
and others reached its high-point of artis- 
tic perfection, the guitar rose to promi- 
nence as an instrument of much lesser 
ambition and, consequently, greater pop- 
ular appeal. In the late 17th century the 
instrument became fashionable in the 
French court-circles, and painters a la 
mode, like Watteau and Boucher, depicted 
it in the hands of beautiful ladies and of 
comedians. Boccherini used the guitar in 
some of his chamber music works, as did 
also other composers of the i8th century. 
Schubert’s so-called Guitar Quartet, how- 
ever, is only an adaptation of a guitar trio 
of a Bohemian Matiegka, published in 
1807. See also ^Guitar family; *Electronic 
musical instruments III. 

Lit.: D. Prat Marsal, Diccionario . . ,de 
guitarras . . . ( 1934) ; B. Terzi, Dizionario 
del chitarristi e liutai Italiani (1937); 
J. Zuth, Handhuch der Laute und der 
Gitarre (1926); LavE ii.3, 1997-2035; 
WoHN ii, 157-218; A. iCoczirz, “Die 
Fantasien des Melchior de Barberis . . 
(ZMW iv); id,, “Die Gitarrenkomposi- 
tionen in Miguel de Fuenllana’s Orphe- 
nica lyra” (AMW iv); W. Tappert, “Zur 
Geschichte der Guitarre” (M/M xiv); E. 
Schmitz, “Guitarrentabulaturcn” (M/M 
xxxv); O. Chilesotti, “La Chitarra fran- 
cese” (RMI xiv); M. R. Brondi, “II Liuto 
e la chitarra” (RMI xxxii, xxxiii). 


GUSTO 

and wire strings [cL AdHM i, 604]. The 
** Cythringen' {Cithrinchen) on which the 
miller Veit Bach, J. S. Bach’s great-great- 
grandfather, is reported to have enter- 
tained himself while grinding the flour, 
was a smaller instrument of this type. In 
the 1 8th century the cittern was much 
used in England under the name English 
guitar [cf. GD ii, pi. XXXI]. A direct 
derivative of the cittern is the handurria 
and its larger variety, the bandolon [cf. 
SaRM^, The name of these instruments 
(probably also that of the modern *banjo) 
comes from the 16th-century pandora, a 
guitar with a peculiar doubly scalloped 
body, thus forming three lobes, somewhat 
like an oak leaf. The name quinterne 
(probably from guitterne) was also used 
for instruments of the guitar family, as 
well as for certain members of the lute 
family, e.g., the mandola. A Portuguese 
guitar, much used in the Azores, is the 
machete, which is the ancestor of the 
modern *u\ulele. Of the various guitar 
instruments of Russia only the ^balalai\a 
survives today. A circular guitar with a 
short neck is used in China under the 
name yiieh ch!in and in Japan under the 
nzmtge\l(in [cf. 5 ^//M/, 216-218] . The 
Japanese samisen has a nearly square body 
with rounded sides. It is covered with 
skin, has a long neck, and three silk 
strings tuned in fourths or fifths. It is a 
popular instrument used by street singers 
and for the dance of the geisha girls. See 
also *Vihuela. 


Guitar family. This category is under- 
stood here to include the instruments 
which have the general characteristics of 
the lute family, except for the flat body as 
found with the guitar. Like the lute, the 
guitar is of Oriental origin. It appears in 
various shapes in the famous miniatures 
of the 13th-century Cantigas MS of the 
Escorial [cf. GD ii, 482]. Various such 
instruments existed in the i6th and 17th 
centuries under different names which 
make exact identification difficult. The 
most important among these was the cit- 
tern (also gittern, cister, cither, cithara, 
cetera, cistola, citole) which had an oval 
belly and back, similar to that of the lute, 


Gusla, gusle. The chief instrument of 
Bulgarian folk music. It is a primitive 
violin, with a round wooden back, a belly 
made from skin, and only one string made 
from horsehair. The player of the instru- 
ment is called guslar. 111 . in SaRMI, 170. 
The gusla should not be confused with 
the Russian gusli (guslee), a large zither 
which is used in balalaika bands [see 
’"‘Psaltery]. Cf. W. Wunsch, Die Geigen- 
techni\ der Guslaren (Diss. Prague 

19370 - 

Gusto, Con [It.]. “With taste,” i.c., in 
fitting character and speed. 


[313] 




GYMEL 


Gymel, gimel [from L. cantus gcmeU 
luSy twin song] . A late medieval term for 
two-part polyphony based chiefly on par- 
allel thirds. Guilelmus Monachus (15th 
century) describes it together with *faux- 
bourdon, declaring both methods to be of 
English origin [cf. SchGMB, no. 33]. 
This claim is supported by the style of 
13th-century English compositions (two- 
part hymns, etc.) which show a much 
more extended use of thirds than Con- 
tinental (French) sources of the same pe- 
riod. Of particular interest is a two-part 
hymn in praise of St. Magnus, the patron 
of the Orkneys, which proceeds almost 
entirely in parallel thirds [cf. AdHM i, 
167; HAM, no. 25d] . Gymel, then, would 
seem to represent a typically English type 
of parallel *organum, as against the French 
organum in parallel fourths and fifths. 
However, it would be wrong to assume 
that parallel thirds were unknown in 
France [cf. J. Handschin, in Festschrift 
fiir Guido Adler, 1930, p. 57]. Cf. M. 
Bukofzer, ‘‘Gymel, the Earliest Form of 


HAFFNER COLLECTION 

English Polyphony** (ML xvi, no. 2); 
ReMMA, 388. 

Gypsy music. Whether the gypsies ever 
possessed an aboriginal musical tradition 
is a matter of doubt. Their chief activity 
was probably one of communication, a 
task for which their wandering habits 
and their assimilative character predes- 
tined them. The so-called gypsy-scale, 
c-db-e-f-g-ab-b-c [see *Scale I], with 
two augmented seconds, is probably of 
Indian origin, and was introduced by the 
gypsies into eastern Europe, particularly 
into Hungary, where it became a pseudo- 
nationalistic feature [see *Hungarian mu- 
sic]. It also is frequent in modern Turk- 
ish and Jewish music as well as in Greek 
church music. The gypsies have also 
played a certain role in the cultural and 
musical life of Spain [see ^Flamenco]. 
Cf. LavE i.5, 2646!!; W. Starkie, “The 
Gipsy in Andalusian Folk-music” {PM A 
Ixii). 


H 


H. See '^‘Pitch names; ^Letter notation. 
Abbreviation for Horn (in orchestral 
scores). H dur {moll), German for B 
major (minor). 

Habanera. A dance from Cuba (Ha- 
vana), in slow to moderate duple time and 
with a variety of characteristic rhythms 
somewhat similar to those of the *tango. 

\%mni 

The usual assumption that it was intro- 
duced into Cuba from Africa by the Ne- 
groes is entirely without foundation. All 
evidence points to a Hispanic background 
for this dance as well as for the tango. It 
acquired, however, a certain exotic tinge 
which contributed much to making it 
famous and popular when, around 1850, 
it was reimported to Spain. Sebastian 
Yradier (1809-69), who lived in Cuba 


for some time, wrote the two most famous 
habaneras, the popular song La Paloma, 
and another, El Arreglito, which became 
world famous as a composition of Bizet 
in his Carmen, first act [cf. R. Laparra, 
Bizet et lEspagne, p. 18]. Other well- 
known habaneras are by Chabrier (1885) 
and by Ravel {Rhapsodic Espagnole, 
1907). 

Hackbrett [G.]. See *Dulcimer. 

Haffner Collection. An important col- 
lection of early pianoforte (harpsichord) 
sonatas, published by Haffner around 
1760-70. The complete publication, which 
was issued in three parts under the titles: 
Oeuvres milees, Raccolta musicale, and 
Collection ricreative, contains 114 sonatas 
in *gallant style by Ph. Em. Bach, Wag- 
enseil, Schobert, Marpurg, Bertoni, Ga- 
luppi, Paganelli, Rutini, and others. 
Eighteen sonatas from the Raccolta mu- 


[3x5] 



HAFFNER SERENADE 


HARMONICA 


sicde have been republished by G. Ben- 
venuti under the title: Cembalisti Italiani 
del Settecento (G. Ricordi). See *Sonata 
B III (a) and (b). 

Haffner Serenade. Mozart’s Serenade 
in D [K.V. 250] composed in 1776 for a 
w^edding in the family of Sigmund Haff- 
ner, burgomaster of Salzburg. His Hafl- 
ncr Symphony in D [K.V, 385] was com- 
posed in 1782 for a similar purpose. 

Hakenneumen [G.]. Hook neumes; 
see *Neumes 11 . 

Halb, halbe [G., half]. Halbe Note 
(Pause) f half-note (-rest). Halbinstru- 
merit, half-tube instrument. Halbschluss, 
half-cadence. Halbsopran, mezzosoprano. 
Halbton, semitone. 

Half. Half-close, imperfect cadence. 
Half-fall, see *Appoggiatura. Half-shift, 
the first shift on the violin. Half-step, i.e., 
semitone. Half-tube instruments, see 
•Wind instruments II. 

Hallelujah [from Hebrew hallel, praise, 
and ]ah, Jehovah]. A Biblical word, ex- 
pressing joyful praise of God. For its use 
in Gregorian chant, see •Alleluia. In 
choral compositions of the 17th and i8th 
centuries the word Hallelujah frequently 
serves as the text for an extended final 
movement in fugal style. Famous exam- 
ples are the Hallelujah-choruses in Bach’s 
cantata Christ lag in Todesbanden and in 
Handel’s Messiah (close of Part II). 

Hailing. A Norwegian folk dance, which 
is executed with a great variety of move- 
ments, varying from the intentionally 
awkward to the really violent [cf. the de- 
scription in GD ii, 499]. Grieg has used 
the dance in several of his Lyric Pieces. 

Hammerklavier [G.]. Early 19th- 
century name for the pianoforte. Bee- 
thoven used it for his sonatas op. loi and 
106 [the latter frequently known as Ham- 
merklavier-sonata], probably for no other 
reason than to avoid the Italian word. 

Hammond organ. See •Electronic mu- 
sical instruments I. 


Hand organ. The term is used for two 
mechanical instruments similar in con- 
struction but different in purpose: the 
English •barrel organ, used formerly in 
small churches; or the street organ of the 
Italian organ grinders. 

Handstiick [G.]. Late 18th-century 
term for instructive piano pieces. 

Handtrommel [G.]. •Tambourine. 
Harfe [G.]. •Harp. 

Harmoniai. See *Greek music, II (c). 
Harmonic. See •Acoustics, IV. 

Harmonica. ( i ) The Glass Harmonica. 
An instrument invented by Benjamin 
Franklin in 1763, in which a series of glass 
basins of graded sizes are fixed on a hori- 
zontal spindle which is made to revolve 
by a treadle operated by the foot of the 
player. The spindle is fitted into a trough 
filled with water so that the glasses are 
kept wet. The sound is produced by a 
delicate friction of the fingers [ill. in GD 
ii, 522] . The instrument had an extraor- 
dinary vogue, particularly in Germany 
and Austria where, together with the 
•aeolian harp, the •nail violin, and other 
‘‘ethereal” instruments, it became a char- 
acteristic vehicle of •Empfindsamkeit. 
Among various compositions for the har- 
monica, Mozart’s Adagio in C major 
(K.V. 356) and Quintet (K.V. 617, for 
harmonica, flute, oboe, viola, and cello), 
both composed in 1791, are the most in- 
teresting [cf. the compl. ed., x]. Beetho- 
ven used the harmonica in a melodrama, 
Leonora Prohas\a, composed in 1814 
[Supplementary volume of the B. and H. 
edition] . Other composers who wrote for 
the instrument were J. G. Naumann, 
Padre Martini, Hasse, Galuppi, and Jo- 
melli. Cf. C. F. Pohl, Cursory Notices on 
the Origin and History of the Glass Har- 
monica (1862). 

(2) The Mouth Harmonica or Mouth 
Organ. This instrument, widely used for 
popular music making, consists of a small, 
flat box with a number of channels on the 
oblong side, each of which leads to a metal 
reed inside the box. The instrument is 
placed against the lips and moved in one 


1 316] 


Hand horn. Sec •Horn II. 



HARMONIC ANALYSIS 

direction or the other, according to the 
notes desired. Alternating notes of the 
scale can be obtained by blowing or by 
suction. A great number of harmonica 
bands exist in the United States and else- 
where, and a remarkable degree of virtu- 
osity has been achieved by players to be 
heard on the stage. The instrument was 
probably invented by F, Buschmann in 
1821 [ct SaHMl, ^06]. Other reference 
books mention Sir Charles Wheatstone as 
the inventor (Aeolina, 1829). 

(3) In French and German the name is 
also used for a variety of instruments of 
the xylophone type, i.e., consisting of 
tuned strips of wood (harmonica de boisy 
Holzharmoni\a)y steel (harmonica a la- 
mes deader y Stahl harmoniha, i.e., *Glock- 
enspiel), stone (harmonica h lames de 
pierre, e.g., the Chinese pien cKing\ see 
^Chinese music IV), etc. Ziehharmoni\a 
[G.] is the accordion. 

Harmonic analysis. I. General. In the 
more restricted sense harmonic analysis is 
for the purpose of determining the struc- 
ture of each chord in a piece of music; in 
the larger and truer sense its objective is 
to determine how a piece of music is con- 
structed from the chordal point of view. 
The latter includes the former as a matter 
of course, but no particular end is served 
if account is not taken of how progres- 
sions of chords are organized to form 
logical units which make musical sense. 
Such musical units, which are called 
^phrases, are comparable to literary 
phrases. Just as a sentence is constructed 
of single words, so is a phrase of music 
constructed of single chords, and we must 
know not only how these chords are spelled 
and how they sound individually, but how 
they are organized into musical units. 
The classical system of tonal harmony, 
that current in the i8th century and con- 
tinued fundamentally, but enlarged con- 
siderably, in the 19th, forms the basis of 
harmonic analysis at the present time. 
Such analysis will show that composers — 
any of them from Bach to Faur^ — have 
had certain common habits in forming 
sequences of chords. If the music of Bach 
and that of Faur6 do not sound alike, it is 


HARMONIC ANALYSIS 

not because their basic chordal progres- 
sions differ essentially; they differ only 
superficially in that the individual chords 
of the latter may be more complicated and 
colored, the rhythm with which the music 
moves may have a different gait, the 
phrases may be differently conceived in 
terms of length, and the non-essential 
connections between the chordal pillars, 
the ornamentations, may be handled dif- 
ferently. But as any building, regardless 
of its appearance, must obey the laws of 
gravity, so must tonal music obey the 
fundamental laws of harmony. 

11 . Triads. The basis of classical har- 
mony, hence of harmonic analysis, is the 
*triad. There are three different kinds of 
triads among those erected on the seven 
degrees [see *Scale degrees] of the major 
scale: I, IV, and V, the tonal degrees, have 
major triads; II, III, and VI, the modal 
degrees, have minor triads; and VII, which 
is indeterminate, has a diminished triad. 
I, V, and IV are the roots of the basic 
chords in the major key, and ordinarily 
in pieces in such a key these chords are 
used preponderantly over the chords whose 
roots are the modal degrees. The follow- 
ing illustration shows the triads on each 
degree of the major scale and its tonic 
(parallel) minor and the relations among 
them [Ex. i]. 



(Chords written in white notes are used in the 
major key; those in black notes are used in the 
minor key; those marked i are common to both 
modes; those marked 2 are often borrowed from 
the minor mode to be used in the major; that 
marked 3 is used only under certain circumstances 
even in the minor; that marked 4 is sometimes 
used as a final chord in pieces in the minor, in 
which case the chord is said to have a Picardy 
third; and those marked (2), which can be bor- 
rowed from the minor for use in the major, are 
mostly so used in the 19th century, the tonic minor 
having such usage mostly as a melodic device in 
popular American music of the “blues** type.) 

Besides the practice of exchange of 
chords from one mode to the other, which 
in itself makes the two modes practically 
identical, certain other alterations have 


1 317] 



HARMONIC ANALYSIS 

come into practical usage which further 
color, and therefore confuse, the two 
modes; it is hardly going too far to say 
that in the late 19th century practically 
any note of any chord could be sharped or 
flatted, and that if this were done judi- 
ciously the feeling of a central tonality 
could still be preserved, although it might 
not be possible to determine whether the 
resulting tonality was major or minor. 

III. Seventh and Ninth Chords. Be- 
sides the triads illustrated above, music of 
the 1 8th and 19th centuries makes great 
use of seventh chords. These chords are 
triads with another diatonic third super- 
posed. Each degree of the scale is capable 
of having a seventh chord erected upon it. 
Ninth chords, used more in the 19th cen- 
tury than before, are seventh chords with 
still another diatonic third superposed. 
Seventh chords and ninth chords are des- 
ignated by adding the figure 7 or 9 to the 
Roman numeral indicating the root, thus: 
F, P. The symbol means a ninth 

chord with the seventh degree flatted [ see 
Ex. 2]. For more details see ^Seventh 
chord; ♦Ninth chord. 



IV. Root Position and Inversion. When 
any chord built of superposed thirds 
stands in its original position it is said to 
be in root position, since the note on 
which the structure is built, the *root, 
lies in the bass or lowest part. Thus a 
chord built on C, whether it be a triad, a 
seventh, or a ninth chord, or even greater, 
is in root position, so long as C remains 
in the bass, no matter what arrangement 
the other notes take above it or how many 
notes there are in the chord. All the 
chords of Ex. i and 2 are in root position. 

If the third of the chord, E in the ex- 
amples above, lies in the bass the chord is 
in first inversion; if the fifth, G in the 
above examples, is in the bass the chord 
is in second inversion; and if the seventh 
is in the bass it is in third inversion. The 
Arabic figuring of these chords indicates 
the characteristic intervals which lie bc- 


HARMONIC ANALYSIS 

tween the lowest note (bass note, not the 
root) and those above it. Thus, the desig- 
nation for the first inversion, known as 
sixth chord, is P (properly ip, for the 
second inversion, known as six-four chord, 
IJ and similar symbols are used for the 
inversion of the seventh chord [Ex. 3]. 



See ♦Inversion; ♦Sixth chord; ♦Six-four 
chord; ♦Seventh chord. 

V. Altered Chords. These are chords 
in which one or several notes are chro- 
matically altered, i.e., by accidentals for- 
eign to the key. The minor subdominant 
in a major key (e.g., f-ab-c' in C major) 
is usually not considered an altered chord. 
The commonest among the altered chords 
are illustrated in Ex. 4: (a) diminished 
seventh chord; (b) Neapolitan sixth; 
(c) augmented fifth; (d) diminished fifth, 
while (e) represents the more complex 
type frequently found in modern music. 
Closely related to the diminished seventh 



chords are the augmented sixth chords. 
See ♦Seventh chord; ♦Sixth chord. 

The secondary dominants are a par- 
ticularly important type of altered chords 
[see ♦Dominant] . 

VI. Modulation. Modulation, one of 
the most valuable devices in tonal music, 
is accomplished by means of pivot chords. 
The C major triad, for instance, is not 
only I in the key of C major, but also IV in 
G, V in F, III in A minor, VI in E minor, 
the Neapolitan II in B, and VII in D 
minor; treated as a secondary dominant 
its functions are still extended, since it 
can be considered as V of III in D minor, 
V of III in D-flat, V of V in B-flat, and 
so on. The diminished seventh chord and 
the augmented sixth chords are also valu- 
able as pivots since the same chord is to 
be found in a variety of keys. These pivot 
chords serve as connections between dif- 
ferent keys in much the same manner as 


[318] 



HARMONIC ANALYSIS 

doors serve to connect different rooms, 
and it is by means of them that modula- 
tion is effected. See ^Modulation. 

VII. Non-Harmonic Tones. These are 
tones dissonant to the harmonies with or 
after which they are sounded, and they 
serve the purpose usually of melodic 
smoothness of flow and ornamental embel- 
lishment. They are of two main types, 
accented and unaccented. The unaccented 
non-harmonic tones are (i) passing tones, 
(2) auxiliary tones, (3) anticipations, 
(4) echappees, and (5) cambiatas, while 
the accented ones are (6) appoggiaturas 
and (7) suspensions, although the last 
has no rhythmic accent on the note itself 
at the moment when it causes dissonance. 
All the non-harmonic tones may be found 
either ascending or descending, and in 
any voice part. See *Nonharmonic tones. 

VIII. Harmonic Rhythm. An impor- 
tant aspect of harmonic analysis is har- 
monic rhythm, the rate of speed with 
which harmonies change in the course of 
a phrase or series of phrases. It is essen- 
tial to notice that some phrases experi- 
ence a greater number of harmonies than 
others in the same length of time, and 
that certain parts of single phrases like- 
wise have faster-moving harmonies than 
other parts. The tendency in single 
phrases is to have faster harmonic change 
in the latter part than in the first, but this 
will depend on the structural idea which 
the composer has in mind for the piece as 
a whole and the psychological effect he 
wishes to convey. See ^Harmonic rhythm. 

See also ^Harmony; ^Functional har- 
mony; ^Texture; ♦Dualism. 

Lit. (attempt at a selection out of hun- 
dreds of text books): W. Piston, Har- 
mony (1940); id.y Principles of Harmonic 
Analysis (1933); P. Hindemith, Tradi- 
tional Harmony (1943); C. H. Kitson, 
Elementary Harmony (1920); id.. Evolu- 
tion of Harmony (1914); N. Rimsky- 
Korsakov, Practical Manual of Harmony 
(1930); E. Prout, Harmony (i6th ed., 
1901); A. P. Scholes, The Beginners 
Guide to Harmony (19221!). H. A. Mil- 
ler, New Harmonic Devices (1930); R. 
Lenormand, Study of Modern Harmony 
(1915); A. F. Barnes, Practice in Modern 


HARMONIC RHYTHM 

Harmony (1937). Eor historical studies, 
see under ♦Harmony. A. T. M. 

Harmonic division. See Arithmetic 
and harmonic division. 

Harmonic inversion. See ♦Inversion 
(i)- 

Harmonic minor (scale). See ♦Major 
and minor. 

Harmonic rhythm. The rhythmic 
life contributed to music by means of the 
underlying changes of harmony. The 
pattern of the harmonic rhythm of a given 
piece of music, derived by noting the root 
changes as they occur, reveals important 
and distinctive features affecting the style 
and texture. Chief of these are the fre- 
quency of harmonic change, and the 
rhythmic quality of that change. There 
may be no change of harmony over sev- 
eral measures of music, as for example in 
the opening of Beethoven’s Ninth Sym- 
phony. A contrast to this is the rapid suc- 
cession of root changes, a different chord 
appearing with each note of the melody, 
as in Ex. i (Chopin, Mazurka op. 59, no. 







i ■ A k 1 1 




'OMB. 

ISSH! 













iHi9 


! N 2S Shi hS bSSSS 



2). Between these extremes all variations 
can be found. In general it may be said 
that music of a contrapuntal character em- 
ploys fewer chord changes than do other 
types. 

The pattern of the harmonic rhythm is 
made up of strong and weak rhythmic 
quantities. Certain root progressions, 
such as II to V, are regarded as strong 
progressions, that is, having the rhythmic 
effect of weak to strong. Others, like III 
to V, are weak, with strong to weak, or 
even static rhythm [Ex. 2]. Usually, 


[319] 



HARMONIC RHYTHM 

however, the pattern contains several root 
progressions, so that a judgment of their 
comparative rhythmic values involves 
consideration of other factors. The most 



V7 I V7 1 


important influence on the rhythmic stress 
is the element of time. Long time values 
are generally accepted as being heavy, or 
strong, in comparison with shorter values 
[Ex. 3]. A dissonant chord with its reso- 
lution may constitute either a weak or a 
strong progression [Ex. 4]. Dynamic in- 
dications usually underline the natural 
rhythm of the music but are sometimes 
used by composers in a contrary sense, to 
give an accent where one would not nor-, 
mally occur. 

The strong beats of the harmonic 
rhythm are commonly in agreement with 
the first beats of the measures, thus co- 
inciding with what one feels to be the 
pulse of the music, although this is by no 
means always the case. The pattern of 
the harmonic rhythm is capable of con- 
siderable independence of the meter and 
of the various melodic rhythms to which 
it serves as background. Ex. 5 (Beethoven, 
Sonata op. 31, no. 3) serves as an illustra- 
tion. It should be noted in this example 
that the pattern of the harmonic rhythm, 
while it is the product of the combination 
of the melodic lines, is unlike any one of 
the melodic rhythm patterns, and does not 
agree with the regularity of the meter. 

The resource of harmonic rhythm is 
largely abandoned by some composers of 
the twentieth century who seek to write 
a purely contrapuntal music as opposed 
to harmonic music. This accounts for a 
certain static quality often noticed in mod- 


HARMONICS 


ern music. Increased melodic and contra- 
puntal rhythmic complexity and the use 
of irregular and changing meters are in 




some instances a compensation for the 
loss in rhythmic interest and vitality due 
to the absence of harmonic rhythm. See 
^Harmonic analysis VII. W. P. 

Harmonics. The term is used in two 
different, though related meanings: (a) 
to denote a general acoustical phenome- 
non, (b) its application to the violin. For 
the former, see Acoustics IV. 

The harmonics of the violin (and 
cello), sometimes called flageolet tones 
[G. Flageolet'tone]^ are high tones of a 
flute-like timbre which are produced by 
lightly touching the string, instead of 
pressing it down, as is done in ordinary 
stopping. By doing so, the string is al- 
lowed to vibrate in its entire length, but 
the formation of a node is enforced at the 
point touched. Our sketch. Ex. i, shows 
the vibration of (a) an open string. 



(b) a stopped string, (c) a lightly touched 
string. If the open string sounds g, the 
stopping at P (in our example at one- 
third of the entire length) produces the 
fifth d' (vibrating length 2/3), while 
light touch will produce the harmonic d" 
(vibrating length is 1/3). The formula 


[320] 




HARMONIC (MINOR) SCALE 

for the determination of the harmonics 

is — = I h and t being the relative 

frequencies of the harmonic and the nor- 
mal tone produced at the same point. For 
instance, in determining the harmonic 
obtained by lightly touching “the c’* of 

the g-string, t is ~ (relative frequency of 

3 

the fourth; see *Intervals, Calculation 

of), therefore: = i — — = — , or 

h 4 4 

h = 4, i.e., the frequency of the second 
octave; hence, the harmonic is g". In the 
accompanying Ex. 2 the lozenges indicate. 


2 Jk M ^ 


r ^ 


^ t 





as usual, the point of touch, the black 
notes the pitch of the resulting harmonic. 

Stopping and light touch can be used 
simultaneously. The tones thus obtained 
are called ^‘artificial harmonics,” the 
others, “natural harmonics.” In compo- 
sitions for violin (or cello), the latter are 
indicated by a small circle placed above 
the desired tone, while for the artificial 
harmonics the method exemplified under 
Ex. 3 is used in which the position of the 
fingers as well as the resultant tones is 
indicated. 

The introduction of the harmonics is 
variously ascribed to Domenico Ferrari 
(1722-80), a pupil of Tartini, and to Jean 
dc Mondonville (1711-72). The latter 
seems to have made the first practical ap- 
plication of the harmonics in his six so- 
natas Les Sons harmoniques, op. 4 ( 1735). 
Sec also *Ch’in; *Tromba marina. 

Harmonic (minor) scale. See *Major 
and minor; ^Scales. 

Harmonic series. The series of the 
acoustical harmonics [see * Acoustics IV]. 

Harmonie [F., G.]. Harmony. In 
French usage the term also denotes the 


HARMONIUM 

wind section of the orchestra, or special 
wind bands. Cor d' harmonie is the French 
horn. 

Harmonika [G.]. Either the Mund- 
harmonikji^ mouth-harmonica [see ♦Har- 
monica (2)], or the Ziehharmont\a^ i.e., 
♦accordion. B. Franklin’s harmonica is 
called Glas harmonica. See also ♦Har- 
monica (3), 

Harmonious Blacksmith. Air with 
variations from Handel’s Harpsichord 
Suite no. 5, in E (1720). No plausible 
explanation for the name has been given. 

Harmonium. I. A keyboard instrument 
the tones of which are produced by thin 
tongues of metal set in vibration by a 
steady current of air which is provided 
by a pair of bellows operated by the feet 
of the player. The metal tongues act as 
free reeds [see ♦Reed]. The harmonium 
is usually considered as a popular substi- 
tute for the organ with which it has vari- 
ous features in common, e.g., the wind 
supply, the keyboard, the ad libitum sus- 
tained tones, and stops which provide for 
variety of timbre. If properly used, how- 
ever, the modern harmonium is an in- 
strument in its own right. In particular, 
it is capable of producing gradations of 
sound which make it a more “expressive” 
instrument than the organ (by means of 
the expression stop which puts the pres- 
sure in the bellows under direct control 
of the feet operating the bellows). Need- 
less to say, it is bad taste to use this device 
for the rendering of Bach’s organ works. 
However, it lends itself well to many 
organ compositions of the 19th century 
(Mendelssohn, Schumann, Liszt, Reger), 
or for the pieces written directly for the 
instrument (Karg-Elert, Dvorak, Reger, 
Cesar Franck). 

II. The harmonium developed in the 
19th century, from Grenid’s orgue ex- 
pressif (1810, influenced by the Chinese 
♦Sheng) over a great number of more or 
less experimental instruments (Organo- 
violin, 1814; Aeoline, 1816; Aeolodicon, 
Physharmonica, 1818; Aerophone, 1829; 
Seraphine, 1833; Mclophonc, 1837; and 
many others) to the first real harmonium 


1 321 ] 




HARMONIUM 


HARMONY 


(A. Debain, 1840) which combined the Harmony. In general, any simultane- 
uscful devices found separately in the ous combination of sounds, hence synony- 
earlier constructions. Important improve- mous with ^chord. The narrower use of 
ments made afterward are: the percussion the term in the meaning of “agreeable 
(small hammers like those of the piano- chord” conforms to some extent with the 
forte, acting upon the tongues and caus- earlier practice, but has been rendered 
ing a quicker and more precise “start” of pointless by the recent development of 
the sound); the prolongement^ by which music. There is, however, a difference 
single tones can be automatically pro- between chord and harmony in that the 
longed (pedal-points); the melody -attach- former term applies to the single forma- 
menty which puts the highest notes in tions, the latter to successions of chords 
relief over the others; the pedal-sub stitutCy and to the relationships between them, 
by which, contrariwise, the lowest note of Thus, harmony denotes the chordal (or 
a chord can be made to stand out; the vertical) structure of a musical composi- 
double touch (1855), which permits a tion, in contrast to counterpoint, i.e., its 
certain gradation of sound by a slighter melodic (or horizontal) structure [see 
or greater depression of the key; and ^Texture]. The principles of the “clas- 
finally the expression (invented by Mus- sical system” of harmony (i8th, 19th cen- 
tel, 1854), by which the volume of sound turies) are explained under ^harmonic 
is controlled directly by the feet of the analysis. In the present article the subject 
players — a delicate device which, how- is treated from the historical point of view, 
ever, calls for more practice than most I. Harmony, the vertical aspect of 
harmonium players are willing to give music, came to be appreciated consider- 
to it. ably later than counterpoint, the horizon- 

III. An important variety of the har- tal aspect. Although even in the early day 
monium is the American organ^ in which of counterpoint (9th-i2th centuries; sec 
the wind is not forced outward through *Organum) it was apparent that certain 
the reeds by compression, but drawn in- intervals were better sounded simultane- 
wards by evacuation of the air in the bel- ously than others and although the ensu- 
lows. In addition, the tongues of this in- ing progress of counterpoint necessarily 
strument are smaller and more sharply entailed an increased consideration of the 
twisted than those of the harmonium. All harmonic point of view, it was not until 
these devices render the tone softer and the mid- 1 6th century that musicians be- 
more organ-like, but lacking the expres- gan to think of harmonies as a primary 
sive quality of the harmonium. Modern building material of music. In fact, it was 
instruments have electric wind-supply, not until the early i8th century that 
leaving the feet of the player free to oper- Rameau (1722), Fux (1725), and others 
ate a pedal-keyboard like that of the or- formally recognized them as structural 
gan. The principle of the American organ and compositional elements. This late 
was invented about 1835 by a workman recognition is all the more striking in view 
in the harmonium-factory of Alexandre, of the extended use of plain chordal pro- 
Paris, who subsequendy emigrated to gressions in various periods of early music 
America. Here his ideas were put into history [see ^Familiar style] and, par- 
reality by Estey, Brattleboro (Estey organ^ ticularly, in view of the 17th-century prac- 
1856) and by Mason and Hamlin, Bos- tice of *thorough-bass which is essentially 
ton (1861). In France and England the harmonic in nature. Actually, the recog- 
Mustel organ is very popular. For a i6th- nition of the harmonies as building ele- 
century type of harmonium, see *Regal. ments depended upon another concept 
Lit.: A. Mustcl, Uorgue expressify ou which did not evolve until after 1650, 
r harmonium (1903); LmvE ii.3, 1374; namely, ^tonality, which superseded 
L. Hartmann, Das Harmonium (1913; polyphonic modality and which made 
bibl.); C. Sachs, in Zeitschrijt fur Instru- possible an over-all conception of a piece 
mentenbau xxii (1924). of music from the harmonic point of view. 

[322] 



HARMONY 


HARMONY 

Only when tonality was firmly established number of chords on adjacent scale de- 

could the relative importance of chords grees (^parallel chords; Debussy), led 

built on the different degrees of the scale harmony back in many respects to the 

be determined in relation to a key center paths which it had followed in the period 

or tonic; only when this was accomplished of modality. During the 20th century cer- 

could a logical departure from this tonic tain composers have abandoned tonality 

into other keys and return from those keys altogether and once again depend on the 

to it — modulation — be consummated. conjunction of melodic lines to form their 

When chords came to be conceived as harmonics (*atonality; Schonberg), while 
entities it became possible to enlarge the others retain only the triad as the basic 
small chords such as the triad with its chord with which phrases must begin and 

inversions to bigger ones with three or end, and allow any combinations of notes 

more thirds (seventh chords; ninth to form the harmonies in the course of the 

chords). For the sake of color, moreover, phrases, so long as they are arranged logi- 

it was possible to raise or lower the various cally in regard to increasing and decreas- 

notes of these chords without allowing ing dissonance as the phrase proceeds, an 

them to lose their identity and their rela- arrangement called “harmonic fluctua- 

tionship with the central tonic. From the tion” (Hindemith), 

beginning of the 1 8th century onward the II. Considering the triad as the most 
beauty of melodic lines depended largely important harmony, the millennium of 

on the effectiveness of arrangement of the harmonic music may be divided into three 

pillars of harmony on which they were main periods: a central period in which 

draped; no more did they unite to form the triad is sovereign (period of tertian 
these pillars. harmony, c. 1450-1900); a previous pe- 

But the very conception of tonality con- riod in which the potentialities of the triad 

tained the seeds of its own eventual weak- arc not yet exploited (period of pre- 
ening, for with the passage of time and tertian harmony, c*. 900-1450); and a pe- 

with the increasing boldness of composers riod in which, after the exhaustion of 

in modulating to ever more distant keys, the triad, new combinations are sought 

and in coloring, or altering, the notes of after (period of post-tertian harmony, 

their chords more and more, the strength c, 1900-?). The following brief survey is 

of the single tonal center became diluted, based on this classification; 

Added to this, the gradually growing (A) Pre-Tertian Harmony (900—1450) 
tendency of 19th-century composers to (i) 900-1050: Parallel fourths or fifths 
fuse the major and minor mpdes, using in two parts [Ex. i, Musica enchiriadis\\ 
chords typical of one mode in the other see ^organum. 

(Schubert), and to avoid strong tonal (2) 1050-1200: Octaves, fifths, and 

cadences and to substitute for them all fourths as chief consonances of two-part 

kinds of deceptive cadences which in turn writing in parallel and in contrary mo- 

veiled contours of phrases (Liszt and tion; thirds, sixths occur, but are treated 

Wagner) gave to their music a far less and considered as dissonances; seconds 

well-defined feeling of tonality than the and sevenths are frequent in appoggia- 

compositions of the i8th century pos- turas and passing tones [Ex. 2a, Treatise 

sessed. Another practice which acted ad- of Milan; 2b, School of St. Martial; 3, 

versely on the strength of classical tonal- clausula, c, 1200] . See also *Gymc\, 
ity was the use by certain nationalist com- (3) 1200-1350: Open triads (1-5-8) 
posers towards the end of the century of — including those with a diminished 

a preponderance of modal degrees of the fifth — as the main consonance in three- 

scale in the harmonization of the folk or part writing; full triads (1-3-5) occur 

folk-like melodies which they often used occasionally in weak position; harsh dis- 
as the basis of their compositions (DvoMk sonances (consecutive seconds, etc.) are 
and Moussorgsky). This, with its logical freely admitted as passing notes and ap- 
complement of writing consecutively a poggiaturas [Ex. 4, motet c, 1250] . 

[323] 



HARMONY 


HARMONY 


(4) 1350--1450: Open triads in con- 
junction with first inversions (3-5-8) in 
succession: *fauxbourdon [Ex. 5, Lan- 
dini]. See also *Landini cadence. 



Svt gloria 



monic vocabulary of the late Baroque 
[Ex. 9] to its bare “essentials,” the tonic, 
dominant, and subdominant, which are 
used functionally as the carriers of ex- 
tended melodies and as the vehicle of dy- 
namic development (^Mannheim School; 
Viennese classics). Distant modulations, 
with or without pivot chords [Ex. 10, 
Schubert]. 






wmamirrmamk aiMivwa 

3^ 


III!! 


-FYr-FTfnr 

rr 

f 


(B) Tertian Harmony (1450-1900) 

(5) 1450-1600: Full triads and first 
inversions in three, four or more parts; 
the roots of the triads move preferably 
in seconds or thirds (I-II; I-III; I-VI), 
in other words, in modal sequence [Ex. 
6, c. 1450; Ex. 7, c. 1550]. Daring chro- 
matic combinations around 1600 (Gesu- 
aldo). 

(6) 1600-1750: Triads and seventh 
chords with all their inversions, in four 
parts or in free chordal style; increasing 
predominance of the first, fifth, and 
fourth degrees as the central chords 
(tonic, dominant, subdominant), leading 
to the establishment of the major and 
minor tonality in all the keys [ Well-tem- 
pered Clavier, 1722] and to modest modu- 
lations; appearance of altered chords such 
as the diminished seventh and the Nea- 
politan sixth; occasionally extensive use 
of chromatic progressions; enharmonic 
change [Ex. 8, Weekmann, c, 1660; Ex. 9, 
J.S.Bach]. 

(7) 1750-1825: Reduction of the har- 


'^rSrm 7 yl^mmSSSm\ 

TJi mmr jrm>m Hi 

ani'ir 

a.iiF-w 4 

LI 

■IBBI 

iwa 

■raiHK'.-S^i^SS 



1 ’r'^i ■■■■■■— H 


(8) 1825-1900: The period of Roman- 
tic harmony; fullest exploitation of the 
triadic system to the farthest conse- 
quences; extensive use of chromatic alter- 
ations, of unprepared and — towards the 
end of the century — of unresolved ap- 
poggiatura chords; free modulation into 
distant keys [see the description under 1], 
Gradual disintegration of the “system.** 
[Ex. II, Chopin; Ex. 12, Wagner.] 

(C) Post-Tertian Harmony (1900-) 

(9) 1900-present: Deliberate viola- 
tion of the harmonic system by the use 
of •parallel chords (Debussy), of *fourth 
chords (Scriabin), etc., leading to the 
complete abandonment of harmonic re- 
strictions, i.e., to *atonality (Schonberg; 


[324I 





HARMONY 


HARP 


c. 1910) and to a period of unlimited ex- 
perimentation in the field of novel usages, 
frequently of a contrapuntal nature, most 
of ^vhich defy classification [sec *Ncw 
music]. Around 1925, gradual return to 



less radical solutions [see *Neo-classicism; 
*Pandiatonicism]. For examples see the 
different special articles; also under 
^Cadence. 

Lit.: Ch. Maepherson, A Short History 
of Harmony (1917); A. Casella, The Evo- 
lution of Music through the History 
of the Perfect Cadence (1919); G. Hay- 
don, The Evolution of the Six-four Chord 
(1933); K. Jeppesen, The Style of Pales- 
trina and the Dissonance (1927); H. An- 
drews, Modern Harmony (1934); R. 
Lenormand, A Study of Modern Har- 
mony (1915); E. Kurth, Romantische 
Harmonif{ (1920); A. Schonberg, “Prob- 
lems of Harmony** (MM xi, no. 4); Dom 
A. Hughes, “The Origins of Harmony** 
{MQ xxiv); H. Leichtentritt, “Harmonic 
Daring in the i6th Century** (MM v, no. 
i); id.y “HandePs Harmonic Art** {MQ 
xxi); A. Licss, “L’harmonie dans les oeu- 
vres dc Debussy’* {RM xii) ; A. Cocuroy, 


“Debussy et I'harmonie romantique” {RM 
ii); G. Knosp, “Essai d’harmonic exo- 
tique** {RMl xxxviii, xxxix). 

A. T. M. and W. A. 

Harp [F. harpe\ G. Harfe; It. arpa\. 
I. The Double Action Harp, The mod- 
ern double action (or double pedal) harp 
was introduced about 1810 by Sebastien 
firard. It has a range of six octaves and a 
fifth with seven strings to the octave, 
tuned normally in the key of Cb major, 
i.e., from Cib to g""b. At the foot of the 
instrument are seven pedals, one control- 
ling all the C-strings, one all the D- 
strings, etc. Each pedal can be depressed 
to two notches — hence the name double 
action — and each time the correspond- 
ing strings are shortened to sound one 
semitone higher than normally. Thus, the 
C-pedal in high position gives the tone 
Cb, in the first notch the tone C, and in 
the second notch the tone C#. With all 
the pedals in the first notch the tuning of 
the instrument is C major; with all in the 
second, C$ major. Operation of single 
pedals makes all the major and minor 
keys available as well as altered chords so 
long as they do not involve “cross-rela- 
tions,** i.e., the simultaneous use of Ct] 
and CJf, or Eb and Et|. Special effects can 
be obtained by enharmonic substitutions. 
For instance, the following tuning: c dt 
eb f# gb a b# c makes it possible to pro- 
duce the diminished seventh-chord c eb 
f# a in a rapid glissando over all the 
strings. Of special charm are the har- 
monics of the harp which are produced 
by putting the palm on the middle of the 
string. The resulting tone is, of course, 
the higher octave of the normal tone, but 
with a different, mysterious timbre. Still 
another timbre can be obtained by pluck- 
ing the strings close to the sounding 
board. 

II. The Chromatic Harp, This harp 
was introduced in 1897 by the Parisian 
firm of Pleycl. It abandons the pedal 
mechanism entirely, substituting a string 
for each semitone of the octave. Objec- 
tions to its general adoption are: (a) the 
number of strings is nearly doubled; (b) 
a new finger technique is demanded of 


[325] 





HARP 

performers; (c) its tone is poorer than 
that of the double action harp; (d) it can- 
not play the diatonic or chordal glissandos 
written for the double action harp. For 
advantages, one may mention: ‘(a) there 
are no pedals, thus the player is free to 
devote his entire attention to controlling 
the strings with his hands; (b) the instru- 
ment stays better in tune than the double 
action harp since the strings are not con- 
tinually shortened and lengthened; (c) 
for the same reasons the strings last 
longer; (d) there is no restriction with 
regard to the simultaneous use of natural 
and chromatic degrees, and anything 
playable on the piano is playable on the 
chromatic harp. Its main exponents are 
composers of the modern French school, 
but its special literature is as yet small. 

W. D. D. 

III. History, In the scientific classifica- 
tion of instruments harp is the generic 
term for chordophones (practically al- 
W’ays plucked) in which the plane of the 
strings is vertical to the soundboard (not 
parallel as, e.g., in the zither or the piano- 
forte); see ^Instruments IV, D. Harps 
arc among the oldest instruments. In 
Mesopotamia they are documented as far 
back as c, 3000 B.C., and a great variety of 
forms existed there as well as in Egypt 
[sec ^Babylonian, ^Egyptian music]. In 
spite of the innumerable references to 
“King David playing the harp” it is not 
certain whether the Jews had a harp. 
King David’s instrument, the \innory 
was not a harp but a lyre, similar perhaps 
to the Greek kithara [cf. SaHMI, 106]. 
In Greece there existed various types of 
harps, such as the pe\tis and the *ma- 
gadis. 

In Europe, harps made their first ap- 
pearance in Ireland, which still uses the 
harp {clarsech) as its heraldic symbol. 
Whether the instruments represented on 
the famous Irish crosses of the 8th/9th 
centuries were harps or lyres is still a mat- 
ter of controversy among scholars [cf. 
SaHMI ^ 262; N. Bessaraboff, Ancient 
European Musical Instruments (1941), p. 
215; also p. 418, footnotes 460 and 461]. 
On the other hand, the ancient English 
rotta probably was a harp. In Wales 


HARP 

harps {telyn) were known before A.D. 
1000. Regarding the “ancient bardic 
harp music,” sec under *Bards, In the 
1 2th century the harp spread over to the 
Continent and was held in high esteem 
by the troubadours, trouv^res, and Min- 
nesinger. Antonio de Cabezon’s Obras 
de musica of 1572 bears the remark “para 
tecla, harpa y vihuela” thus showing that 
the same compositions were played on 
keyboard instruments, harps, and lutes. 
Harps of the late 17th century had hook- 
like gadgets by means of which the length 
of the strings could be shortened so that 
the sharped tone was produced. In 1720 
Hochbrucker replaced these hooks by 
pedals each of which altered the tuning of 
a string and its octaves. 

IV. Repertory. The harp was occasion- 
ally used in Italian opera of the early 17th 
century (Monteverdi, Orfeo, 1607; see 
♦Orchestration II), and then almost dis- 
appeared from the orchestra. Handel and 
Gluck used it but a few times, the former 
in Esther (1720), the latter in Orpheus 
(1762). Mozart wrote a Concerto for 
flute and harp (K.V. 299) and Beethoven 
used the harp in his Prometheus. Berlioz, 
Liszt, Wagner, and most of the later com- 
posers included the harp in their orches- 
tral scores, and composers such as De- 
bussy and Ravel have used it prominently 
as a vehicle of impressionist coloring, often 
writing parts for two harps. 

The solo literature for the harp is re- 
stricted in quantity as well as quality. 
The earliest extant compositions for the 
harp, by Joh. Bapt. Krumpholz (1745- 
90), are musically valuable, and Fetis 
thought highly of the harp compositions 
of Marie-Martin de Marin (1769-after 
1861). Harp virtuosos of the early 19th 
century, such as Martin d’Alvimare 
(1772-1839), Robert Nicolas Bochsa 
(1789-1856), and Elias Parish-Alvars 
(1808-49), obligingly tendered to the de- 
mands of the harp-playing ladies in the 
salons of Paris and London. It was not 
until the end of the 19th century that 
music of artistic merit was written for the 
harp, mainly by French composers such 
as Saint-Saens (Fantasia for violin and 
harp), Debussy (Sonata for flute, viola, 



HARP LUTE 


HARPSICHORD 


and harp), Ravel (Septet for strings, 
flute, clarinet, and harp), Roussel (Sere- 
nade for flute, violin, viola, cello, and 
harp), Florent Schmitt (Quartet for 
strings and chromatic harp), and Inghel- 
brecht (Sonatina for flute and harp; 
Quintet for strings and harp). Other 
chamber music works calling for the harp 
are by D. G. Mason (Suite for flute, vio- 
lin, viola, cello, and harp), Bax (Sextet 
for strings, harp, and horn; Sonata for 
viola and harp), and Carlos Salzedo. 

Lit.: C. Salzedo, Modern Study of the 
Harp (1921); W. H. Grattan Flood, The 
Story of the Harp (1905); LavE ii.3, 
1892-1971; R. B. Armstrong, The Irish 
and the Highland Harps (1904); H. J. 
Zingel, Harfe und Harfenspiel . . . bis 
ins ,,, 18. Jahrhundert (Diss. Halle 
1932); A. Kastner, ‘‘The Harp as a Solo 
Instrument and in the Orchestra” (PM A 
xxxv); id,f “The Use of the Modern 
Harp” (ZIM xiii); F. W. Galpin, “The 
Sumerian Harp of Ur, c. 3500 B.C.” (ML 
x); id,y “The Origin of the Clarsech” 
(KIMy 1911, p. 317); H. Panum, “Harfe 
und Lyra im alten Nordeuropa” (SIM 
vii); H. J. Zingel, in AM vii, AMF ii, 
ZMW xvii. 

Harp lute. An early 19th-century in- 
strument combining features of the guitar 
(rather than the lute) with those of the 
harp. It may be described as a guitar 
which, instead of the neck, has a harp- 
like structure attached on the top of the 
body, thus giving room for a greater num- 
ber of strings. Similar constructions ap- 
peared under the names Dital Harp and 
Harpdute Guitar, Cf. the illustrations in 
GD ii, opp. p. 70 and p. 542. 

Harp Quartet. Popular name for Bee- 
thoven’s Quartet op. 74, in E-flat, so called 
on account of some pizzicato-arpeggios in 
the first movement. 

Harpsichord [F. clavecin\ G. Cembalo 
(Clavicimbely Kielfiugel)) It. clavicem- 
balo], I. A keyboard instrument of the 
1 6th to the 1 8th century, similar in shape 
to the modern grand piano, but differing 
from it chiefly in the production of sound, 
the string being plucked (mechanically) 


by a plectrum instead of being struck by 
a hammer. If the pianoforte may be 
looked upon as a keyed ^dulcimer, the 
harpsichord may be regarded as a keyed 
*psaltery. The characteristic part of its 
action is the jack, a long piece of wood 



Action of the Harpsichord (from N. Bessaraboff, 
Ancient European Musical InstrumentSy 1941) 


which at the upper end bears a plectrum 
made from crow quills or from leather. 
The jack rests on the rear end of the pro- 
longed lever of the key which, on being 
depressed, causes it to jump up so that 
the quill plucks the string. To each key 
belong several jacks which produce a 
slightly different timbre, owing to-the dif- 
ferent material used for the plectrum. 
There are also several strings to each key 
which produce higher or lower octaves 
(4', 8', 16'). The harpsichord has two 
manuals and several stops by which the 
various jacks and strings can be brought 
into play, so that a modest degree of regis- 
tration is possible, chiefly a change from 
pp to p and f. 

From the modern viewpoint the great- 
est deficiency of the harpsichord is its 
inability to produce gradation of sound 
by lighter or stronger touch. Considering, 
however, the style of Baroque music, 


[327] 




HARPSICHORD 


HAUPT- 


his objection loses much of its weight. 
Actually, the harpsichord is just as per- 
fect a medium for the music of the 
Baroque period as is the pianoforte for 
that of the 19th century. In particular, 
it is definitely superior to the pianoforte 
as a medium for contrapuntal music, since 
the middle and lower parts of a composi- 
tion stand out with an amazing clarity. 
A misleading statement, thoughtlessly re- 
peated in numerous books, is that re- 
garding the sustaining power of the 
sound of the harpsichord, which is said 
to be very slight in comparison with that 
of the pianoforte. Actually, the sustain- 
ing power of the two instruments is prac- 
tically equal, if equal sonorities (piano, 
forte) are considered. Even the most 
tenacious adversaries of the harpsichord 
concede its excellence as an accompanying 
instrument for violins. In fact, the com- 
bination of a violin and a harpsichord in 
a sonata by Bach is acoustically much 
more satisfactory than that of a pianoforte 
and a violin in a sonata by Beethoven. 
Throughout the Baroque period the 
harpsichord was the chief instrument for 
the realization of *thorough-bass accom- 
paniment, always in chamber music and 
often (in place of the organ) in church 
music. 

II. History, The earliest records of 
what may possibly have been a harpsi- 
chord-like instrument date from the 14th 
century [see ^Echiquier]. Around 1400 
the name clavicymbalum occurs in vari- 
ous manuscripts. It points to the addition 
of a keyboard (claves) to an earlier in- 
strument cymbalum\ very likely this had 
nothing to do with the bell-like ^cymbals, 
but was a ’•^dulcimer, for which even to- 
day the name *cymbalom exists in Hun- 
gary [the original form of the word may 
have been tympanon^ from Gr. typtein, 
“to beat” — the same root as in timpani; 
cf. SaRM 74 / 75 ]. The earliest accurate 
information about the instrument is pre- 
served in S. Virdung’s Musica Getutschty 
of 15 1 1. Around 1500, crow quills were 
introduced in addition to the earlier plec- 
tra which were made from leather. Be- 
tween 1500 and 1800 there existed a 
variety of shapes and constructions under 


different names which cannot always be 
identified with a given type. We find in- 
struments in the shape of a long wing 
{harpsichord y clavicembalo ^ clavecin , vir- 
ginal) y of a rectangular box {virginaly 
spinety spinetto)y of a pentagonal box 
{spinetto)y of an upright box {clavicythe- 
rium)y and of a short wing extending 
diagonally (spinet) [illustrations in GD 
i, 664; ii, 546; V, 552]. See *Arpicordo; 
^Clavicytherium; *Spinet; ^Virginal; also 
under ’•^Pedal piano. 

In the late i8th century the harpsichord 
was gradually displaced by the piano- 
forte. It is interesting to note that the 
original editions of almost all the Bee- 
thoven sonatas up to op. 27 bear the in- 
scription: “Pour le Clavecin ou Piano- 
forte.” This does not mean that such 
essentially pianistic works as the Moon- 
light Sonata were composed for the harp- 
sichord; but it shows that harpsichords 
were still widely in use around 1800 and 
that the publishers (who in all probabil- 
ity were chiefly responsible for such in- 
scriptions) were anxious to accommodate 
the players and owners of the old instru- 
ment as well as those of the more modern 
one. Regarding the distinction between 
the repertory of the harpsichord and that 
of the clavichord, see ^Keyboard music. 
See also ^Pianoforte music; *Organ music. 

Lit.: Ph. James, Early Keyboard In- 
struments . . . (1930); W. Landowska, 
Music of the Past (1926); E. Harich- 
Schneider, Die Kunst des Cembalo-Spiels 
(1930); A. Pirro, Les Clavecinistes 
(1926); LavE ii.3, 2036; C. V. Pilking- 
ton, in PM A Ixii; F. Muller, “Vom Cem- 
balo in J. S. Bach’s Kirchenmusik” {AM 
x). See also under ^Keyboard instru- 
ments; ’’“Keyboard music. 

Harp-way tuning. See *Viol IV (3) 
(Lyra-viol). 

Hasosra. Sec *Jcwish music; *Brass in- 
struments V. 

Hastig [G.j. Hasty, impetuous. 

Haupt- [G., chief, principal]. Haupt- 
stimmey principal part (usually soprano); 
Haupttonarty principal key, i.e., the orig- 
inal key after a modulation; Hauptwerl^y 


[328] 



HAUSMUSIK 

great organ; HauptsatZy first theme (or 
section) in sonata-form [sec under 
*Satz]. 

Hausmusik [G.]. Music for domestic 
use, as opposed to music for public per- 
formance. Sec *Gebrauchsmusik. 

Haut, haute [F., high]. Haute'Contre, 
high tenor, male *alto, usually replaced 
by a female contralto. Haut-dessus, high 
treble, soprano. Haute-taille, see *Taille. 

Hautbois, hautboy [F.]. *Oboe. 

Haye, hay, hey. A dance or a dance 
figure of the Elizabethan period. The 
name is probably derived from F. haie, 
i.e., hedge, the point in comparison being 
the arrangement of the dancers in two 
hedge-like rows. Cf. GD ii, 625. 

Hb. Short for hautbois y i.e., oboe. 

Head-voice. See ^Register (2); *Voice. 

Hebrew music. See ^Jewish music. 

Hebrides, The, or Fingal’s Cave. 
Concert Overture by Mendelssohn (B 
minor, op. 26, 1830). The composition 
was inspired by a visit to the famous cave 
in Scotland during his first tour through 
the British Isles. 

Hebung [G.]. Sec under * Arsis. 

Heckel-clarina [sometimes errone- 
ously spelled hechel-clarind\. See *CIari- 
net family II. 

Heckelphone. See *Oboe family II, E. 

Heftig [G.]. Violent. 

Heirmos. See *Hirmos. 

Heldenleben, Ein. See ^Symphonic 
poem III. 

Heldentenor [G. Held, hero] . A tenor 
voice of great brilliancy and volume, 
suited for the parts of the “hero” of operas, 
c.g., Siegfried. 

Helicon. See ’•^Brass instruments III (e). 
Hemidemisemiquaver. Sec *Notcs. 


HERMENEUTICS 

Hemidla, hemiolia [Gr., one and one- 
half ]. In early musical theory the term 
is used in two meanings, both of which 
imply the ratio of 3:2. (i) If applied to 
pitches, hemiola means the fifth, since 
the lengths of two strings sounding this 
interval are in the ratio of 3:2 [see 
♦Acoustics III]. 

(2) In treatises on mensural notation 
(15th, i6th centuries) the term is applied 
to time-values which are in the relation- 
ship of 3:2, particularly to the use of 
blackened notes in tempus perfectum 
[see ^Mensural notation V], or, in mod- 
ern terms, of three half-notes instead of 
two dotted half-notes: ^|J.J.|JJJ| or 

This change from % to 

3/2 or vice versa is frequent in Baroque 
vocal music [cf. H. H. Wintersgill, “Han- 
del’s Two-length Bar” in ML xvii, no. i] 
and forms a typical feature of the ♦cou- 
rante. Among the modern composers 
Brahms is known for his frequent use of 



this rhythmic device [see Ex., from Sym- 
phony no. 2]. See also ♦Sesquialtera; 
♦Polo, ♦Courante. 

Hemitonium [Gr.-L.]. Semitone. 

Heptachord [Gr. heptUy seven]. The 
term is occasionally used to denote the 
modern concept of the octave (which con- 
sists of seven different tones) as against 
the earlier one of the ♦hexachord (which 
includes only six). 

Herabstimmen [G.]. To tune down a 
string. 

Herabstrich, Heraufstrich [G.]. 

See ♦Bowing (a). 

Heraufstimmen [G.]. To tune up a 
string. 

Hermeneutics [Gr. hermeneueiny to 
interpret]. The term, which properly 
applies to the interpretation of the Scrip- 

[329] 



HERUNTERSTIMMEN 

tures, has been introduced into musical 
aesthetics by H. Kretzschmar (c, 1900) 
as a designation for his method of “in- 
terpreting” musical motives as the expres- 
sion of human emotions, feelings, etc. 
This method, which was also adopted by 
A. Heuss and A. Sobering, is similar in 
principle to the *AfIectenlehre of the i8th 
century, but is distinguished by a greater 
emphasis on scientific methods and on 
detailed, systematic investigation, based 
upon the study of intervals, motion, 
rhythm, rests, etc. See ♦Aesthetics of 
music III (a). Cf. H. Kretzschmar, in 
JMP ix, xii; A. Sobering, in Bericht des 
Berliner Kongr esses fiir Aesthetic (1913). 

Herunterstimmen [G.]. To tunc 
down a string. 

Herunterstrich [G.]. See ♦Bowing 
(a). 

Hervorgehoben, hervortretend 

[G.]. Emphasized, made to stand out. 

Herzhaft [G.]. “With heart,” coura- 
geous. 

Heterophony [Gr. heteros^ other; 
phonosy sound]. A term used by Plato 
[Leges vii, 81 2D] and adopted by mod- 
ern musicologists to describe what may 
be considered a primitive type of polyph- 
ony, namely, the use of slightly modi- 
fied versions of the same melody by two 



(or more) performers, e.g., a singer and 
an instrumentalist adding a few extra 
tones (ornamentations) to the singer’s 
melody. How far in Greek music the 


HEXACHORD 

accompanying part was allowed to wan- 
der from the main melody we do not 
know. However, a general idea of the 
possibilities of hetcrophonic treatment 
can be obtained from a study of ♦Chinese, 
♦Japanese, ♦Javanese, African music, all 
of which make ample use of it. Particu- 
larly, the scores of Javanese orchestral 
music are largely based upon hetcrophonic 
technique. See also ♦Chinese music. Ex. 
3; ♦Japanese music. Ex. 3. 

Lit.: G. Adler, “Ueber Hetcrophonic” 
(/MP xv); Ph. Barry, “Greek Music” 
{MQ v); A. Dcchcvrens, “Sur le systemc 
musicale chinois” ( 5 /M ii). 

Hexachord [Gr. hexa^ six; chordosy 
string, tone]. I. A group of six diatonic 
tones, with a semitone interval in the 
middle, e.g., c d e f g a. The hexachord is 
the basis of the medieval theory of Guido 
of Arezzo (b. 995). It stands in the 
middle between the Greek (and early 
medieval) system based on the ♦tetrachord 
and the modern system based on the oc- 
tave (♦heptachord) as the fundamental 
segment of the scale. In the diatonic (C 
major) scale there are two — and only 
two — hexachords, one beginning with c 
and another beginning with g. If, how- 
ever, the b-flat (long in existence before 
Guido) is added, there is a third hexa- 
chord, starting on f. The hexachord on c 
was called hexachordum naturale, that on 
g, hexachordum durum, because it in- 
cluded the b durum, i.e., B-natural [sec 
♦B], that on f, hexachordum molle, be- 
cause it included the b molle, i.e., B-flat 
(also called ♦Fa fictum). Since medieval 
theory did not consider tones of higher or 
lower octaves as “identical,” there resulted 
seven hexachords in the scale from G 
to e': 


molle: / * ^ ; * ^ 

ybb .b'b 

G A B c d c f g a<( c' d' e' f' g' a'< c" d" c" 

H ^b' 

durum: v ' y ' ^ ^ / 

naturalc: ' v ' y ' 


[330] 



HEXACHORD 


It appears that, in medieval teaching, 
the compass of tones was obtained, not by 
adjoining octaves, but by dovetailing hexa- 
chords. This method, although generally 
considered inferior to the modern pro- 
cedure, is actually superior in at least one 
point, namely in that it produces the scale 
without establishing at the same time a 
preference regarding tonality. Indeed, in 
the modern system the initial tone C auto- 
matically becomes a tonal center (in other 
words, our diatonic scale is necessarily a 
“C major scale”), while in the system of 
the hexachord such a fixation is avoided 
in a very ingenious way. 

II. As an aid in memorizing, Guido 
designated the six tones of the hexachord 
by the vocables [L. voces^ voces musicales\ 
ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la. These are the initial 
syllables of the first six lines of a then well- 


HEXACHORD 

gag e f g d U g a f ga a Igf d c e d 
SoU VC pollutilLa-bi-i rc-a- tum,lSanctc Johannes. 

(That with relaxed (vocal) chords thy 
servants may be able to sing the wonders 
of thy deeds, remove the sin from their 
polluted lips, O holy John.) These syl- 
lables were used as a “movable solmiza- 
tion,” being applied to each of the seven 
hexachords. Thus, the tone d was sol 
(fifth) in the hexachord on G, and re 
(second) in that on c. 

III. In order to indicate the various 
“functions” of a given tone, compound 
names were formed which included its 
pitch-letter as well as all its syllables, e.g., 
D sol re (desolre), thus indicating that 
the tone d may appear either as a sol or a 
re. Following is a survey of the entire 
nomenclature (D. = durum; N. = natu- 
rale; M. = molle) : 


e" 

d" 

c" 

b' 

bb' 


c' 




la 

d' 



la 

sol 

c' 



sol 

fa 

b 



< 

mi 

bb 


- 

fa 


a 


la 

mi 

re 

g 


sol 

re 

.ut 

f 


fa 

.ut 

D. 

c 

la ^ 

mi 

M. 


d 

sol 

re 



C . 

fa 

ut 



B 

mi 

N. 



A 

re 




G 

.ut 





D. 





'la 

sol 

fa 

mi 

re 

.ut 

N. 



la 

la 

sol 

sol 

fa 

•< 

mi 

fa 


mi 

re 

re 

ut 

ut 

D. 

M. 



E la (Ela) 

D la sol (Delasol) 

C sol fa (Cesolfa) 

B mi (Bemi) 

B fa (Befa) 

A la mi re (Alamire) 
G sol re ut (Gesolreut) 
F fa ut (Fefaut) 

E la mi (Elami) 

D la sol re (Delasolrc) 
C sol fa ut (Cesolfaut) 
B mi (Bemi) 

B fa (Befa) 

A la mi re (Alamire) 
G sol re ut (Gesolreut) 
F fa ut (Fefaut) 

E la mi (Elami) 

D sol re (Desolre) 

C fa ut (Cefaut) 

B mi (Bemi) 

A re (Arc) 

G ut (Gamma ut) 


known hymn to St. John [cf. AR^ 733^* 
the melody of which has the peculiarity 
of beginning one tone higher with each 
successive line: 

c d £ dedUdcdccI 
Ut queant la- xis 1 Rtf-sonarc fibris | 

Ag c d c d I / g a gf d d I 
A//- ra gestorum ] Ej-muli tu-orum | 


To a certain degree the compound names 
served to differentiate octaves, e.g., C fa ut 
(c), C sol fa ut (c'), and C sol fa (c")- 

IV. In order to accommodate melodic 
progressions which exceeded the compass 
of one hexachord, two (or more) hexa- 
chords were interlocked by a process of 
transition, called mutation. For instance, 

[ 331 ] 



HEXAMETER 


HINDU MUSIC 


in order to interpret the melody: c e d g a 
b a, the tone g was considered as a pivot- 
tone, being sol in the lower hexachord 
c-a, and ut in the higher hexachord g-e'. 
Hence, the solmization of this melody 
would be: ut mi re sol{ — ut) re mi re. If, 
however, the melody were: c e d g a bb a, 
the mutation would have to be made into 
the hexachord f~d': ut mi re sol( — re) mi 
fa mi [for more details, cf. GD iv, 805] . 

The six tones of the hexachord have 
repeatedly been used as a cantus firmus 


although theoretically not exactly of the 
same size, may, for all practical purposes, 
be considered as “quarter-tones” of 55 
*cents each. They are, of course, never 
used in entirety (as they are in modern 
quarter-tone music), but form the tonal 
material from which, by selection [see 
^Gapped scales], practical scales of seven 
tones each are formed. The two oldest of 
these, already explained by Bharata, are 
called sa-grama and ma-grama (grama, 
“octave”). The intervals of sa-grama are: 


Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa (solmization-syllables) 

04 7 9 13 17 20 22 (number of sruti) 

o 204 386 498 702 906 1088 1200 (pitch in cents) 


for vocal or instrumental compositions. 
Josquin, Brumel, Palestrina, and others 
wrote masses on Ut Re Mi Fa Sol La, or 
“supra voces musicales”; Bull, Sweelinck, 
Caurroy, Frescobaldi, used it as a subject 
for organ fantasias [cf. SchGMB, no. 86 j. 
Bull’s Fantasia [Fitzwilliam Virginal 
Boo\^ i, 183] is especially interesting on 
account of its modulatory scheme, the 
hexachord (ascending and descending) 
being successively used in the keys of 
G,A,B,Db,Eb,F and Ab,Bb,C,D,E,Ftf [see 
reference under * Whole-tone scale; ^Arci- 
ccmbalo]. See also ^Solmization; *Mi-fa. 

Lit.: H. Riemann, Geschichte der Mu- 
siXtheorie (1921); RiHM i.2, 

Hexameter. Sec *Poetic meter. 

Hey. See *Hay. 

Hichiriki. A Japanese oboe. See Japa- 
nese music V; *Oboe family III. 

Hidden fifths, octaves. See under 
^Parallel fifths, octaves. 

Hilfslinie [G.]. Ledger line. 

Hinaufstrich [G.]. See *Bowing (a). 

Hindu music. The music of India. I. 
Theory. The Hindu system of scales goes 
back to Bharata who lived about A.D. 500 
[treatise Natya Sastra, French translation 
by Joanny Grosset, 1898]. It is based up- 
on the division of the octave into 22 small 
intervals, called sruti. These intervals, 


A comparison of the cent-values with 
those of our chromatic scale (0, 100, 200, 
300, etc.) shows that this very closely ap- 
proximates our C major scale: c d e f g 
a b c'. Ma-grama differs from sa-grama 
only with res[:)ect to the fourth tone which 
is II sruti, or 590 cents, therefore, practi- 
cally f#. Naturally, the identification of 
sa-grama with our C major scale and of 
ma-grama with our G major scale is cor- 
rect only with regard to the intervallic 
construction, not to tonal functions. Vari- 
ous tones of the Hindu scale may assume 
the significance of a tonic (particularly, 
the third tone, e), although these tonics 
are considerably less clearly defined than 
they are in our modes. In present-day 
practice the above two scales are of much 
lesser importance than variants in which 
some of the original tones are flatted, e.g.: 
c-db-e-f-g-ab-b~c, or c-db-eb-fiF-g- 
ab-b-c. 

A basic concept in Hindu music is the 
raga. The ragas have frequently been 
called the “modes” of Hindu music. How- 
ever, such a comparison is rather mislead- 
ing. Actually the ragas fall under the 
classification of *melody-types which play 
so important a role in Oriental music and 
which have even left scant traces in the 
tradition of Western plainsong. A raga 
is a much more specialized tonal frame 
than a mode; it prescribes more or less 
rigidly not only a scale and a center-tone 
{amsa)y but also the avoidance of certain 


[332] 



HINDU MUSIC 


HINDU MUSIC 


tones [in actual music, the seven-tone Cross rhythms between two drums or be- 

scales (hepta-scales) described above are tw'een the drum and the [see below] 

usually reduced to six-tone scales (hexa- are very frequent. Essential characteristics 

scales) or five-tone scales (penta-scales)]. of Hindu melody are the elaborate orna- 

It further prescribes the use of typical pro- mentations {gamaka), vocal as well as 

gressions, stereotyped melodic formulae, instrumental. These form a basic part of 

rhythmic patterns, and ornamentations, instruction and practice, especially in the 

The theoretical system (there are, of playing of the vina, the main melody in- 
course, many variants in the different lo- strument of Hindu music. This is a “stick 

cal schools) knows 6 (main) ragas and 30 zither” [see ^Instruments IV], with seven 

raginis^ each of which are duplicated ac- strings, four of which run over a fretted 

cording to the sa-grama or the ma-grama finger board in the form of a long stick, 

scheme (perfect or augmented fourths), while three others run alongside as open 

thus leading to a system of 72 “primary strings (bass courses). The stick is fas- 
ragas.” The speculative fancy of certain tened to characteristic resonance cham- 
theorists has broadened this into a system bers made of gourds, two of equal size in 
of as many as 800 ragas, a figure which, the Northern bin, or only one in the south- 
however, appears less fantastic if it is ern vina [see ill. under *Zithers]. Typi- 
realized that a Hindu musician with ordi- cal gamaka executed on the vina are a 
nary training is likely to be able to play wild and rapidly increasing tremolo (often 
and improvise in 50 or 60 ragas. Each at the distance of a third or fourth), an 

raga (literally “color,” “mood”) has not abruptly ending portamento performed 

only musical characteristics, but also a either by a slide of the left hand (as in 
very definite “ethical” and “emotional” violin playing) or by a lateral pull of the 
significance, and is furthermore associated strings, etc. 

with a special season or hour of the day. The older tradition of Hindu music 
For instance, the raga Bhairava is based survives to some extent in the sacrificial 
on the scale: c-db-e-f-g-ab-b, has the chants (Vedic chants), simple litur- 

center-tone c, expresses reverence, and be- gical melodies which move chiefly within 
longs to dawn. The accompanying Ex. i a tetrachord. The fact that they are not 

considered to be “in a raga” points to their 
early origin, certainly anterior to the in- 
troduction of the ragas (r. A.D. 600). It 
has been surmised that they show Greek 
I 1 I . . Ml.. Ml Kill K K I I influence (Lachmann, p. 107). The pres- 
I0J JJ*| llJy ent-day music is, of course, of an entirely 

different character. A vocal piece usually 
shows the raga Megha-M allbar \ the begins with a drone accompaniment 
brackets indicate important formulae; the (tambura), followed by a vocalizing im- 
pauses, the two main tones. The most provisation over the main outlines of the 
important ragas have also certain sym- raga, followed in turn by the song, ac- 
bolistic pictorial associations which have companied by the drums. A typical form 
been portrayed in many paintings [sec of the south (Carnatic) is the bjrtanam 
Lit., Lachmann, p. 134]. the construction of which has been com- 

II. Style and Form. Hindu music is pared to that of sonata-form, since it in- 
cssentially monophonic, except for a mo- eludes the following sections: pallavi 
notonous drone provided by the (first subject), anupallavi (second sub- 
an unfretted lute, and for a rhythmic back- ject), caranam (development), and pal- 
ground provided by drums. The rhythm lavi (first subject). Each “subject” is a 
of Hindu music is based on the tala, i.e., short melody (four or eight measures) 
a more or less elaborate rhythmic pattern which is repeated several times in free 
which is repeated over and over again, variations which preserve only the main 
Ex, 2 shows three frequently used tala’s, outlines and the chief notes of the “theme.” 

[333! 





HINSTERBEND 


HISTORY OF MUSIC 


The first subject and its variations move 
around the “tonic” (amsa) of the raga, 
whereas the second subject emphasizes 
the “dominant,” i.c., the fifth above. In 
the “development section” both subjects 
are “combined,” that is, they appear in 
immediate succession. Such pieces usu- 
ally arc opened and closed by a short in- 
strumental passage (four measures) in 
which all the tones and characteristic 
traits of the raga are given. An example 
reproduced in Lachmann, p. ii8, has a 
slightly extended form. Another form, 
used chiefly in the north (Hindostan), is 
the \hyal. This resembles our rondo, as 
it consists of a short ostinato-like motive 
which is repeated many times between 
free couplets [cf, Fox-Strangways, p. 
287]. 

Lit.: A. H. Fox-Strangways, Music of 
Hindostan (1914); H. A. Popley, The 
Music of India (1921); C. R. Day, Music 
and Musical Instruments of Southern In- 
dia and the Deccan (1891); A. B. Fyzee- 
Rahamin, The Music of India (1925); 
E. Clements, Lectures on Indian Music 
(1927, ’30); E. Rosenthal, The Story of 
Indian Music (1929); A. Bake, “Re- 
searches in Indian Music . . .” {Indian Art 
and Letters^ New Ser. 7, 1933); Ph. Stern, 
“The Music of India and the Theory of 
the Raga” {ibid,)\ Th. Kornerup, In- 
disches Tonsystem (1931); R. Lachmann, 
Musil{ des Orients (1929); I. M. van dcr 
Hoogt, The Vedic Chant (1929); LavE 
i.i, 257; C. R. Day, “Notes on Indian Mu- 
sic” {PM A xx); Robindra Lai Roy, “Hin- 
dustani Ragas” {MQ xx); W. Sargeant, 
“A Study in East Indian Rhythm” {MQ 
xvii); A. F. Fox-Strangways, “The Hindu 
Scale” {SIM ix); P. Runge, “Die Notation 
des Somanatha” {MfM xxxvi); E. M. v. 
Hornbostel, “Phonographierte Indische 
Melodien” {SIM v); R. Lachmann and 
E. V. Hornbostel, “Das indische Ton- 
system bei Bharata . . .” {Zeitschrift fiir 
vergleichende Musiktvis sense haft iv); H. 
Engel, in AMF iv; P. Stern, in RM iv, 
no. 7; G. F. Checacci, in RMI xv. 

Hinsterbend [G.]. Dying away. 

Hinstrich [G.]. Sec *Bowing (a). 


Hirmos. In early ^Byzantine music 
(9th-i2th centuries) a melody composed 
for the first stanza of a hymn (the ode of 
a *\anon) and repeated with the follow- 
ing stanzas, in the manner of a strophic 
song. Naturally, the procedure was more 
flexible than with a modern strophic 
chant, admitting adjustments to the vary- 
ing number of syllables in the different 
stanzas, similar to the method used with 
the psalm-tones. Most of the hirmoi 
(which were collected in books called 
hirmologion') were composed in the 7th 
and 8th centuries, and were later used for 
other hymns written after the model of 
the earlier music. See *Tract. 

Lit.: H. Gai’sser, Les Heirmoi de Pdques 
(1905; also in RMC ii); A. Gastoue, Les 
Origines du chant romain (1907), p. 60. 
See also the general literature under *By- 
zantine chant. 

Hirtenflote [G.]. Shepherd’s flute, 
Hirtenliedy shepherd’s song. 

His [G.]. See *Pitch names. 

Hispaniae Schola Musica Sacra. 

See ^Editions XIII. 

History of music. This article is de- 
signed as a survey of epochs and schools, 
with reference to other articles from 
which additional information can be 
gathered. 

I. The Main Periods, The history of 
European music falls very conveniently 
into a number of periods of strikingly 
equal duration — a fact which has been 
little noticed in general. Three times in 
musical history, at an interval of 300 years, 
the evolution led to changes which were 
so strikingly novel in character that con- 
temporary writers adopted the term 
“new” as a characterization: the *Ars 
Nova of 1300, the *Nuove Musiche of 
1600, and the *New Music of 1900. It 
would be admissible to add to these “land- 
marks of innovation” the year 1000, as 
indicative of one of the most epochal in- 
ventions in music, i.e., the musical *staff 
(Guido and his predecessors). There 
exist other landmarks of no lesser impor- 
tance which occur almost exactly at the 
middle of each of our 300-year periods. 

[334 1 



HISTORY OF MUSIC 

Of these, the year 1750 (marked by the 
death of Joh. Scb. Bach is familiar to 
every music student. Around 1450 we 
find the rise of the ^Flemish School, mark- 
ing the end of medieval music, and the 
beginning of the Renaissance; around 
1150, the first important school of poly- 
phonic music, the School of St. Martial. 
Finally, the middle of the 9th century 
can be regarded as the “beginning of 
polyphony,” judging from the date of the 
earliest preserved records. The periods of 
150 years each resulting from the above 
consideration can be conveniently identi- 
fied by terms long used in the Fine Arts 
and coming to be adopted more and more 
by musical scholars: 


HISTORY OF MUSIC 

gorian chant). Around 850 (Romanesque 
period) there began a period of amplifica- 
tion of the traditional repertory, leading 
to the *tropes, * sequences, and finally to 
the ^liturgical drama. More epochal than 
these “horizontal broadenings” is the 
simultaneous rise of polyphonic music 
which, in its early period, can be charac- 
terized as “vertical broadening’* of the 
chant, i.e., as polyphonic settings of plain- 
song *cantus firmi. In the ensuing three 
centuries these settings, known as *or- 
gana, underwent slow but remarkable 
changes of style. Around 1150 the School 
of *St. Martial stands out as an important 
landmark in this evolution, being fol- 
lowed, around 1175, by the still more im- 


350: 

600: 

850: 

1000: 

1150: 

1300: 

1450: 

1600: 

1750: 

1900: 


Ambrosian Chant 
Gregorian Chant 
Beginning of Polyphony 
Invention of the Staff 
School of St. Martial 
•Ars Nova 

Rise of *FIcmish School 
*Nuovc Musichc 
Death of Bach 
*Ncw Music 


Patristic Period 
Early Middle Ages 
Early Romanesque ^ 

Late Romanesque I Middle Ages 

Early •Gothic 

Late Gothic J 

•Renaissance 

•Baroque 

•Rococo, •Classicism, •Romanticism 
•Modern (*Ncw) Music 


It goes without saying that, in reality, the 
border lines between these periods are not 
as neatly marked off as the above table, 
taken literally, would suggest. However, 
it is only on the basis of a clearly-drawn 
sketch that the finer lines of historical evo- 
lution can be inserted at their proper 
place [cf. ML, p. 545 for other schemes of 
periods]. 

II. Up to /500. For want of other per- 
tinent information, the history of pre- 
Christian music in Europe is practically 
limited to that of ’"‘Greek music [sec also 
under '"‘Roman music]. The early Chris- 
tian era sees the rise of the Christian 
Chant (plainsong) which would appear 
to be rooted chiefly in the tradition of the 
^Jewish synagogue. The most important 
of the various branches of Christian Chant 
[see *Chant] , that of the Roman Church, 
reached its high-point (“Golden Age”) 
around 900, after the codification of the 
repertory by St. Gregory {c, 600; sec *Grc- 


portant School of *Notre Dame with its 
two masters Lconinus and Perotinus, 
which is usually considered as the begin- 
ning of the *Ars antiqua (13th century). 
Secondary forms of this school arc the 
non-liturgical *conductus, and the *claus- 
ulac — fragments, as it were, of organa 
which acquired particular importance as 
the starting point of the *motct, the most 
characteristic form of the Ars antiqua 
proper (Franco of Cologne, Petrus de 
Cruce). The early Gothic period also secs 
the rise of secular music in the Provencal 
^troubadours (r. 1100-1300), who are 
followed, half a century later, by the 
northern French ^trouvircs {c, 1150- 
1300) and the German *Minncsinger 
{c, 1150-1350). The latter tradition con- 
tinued to live in the ''^Meistersinger (r. 
1400—1600), the last representatives of 
monophonic music, aside from *folk song 
which, to be sure, is not restricted to any 
period of history. Monophonic music also 


[335] 



HISTORY OF MUSIC 


HISTORY OF MUSIC 

had a relatively short period of flowering, of a continuous development of ^instru- 
chiefly during the 13th century, in Spain mental music, for ^ensemble as well as 
(*cantigas) and in Italy (*laude). for the organ and, slightly later, the lute 

III. /300-/^50. With the advent of the [see ^Prelude; *Intabulierung; *Ricer- 

late Gothic period or, to speak in musical care; *Canzona (4); ^Fantasia; ^Toccata; 
terms, of the *Ars nova, the picture of * Variations; *Dance music, the last-men- 

music underwent a striking change from tioned with interesting forerunners in the 

the sacred to the secular, a change which 13th and 14th centuries (^estampie)]. 

brought about the appearance of an en- The Renaissance came to an impressive 

tircly new repertory of music, the poly- close in the pompous splendor of the Ve- 

phonic *ballades, ^rondeaux, *virelais, in netian *polychoral style of G. Gabrieli 

France (Machaut), and of *madrigals, [see ^Venetian School]. 

"“caccias, *ballatas, in Italy (Jacopo da V. 7600-/750. In spite of the attempts 
Bologna, Francesco Landini). The motet on the part of various scholars to show 

continued to be cultivated in France, that ‘'nothing new happened” around 

adopting large dimensions and peculiar 1600 (Baroque), this year remains one of 

features of structure [see ^Isorhythmic], the most fundamental landmarks in music 

Toward the end of the 14th century the history [see *Nuove musiche; ^Baroque], 

Ars nova movement deteriorated into a bringing about the rise of the *recitativo, 

somewhat mannered style of writing the *monodic style, and the ^thorough- 

(Cunelier, Cesaris). A glorious revival, bass, together with such novel forms as 

however, bringing the musical Gothic to the *opera, the ’’^oratorio, the *cantata, the 

a fitting climax, was brought about by the *basso-ostinato forms, and leading quickly 

English Dunstable, whose great genius to a development of instrumental music 

left scant traces in his home-country [see equal in importance to that of contempo- 

^English music] but became all the more rary vocal music. The fact that all these 

important as the inspiring force of the styles and forms can be traced back to 

renovation of French music, leading to earlier roots may be mentioned here as 

the ^Burgundian School of Dufay and another caution against overlooking the 

Binchois. necessarily flexible character of all border 

IV. 14^0-1600. The middle of the 15th lines. Additional evidence of this funda- 

century (^Renaissance) brought about a mental truth is the continued influence of 

renewed emphasis on sacred music under the Venetian as well as the *Roman School 

the first masters of the ^Flemish School of the i6th century, or the fact that the 

(or Schools), Ockeghem and Obrecht. two chief forms of Baroque instrumental 

Although their masses and motets, par- music, the *suite and the *sonata are both 

ticularly those of the former, are far re- rooted in 16th-century developments [see 

moved from what the term Renaissance *Canzona (4)], while the contrast style 

suggests. Renaissance-like features — the of the ^concerto is more exclusively an 

“sun of Italy,” as it were — appeared in affair of the Baroque [see also ^Bologna 

the secular compositions of Obrecht and School]. In a way, the Baroque period is 

still more so in those of his great succes- the most “international” period in music 

sor Josquin. In the early i6th century — history, with Italy, Germany, and France 

similar in this respect to the early 14th competing on almost equal terms, and 

century — numerous secular forms arose: England being a “good second.” No 

the Italian ^frottola, the German poly- other period can boast of a similar variety 

phonic *Lied, the Spanish *villancico, the of forms, nor of an equal number of great 

Italian ♦madrigal. The tradition of sacred composers, nor of a summit comparable 

music, however, continued in the numer- to that represented by the name of Bach, 
ous masses and motets, and reached its VI. 7750-/900. Although, in a way, 
“Golden Age” under Palestrina, Lasso, the change taking place after Bach’s 
Byrd, and Vittoria. The beginning of the death (1750) is more clearly present in 
Renaissance also marks the starting-point the mind of most students of music his- 

[336] 



General 
Periods 
-600 — — 


Musical 

Periods 


Monophonic Music Part Music, Vocal 

^Gregorian Chant I 


Sequences. 

\Tropes 


Si Martial 


]^Hotre Darm 
[ /\rs Aniiqua 


ArsNova 


\Burgundiankhool\ 


\Liturgical Drama 


Troubadours 

Jrouveres 


Minnesinger 

I Laude 
'[Cantigas 


> Flemish School 

, ^Venelian School 
Nuove Musiche 
' Poman School 
^Bologna School 
^ 'Neapolitan School 

Mannheim School 
‘ } Berlin School 
” Viennese Classics 

, Pomaniicism 
^Nationalism 
^ \lmpres5ion15m 
^ Mew Music 


^Sonata 

\cBaroque) 


^Sonala 

(modern) 


Concerto 

'{(Baroque) 


Symphony \ 

\Co7Tcerfo 
A( modern) 


yrnbhonic 
T Roem 


\Organum 


ParfAtdsic, Insirumental 

Jariation 

Joccata T Fugue (Ricercare) 

^Canzona « 

I I -Suite 


Clausula 


\Conductus \\Mofet 


Rondeau Madrigal Mass 
Virptai Caccia 
Ballade Ball at a 


^.Chanson 

1 Frottola 


Madrigal J L 


\ Anthem 


Can Orafqrio Catch 
fata T 


"English, 
French So > 


\itfdicales sporadic conlinualion 


[337] 


HISTORY OF MUSIC 


HISTORY OF MUSIC 

tory than any of the preceding ones, there ary tendencies, summed up under the 
actually is more (at least, just as much) term *New music, embrace a variety of 
“transition” here than elsewhere, namely, attempts, experiments, and aspects for 
in the *Rococo movement which started which there is no parallel in the entire 
in France (Couperin) around 1700 and history of music. It is not until recently 
continued, under the name ^gallant style, (c, 1930) that this wild uproar has partly 
chiefly in Italy and Germany. In the latter subsided and that a more steady course, 
country, under the hands of W. F. and known as *nco-classicism and represented 

C. P. E. Bach, it took on, after 1750, a chiefly by Stravinsky and Hindemith, be- 

greater expressiveness [see *Empfindsam- comes visible. 

keit; also ^Berlin School] which heralds The accompanying table illustrates the 
the achievements of the classical and even development of the most important forms 
the Romantic period. At the same time of music (straight lines indicate the main 
the members of the ^Mannheim School period of existence; dotted lines a more 
(and other composers also) laid the sporadic continuation), 
foundation for the formal development Related articles (in approximately 

of the ^sonata, the dominating form of chronological order): Gregorian Chant; 

the 19th century, with its orchestral and Byzantine Chant; Bards; Middle- Ages; 
chamber music varieties, the ^symphony Troubadours; Trouveres; Minnesinger; 
and the *quartet. Vienna became the Gothic music; St. Martial; Ars antiqua; 
musical world center under the Viennese Ars nova; Burgundian School; Flemish 
classics Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and School; Renaissance; Musica reservata; 
Schubert [see ^Classicism], the last of Humanism; Colorists; Virginalists; Ve- 
whom, the great master of the *lied, netian School; Roman School; Baroque; 
marks the transition to the ^Romanticism Nuove musiche; Bologna School; Nea- 
of the 19th century. The early Romanti- politan School; Rococo; Mannheim 
cists (Schumann, Mendelssohn, Chopin) School; Berlin School; Classicism; Ro- 
cultivatcd particularly the ^character manticism; Nationalism; Modern music, 
piece for pianoforte in which they See also the articles on the various nations, 
achieved more perfect results than in the listed on p. 2, and the article on Form, 
large forms of the classical period. The Lit.: Standard boo\s: Oxford History 
symphonic tradition was revived, how- of Music (new ed., 7 vols., 1929-34; for 
ever {c, 1870-90) by the symphonies of the medieval history the vols. i, ii of the 
Bruckner, Brahms, Tchaikovsky, C. first edition, 1901, are preferable); A. W. 
Franck, and came to a close with those Ambros, Geschichte der Musif(^ (5 vols., 
of Mahler {c. 1890-1910). Around 1850 1862 and later); G. Adler, Handbuch der 

the ^symphonic poem developed as a Musibjgeschichte (2 vols., 1929); H. Rie- 
novel type of symphonic music, and the mann, Handbuch der Musi\geschichte 
opera took a new start under Wagner, (5 vols., 2d ed. J. Combarieu, 

who added even more weight to the Histoire de la tnusique {7, vo\s,yi^i2,-2.Q)\ 
power of German music. Against the A. Lavignac, Encyclopedic de la musique 
dominant position of German music there , , . (1912/20), part i (5 vols.). 
arose, around i860, the ^National Schools Synoptic boo\s: H. Pruni^res, A New 
which brought the “peripheric” nations History of Music An Out- 

(Bohemia, Norway, Russia, Spain, Eng- line of the History of Music (1935); Stan- 
land) into play, and, around 1900, the ford and Forsyth, History of Music 
♦Impressionism which carried France ( 1922) ; P. L&ng, Music in Western Civili- 
back into the spotlight. zation (1941); H. Leichtentritt, Music, 

VII. From igoo. The impressionism History and Ideas (1938); A. Einstein, 
was the first indication of a quickly grow- A Short History of Music ( 1938) ; E. Dick- 
ihg antithesis against the Romanticism inson. The Study of the History of Music 
and the musical tradition of the 19th cen- (1908); D. N. Ferguson, A History of 
tury in general. The ensuing revolution- Musical Thought (1935); Th. M. Finney, 

[338] 



HOBOE 


HOMOPHONIC 


A History of Music (1935); W. S. Pratt, 
History of Music (1935); P* A. Scholcs, 
The Listener's History of Music (1923 
and later); A. Schcring, Tabellen zur 
Musi\gcschichte (1921). 

Collections of Examples: A. T. Davison 
and W. Apel, fHistorical Anthology of 
Music {in preparation)^ A. Schering, 
^Geschichte der Musi\ in Beispielen 
(1931); A. Einstein, "^Beispielsammlung 
zur Musi\geschichte (1917); H. Ric- 
mann, '\Musi\geschichte in Beispielen 
(1929); G. Kinsky, History of Music in 
Pictures (1930). For collections of rec- 
ords see under ^Phonograph. 

Articles: F. Malipiero, “The History of 
Music and the Music of History” {MQ 
ix); A. Mendel, “Spengler and Music 
History” {MQ xx); A. Lorenz, “Perio- 
dizitat in der Musikgeschichte” {DM 
xxi.9); A. Schering, “Historischc und 
nationale Klangstile” (/MP, 1927); H. 
Osthoff, “Die Anfange der Musikge- 
schichtsschreibung in Deutschland” {AM 
V, no. 3); Ch. van den Borren, “Une Con- 
ception nouvelle de I’histoire de la mu- 
sique” {RM ix). 

Hoboe. Old spelling for *oboc. 

Hoch Kammerton [G.]. See ♦Pitch. 

Hocket [L. ho\etuSy ochetus\ F. hoc- 
quety hoquet'y It. ochetto\ the root of the 
word is possibly the same as in hiccough] . 
In medieval polyphony (13th, 14th cen- 
turies) the truncation of a melodic line 



into fragments (frequently single notes) 
which are given to two parts in alterna- 
tion. The accompanying examples [(i): 
motet In Bethlehem\ (2): anonymous 


•chace, cf. BeMMR, 13 1] serve as an illus- 
tration [cf. also HAMy no. 35]. Theo- 
rists of the 13th century mention ho^etus 
not only as a technique to be applied 
within the course of a motet, etc., but also 
as an independent musical form. This 
probably refers to pieces in which hocket 
technique is used consistently between 
the two upper parts. A limited number 
of such pieces, mostly instrumental, are 
preserved [cf. P. Aubry, Cent motetSy 
nos. 102, 103, 104, 106, 107, 108; Y. Rok- 
seth. Polyphonies du Xllle sihcle ii, 160]. 

The hocket technique loses much of its 
seeming oddity if it is realized that a 
rather similar type of technique exists in 
the “♦durchbrochene Arbeit” used in 
compositions by Haydn, Mozart, and 
Beethoven. Some of the 17th-century 
♦catches likewise show a fragmentary 
alternation of voice-parts similar in prin- 
ciple to the hocket technique. Cf. Marius 
Schneider, in ZMW xi. 

Hoflied [G.]. See under *Gesellschafts- 
lied. 

Ho-hoane. Corruption of Irish “och- 
one,” that is, *lament. In the Fitzwilliam 
Virginal Boo\ there is a piece labeled 
“The Irish Hohoane” [ed. Barclay-Squire, 
i, 87]. 

Hold. Same as *pause. 

Holz- [G., wood], Holzblasinstrumentey 
wood winds. Holzbldsery player of wood 
winds. HolzharmoniXfiy Holzstabspiely 
xylophone. Holzschlegely wooden drum- 
stick. HolztrompetCy sec ♦Clarinet fam- 
ily II; also SaRMy 181. 

Homme arme, L’. See ♦L’homme 
arm6. 

Homophonic [from Gr. homosy same, 
similar]. Designation for music in which 
one voice leads melodically, being sup- 
ported by an accompaniment in chordal 
or in a somewhat more elaborate style. 
Thus practically all music of the 19th cen- 
tury is homophonic. The term is the op- 
posite of ♦polyphonic, i.e., music in which 
all parts contribute more or less equally 
to the musical fabric [see ♦Texture]. In 


I339I 


HOOK NEUMES 

German terminology Homophonie (ho- 
mophon) has a different meaning, namely 
of part-music in which all the voices move 
in the same rhythm (cf. the literal mean- 
ing of the Greek term). Hence, Homo- 
phonie is the equivalent for “strict chord- 
al style” or ^familiar style. Some Ameri- 
can writers have adopted this meaning. 

The French use the term homophonie 
in the meaning of (i) ^monophonic 
music; (2) *enharmonic change [cf. M. 
Brenet, Dictionnaire . . . , p. 197] • 

Hook neumes. See ♦Neumes II. 

Hopper. Sec ^Pianoforte I. 

Hoquet, hoquetus. See *Hocket. 

Horizontal. Sec under ♦Texture. 

Horn. 1 . The modern orchestral instru- 
ment, called French horn (in order to 
distinguish it from the ♦English horn, a 
member of the ♦oboe family), is a ♦brass 
instrument with a narrow conical bore, 
circular-wound, and with a large flaring 
bell and a funnel-shaped mouthpiece. It 
has three rotary valves, and is therefore 
also referred to as valve horn [F. cor-h- 
pistons, cor chromatique\ G. V entilhorn\ 
It. corno ventile, corno a macchina\y in 
contradistinction to the early valveless in- 
struments [see II]. Illustration on p. 97. 
For the basic principles of tone produc- 
tion on the horn, sec ♦Wind instruments. 

Normally the horn is pitched in F, and 
the series of its natural tones is Fi F c f a 
c' F g' a', etc. Owing to the narrow bore, 
however, the lowest tone of this series 
(♦pedal tone) is practically unobtainable, 
so that the series starts with F. By operat- 
ing the valves a complete chromatic scale 
from Bi to bb" becomes available, the last 
five tones of which, however, are of little 
use. The horn is notated as a transposing 
instrument, written a fifth higher than it 
sounds. For the lowest notes the bass-clef 
is used, usually (in older scores always) 
with the notes written a fourth lower — 
instead of a fifth higher — than their 
actual sound [see Ex.]. In older scores 
key-signatures arc avoided for the horn 
parts, the chromatic alterations being 
given with each single note; but there is 


HORN 

now a strong tendency to write horn parts 
with a key-signature which, owing to the 
transposed notation, has one flat less or 
one sharp more than that of, c.g., the 
violins (E-flat for a composition in A-flat, 
etc.). 



The horn has the reputation of possess- 
ing the most difficult technique of all the 
orchestral instruments. Horn playing in- 
volves several special methods of tone pro- 
duction which are not always clearly pre- 
sented in writings on the topic. The fore- 
most of these is the stoppings achieved by 
inserting the hand into the bell. Formerly, 
on the natural horn (which had no valves) 
the missing tones of the natural series 
were produced by inserting the flat hand 
into the bell and closing it 1/4, 1/2, or 
3/4. This gave a continuous scale mostly 
of diatonic tones, which, however, was 
noi very satisfactory as the stopping 
changed the timbre of the tone. Nowa- 
days “stopping” [G. gestopft^ F. bouchiy 
It. chiuso\ is used only to obtain a special 
effect. By blocking the bell with the hand 
the tube length is shortened and the tone 
rises approximately a semitone. Stopped 
tones are indicated thus: +. To a limited 
extent (mainly in the lower two octaves) 
stopping can also be used to lower the 
pitch to the extent of a semitone. The dif- 
ferent methods of stopping depend largely 
upon the individuality of the player, and 
defy explanation in hard and fast rules. 

The mute [F. sourdine; G. Ddmpfer] 
is a pear-shaped addition made of metal, 
wood, or cardboard, which is inserted into 
the bell in order to obtain yet another 
timbre (muted horns) entirely different 
from that of the stopped horns. The mod- 
ern mutes are non-transposing, while the 
older ones, smaller and of a slightly dif- 
ferent shape, raised the pitch. 

The word cuivri often encountered in 
French music [G. schmetternd\ indicates 
that a “brassy” tone is desired. It is ob- 
tained through an increased tension of 


[340] 



HORN 


HORN 


the lips and can be produced either open, 
stopped, or muted. 

Horns are also built and occasionally 
demanded in other sizes, e.g., E, Eb, D, 
low C, low Bb, and also in high Bb, an 
octave above the largest size. A “double 
horn” has latterly come into use, a com- 
bination of the horns in F and Bb alto 
[see ^Duplex instruments]. 

The solo and chamber music literature 
for the horn includes the following pieces: 
Handel: three Concern a due corni\ 
Haydn: three concertos for one horn, and 
one for two horns, also a trio for horn, vio- 
lin, and violoncello; Mozart: four con- 
certos, three divertimenti for two horns 
and strings, and a quintet for horn, violin, 
two violas, and cello; Beethoven: Sonata 
for piano and French horn, op. 17; Sextet 
for two horns and strings, op. 8ib; various 
pieces for several wind instruments (op. 
16, 20, 71, 103, 146); Spohr: Octet for two 
horns, clarinet, and strings; Weber: Con- 
certino for horn; Schumann: Adagio und 
Allegro for horn and piano, op. 70, Con- 
certstiick for four horns and orchestra, op. 
86; Brahms: Horn trio, op. 40; R. Strauss: 
Concerto for horn, op. ii; Hindemith: 
Chamber music for five winds, op. 24, 
no. 2. 

II. History, The following explanation 
deals only with the most immediate prede- 
cessors of the modern horn, the other 
“members of the horn family” being 
treated under the general article on *brass 
instruments. The earliest type is the 
Hunting Horn, a plain pipe which was 
coiled in a circle large enough to permit 
carrying over the shoulder. It had a shal- 
low mouthpiece of the trumpet pattern 
and as a consequence its tone was loud 
and brilliant. Towards the close of the 
17th century the same instrument was 
built in a considerably smaller size, proper 
for use in the orchestra. These instru- 
ments were similar in most respects to the 
modern horn, except that they had no 
valves or crooks [see below] so that only 
the tones of one and the same harmonic 
series could be obtained. The details of 
the development leading from the hunt- 
ing horn to the “natural horn” [F. cor 
d*harmonie\ G. Naturhorn, Waldhorn; 


It. corno naturale] arc difficult to trace. 
Throughout the first half of the i8th cen- 
tury the orchestral horns had a trumpet- 
like sound and were frequently objected 
to as being coarse and vulgar. It was not 
until 1750 that the instrument took on 
those proportions which gave it its typi- 
cal “mellowness” of timbre. 

Around 1760 the horn-player Kolbcl 
constructed an instrument called Amor^ 
schally i.e., a horn with a modified bell and 
with lateral holes covered by keys, the first 
instance of the use of keyed brass instru- 
ments. Around 1770 the horn-player 
Hampl of Dresden discovered that the 
natural tones of the horn could be lowered 
to the extent of a semitone or a tone by 
inserting the open hand with the fingers 
close together into the bell. This tech- 
nique made it possible for the first time to 
produce “artificial” horn tones, thus 
bridging to some extent the gaps be- 
tween the natural tones. The natural 
horns thus played were called “hand 
horn” [It. corno a mano^. 

In the late i8th century horns were 
provided with *crooks, i.e., additional 
lengths of tubing by which the fundamen- 
tal tuning of the instrument could be 
changed. Thus, a horn in F could be 
made into a horn in E or Eb, etc. At first 
these crooks were pieces inserted immedi- 
ately underneath the mouthpiece. This 
method had the drawback of removing 
the instrument from the body of the 
player so that, if longer crooks or several 
crooks were used, the playing became 
quite inconvenient. The above-mentioned 
Hampl is credited with the invention of 
curved sliding crooks to be inserted into 
the body, and these became known as 
“inventions,” hence the name Inventions- 
horn for this instrument. By the use of 
crooks together with stopped notes the 
horn became an almost completely chro- 
matic instrument. However, the stopped 
notes differed in timbre from the natural 
notes and the change of crooks was a 
time-consuming process. The invention 
of * valves by Bliimel in 1813 did away 
with these inconveniences and revolution- 
ized the playing of the horn. The first 
part for the valve horn is in Hal^vy’s La 


[341 ] 



HORN FIFTHS 

Juive (1835). The hand horn, however, 
continued for some time to be used side 
by side with the modern type, owing to 
its more brilliant tone. See the illustra- 
tions on p. 98. 

Lit.: F. Piersig, Das Horn in derKunst- 
musi\ bis Bach (Diss. Halle 1927); E. 
Paul, Das Horn in seiner Entwic\lung 
vom Natur- zum V entilinstrument (Diss. 
Vienna 1932); D. J. Blaikley, ‘The 
French Horn” {PM A xxxv); H. Kling, 
“Le Cor de chasse” (RMI xviii) ; G. de St. 
Foix,“ Les Concertos pour cor de Mozart” 
(RdM x). See also *Brass instruments. 

Horn fifths [G. Hornquinten], See 
under *Parallel fifths. 

Hornpipe, (i) An obsolete wind in- 
strument, probably identical with the 
*pibgorn. — (2) A dance popular in Eng- 
land from the i6th through the 19th cen- 
tury [see *Dance music III] which, at 
least in its later development, was per- 
formed as a solo dance by sailors, with 
folded arms and many characteristic steps 
and gestures. The earliest preserved horn- 
pipe (“hornepype”) is a composition of 
Hugh Aston, dating from c, 1525 [repr. 
in John Stafford Smith, Musica Antiqua 
(1812), in J. Wolf, Sing- und Spielmusif{ 
. . . (1931), and (slightly abridged) in 
ApMZ iij. It is one of the most remark- 
able compositions in the field of early key- 
board music, noteworthy for its sheer in- 
exhaustible flow of melodic inspiration 
above an extremely simple harmonic 
scheme, i.e., alternation of tonic and dom- 
inant [see ^Ostinato]. The numerous 
hornpipes of the 17th and i8th centuries 
are usually in moderate 3/ 2-time, later in 
4/4-time, with a characteristic “scotch- 
snap”-rhythm [see Ex.]. Examples exist 
in the dramatic works of Purcell, in Han- 



del’s Concerto Grosso no. 7, in Th. Muf- 
fat’s Componimenti Musicali (1739), in 
a Collection of Original Lancashire Horn- 
pipes (1705), and in the various books of 
•country dances. Cf. GD ii, 670; also 


HUMANISM 

Stainer and Barrett, Dictionary of Musical 
Terms, 233. 

Hornquinten, Hornsatz [G.]. •Horn 
fifths. 

Hosanna, Osanna. A Hebrew word 
expressing triumph and glorification. In 
the connection Hosanna in excelsis it oc- 
curs in the Sanctus of the Ordinary of 
the Mass [see •Mass B, III]. In poly- 
phonic masses it is always treated as a 
brilliant coda. 

Hptw. [G.]. Short for •Hauptwerk (in 
organ music). 

Hr, Short for Horn. 

Huehuetl. See •Mexican music. 

Hufnagelschrift [G.]. See •Nagel- 
schrift. 

Humanism, humanistic music. 
Music of the i6th century which shows 
the influence of the literary humanism, 
that is, of the revived study of the ancient 
Greek and Roman literature. These tend- 
encies found their clearest musical ex- 
pression in the composition of the Hora- 
tian •odes, in the •vers mesur^, in the 
revival of Greek theory, and in the result- 
ing experiments in chromaticism and 
•enharmonic tones. In a wider sense, the 
term is used to denote the entire school 
of composers of the early i6th century 
(chiefly German and French) who had 
close contact with the leading representa- 
tives of the literary humanism (Erasmus 
of Rotterdam, Ulrich von Hutten, Johann 
Reuchlin, Ronsard, Bai'f) and who be- 
came imbued with a humanistic feeling 
for culture, refined taste, balance, and 
repose (Hofhaimer, Senfl, Jannequin, 
Claudin). A significant trait of this pe- 
riod is the use of scholarly names, such as 
prooemium [L.] or anabole [Gr.j for 
prelude [cf. W. Merian, Der Tanz in den 
deutschen T abulaturbiichern (1927), pp. 
60, 62, 63 ] . Cf. MoML, 341. See •Renais- 
sance. 

Lit.: LaMWC, passim\ H. J. Moser, 
Geschichte der deutschen Musi\ ( i92off ) 
i, 397; LavE i.3, 1298; D, P. Walker in 
MR ii, iii; P. Masson, in Le Mercure musi^ 
cal ii.i2. 


[342] 



HUMMEL 


HUNGARIAN MUSIC 


Hummel, Hummelchen [G.]. A 
primitive German bagpipe of the i6th 
and 17th centuries. 

Humor in music. See ^Satire. 

Humoreske [G.] ; humoresque [F.]. 
Nineteenth-century name for instrumen- 
tal compositions of a humorous or, at least, 
good-humored character showing traits 
of capriciousness or whimsicality. R. 
Schumann (op. 20) used it for a long 
composition in which the expression fre- 
quently changes from one extreme to 
another. 

Hungarian music. I. Around 1000, 
Christian monks brought the Gregorian 
chant into Hungary. From about the 
same time date the earliest reports of a 
tradition of national bards and minstrels 
reciting heroic poems to the sounds of 
the ancient Hungarian national instru- 
ment, the \oboz, a short lute. In this con- 
nection the stay at the Hungarian court 
of the French troubadour Peire Vidal 
(d. 1215) may be mentioned. In the 13th 
and 14th centuries German minstrels 
known as ^o^ler [from G. Gauf^ler] 
were frequent in Hungary and from the 
14th century two Hungarian musicians 
are known by name, Stephanus Fiellator 
[see *vielle] and Nicolaus, dictus Kobzos 
(both c, 1350). Hungarian music came 
to a great flowering under King Mathias 
Corvinus (1458-90) to whose wife, 
Beatrix, Tinctoris dedicated his Diffini- 
torium [see ^Dictionaries III]. Thomas 
Stoltzer and Adriaen Willaert stayed at 
the court of King Louis until 1562, the 
year of the batde of Mohses against the 
Turks which marked the end of Hun- 
gary’s independence and the beginning 
of Turkish influence. Nonetheless, it was 
after this disastrous event that Hungarian 
composers emerged for the first time, 
particularly lute composers such as Sebas- 
tian Tinodi (1505.^-56; cf. RiML, 1847), 
and Valentin Bakfark (1507-76; cf. 
DTOe i8.ii). The former was also an 
outstanding historian, and in his Cronica 
(1554) several Hungarian airs are given, 
among which the one memorizing the 
siege of Eger is most remarkable for its 


truly national flavor [LavE i.5, 2615; see 
reference under ♦Folk song III] . Toward 
the end of the century Hungarian dances 
of an equally characteristic nature made 
their appearance in German books, e.g., 
a Passamezzo ongaro in Jobin’s tablature 
of 1572 and, particularly, the JJngarescha 
in Paix’s [sec ♦Colorists] keyboard tabla- 
ture of 1583 [cf. W. Apel, Concord Clas- 
sics for the Piano (1938)]. At the same 
time many collections of secular and re- 
ligious melodies (psalms) appeared, con- 
taining numerous songs which are con- 
spicuous for their use of Hungarian 
rhythms, such as the “Scotch” snap. An 
interesting repertory of Hungarian harp- 
sichord (virginal) music is preserved in 
four MSS of the 17th century, contain- 
ing simple arrangements of folk melodics 
as well as dance pieces arranged in suites 
[cf. RiMLy 1951 J. 

II. In the 1 8th century there developed 
national Hungarian dances of a very pic- 
turesque character, e.g., the verbun\och€ 
(or verbun\Oy from G. Werbungy draft) 
which was danced by soldiers in full uni- 
form with swords and spurs. It is very 
wild in character and consists of two 
sections, a slow lassu and a quick friss 
(fris{a), A more civilized variety is the 
palotachcy which is of a more regular de- 
sign and shows the influence of the polo- 
naise. This aboriginal music deteriorated 
after 1800 under the influence of Western 
idioms while, on the other hand, Western 
composers adopted Hungarian idioms in 
numerous compositions “AH’ ongarese,” 
e.g., Haydn and Schubert, whose Divertis- 
sement d la Hongroise for four hands (op. 
54) portrays, one might feel, the Hun- 
garian spirit more purely than Liszt’s fa- 
mous rhapsodies. The ^Czardas (Tschar- 
dache) is said to be a 19th-century revival 
of the old verbunko and shows also the 
division into two sections, a slow and a 
quick one, sometimes with the addition of 
an ornamented middle section, the ezifra, 
A typical feature of Hungarian dance mu- 
sic is the virtuoso treatment of the violin, 
chiefly in the hands of gypsies who added 
to the melodics their characteristic touch 
of rubato execution and of improvised 
cadenzas. Nonetheless, F. Liszt was in 


1 343] 



HUNGARIAN MUSIC 


HURDY-GURDY 


error when, in his The Gipsies and their 
Music (1859), he gave the gypsies a cen- 
tral place in the creation of Hungarian 
dance music. Actually, this place should 
be reserved for Hungarian composers 
such as Johann Bihari (1764-1827) and 
A. Czermak (1771-1822), while to the 
gypsies falls the role of performers and 
propagators. Typical features of this mu- 
sic are alia zoppa-t\\y\hmSi augmented 
seconds (Gypsy scale), ornamented ca- 
dential formulae, and the playing of the 
^cimbalom. There is also a genuine gypsy 
music amongst the rural gypsies, but this 
differs markedly from the “Hungarian 
g}'psy music,” as do also the aboriginal 
Hungarian peasant songs which have 
been collected in great number by Bela 
Bartok [cf. E. Haraszti, in KlMy 1930, 
p. 140]. 

III. The father of modern Hungarian 
music is Ferenc Erkel (1810-93), who 
wrote the first national operas Bathory Ma- 
ria (1840) and Hunyady Laszlo (1844). 
The most famous Hungarian composer, 
Franz Liszt (i 81 1-86), embraced the 
trends of German Romanticism in his 
symphonic poems and other works, while 
his Hungarian Rhapsodies represent a 
type which is rejected by modern Hun- 
garian scholars as a “pseudo-national” 
falsification. Oddn Mihalovich (1842- 
1929) wrote a few operas in Wagnerian 
style. Much more important is Ernst von 
Dohnanyi (b. 1877) with his orchestral 
and chamber music modeled after Brahms; 
and in Bela Bartok (b. 1881) a composer 
of outstanding significance has appeared 
who, together with the Russian Stravinsky 
and the German Hindemith, is the lead- 
ing representative of present-day music. 
The artistic significance of his composi- 
tions is paralleled by the scholarly im- 
portance of his research in the field of folk 
music. Other composers of renown are 
Zoltan Kodaly (b. 1882) and Paul Kadosa 
(b. 1903). 

Lit.: G. Kaldy, A History oj Hungarian 
Music (1903); E. Haraszti, La Musique 
ongroise ( 1933) ; LavE i.5, 2597ff ; AdHMy 
iiyoff; B. Bartdk, Hungarian Fol\ Music 
( 1931 ) ; O. Gombosi, JLa Vita musicale alia 
corte di Re Mattia (1929); Die dltes- 


ten Denkrndler ungarischer Vo\almusi\ 
(1931); B. Bartok, “Hungarian Peasant 
Music” {MQ xix); E. Kilenyi, “The The- 
ory of Hungarian Music” {MQ v); J. de 
Gyory, “Hungarian Music” {PM A xxix); 
F. Korbay, “The Hungarian Folk-Songs” 
{PM A xxxv); B. Scabolski, “Probleme der 
altungarischen Musikgeschichte” {ZMW 
vii, viii) ; L. Fokovi, “Musik am Hofe des 
Matthias Corvinus” {KJ, 1900); A. Bar- 
tha, in AMF ii; E. Haraszti, in KIM^ 1930, 
p. 140. For Hungarian literature cf . RiML, 
i899ff. Cf. also AdHM, 1180. 

Hunting horn. See *Horn II. 

Hunting music [G. Jagdmusi^\, Cf. 
K. Taut, Beitrdge zur Geschichte der Jagd- 
musi\ (Diss. Leipzig 1927). 

Hunt Quartet, Hunt Symphony. 

See *Chasse, La. 

Hupfauf [G., jump-up]. See ^Nach- 
tanz. 

Hurdy-gurdy [F. vielle {de roue)\ G. 
Drehleier\ It. ghironda\ Sp. zanfonia]. A 
medieval stringed instrument in the gen- 
eral shape of a lute or viol in which the 
strings are put in vibration, not by a bow, 
but by a rotating rosined wheel, operated 
by a handle at the lower end of the body 
and turned by the right hand. The instru- 
ment usually possessed three to four un- 
fingered bass-strings which were allowed 
to sound continuously, thus producing a 
drone harmony (c-g-c') and two melody 
strings (tuned in unison) running over 
the finger board which were stopped by 
tangents connected with keys. The instru- 
ment was very popular in the loth to the 
14th century; later it became a beggar’s 
instrument despised by serious musicians. 
Praetorius, in his Syntagma Musicum 
(1615), expressly declines to speak of 
the “Bauern- und umblaufenden Weiber- 
Leycr” (the lyre of the peasants and itin- 
erant wenches). However, in the i8th 
century it became fashionable, together 
with the musette, in French society-circles 
[see *Musette]. Haydn wrote five con- 
certos and seven *notturnos for two hurdy- 
gurdies. He calls the instrument lyra or 
lira organizzatUy a name which has been 



HURTIG 

erroneously interpreted as *lira da braccio. 
Some 18th-century specimens of the hur- 
dy-gurdy have a small number of organ 
pipes attached in the body, and it is prob- 
ably to these that the term “organizzata” 
refers. The name lyra as well as the use of 
a crank has also led to confusion with the 
street-organ [G. *Leier fasten]. Schu- 
bert’s well-known song “Der Leiermann” 
portrays the player of a hurdy-gurdy, not 
of a street-organ. See the illustration on 
p. 800. 

The hurdy-gurdy was described by Odo 
of Cluny (d. 942) in his study entitled 
Quomodo organistrum construatur. Pic- 
tures from the 12th and 13th centuries 
show a much larger instrument than the 
later type, held and played by two men. 
The original name organistrum was re- 
placed around 1300 by the names armonie 
and symphonia^ the latter of which was 
perverted into chifoniey cinfonie, zanfonja, 
zampugna, *sambuca^ etc. In the 15th 
century the instrument adopted the name 
viellcy after the old *vielle (a fiddle) had 
become obsolete. Cf. SaHMI, 271; GD ii, 
685; E. de Bricqueville, in BSIM, 1909. 

Hurtig [G.]. Nimble, quick. 

Hydraulis [from Gr. hydor, water; 
auloSy pipe]. The organ of the ancient 
Greeks, invented by Ktesibius of Alex- 
andria (r. 300-250 B.C.). The water did 
not, as older writers fancifully believed, 
run through the pipes, but was enclosed 
in separate containers and served as a 
means of communicating hydraulic pres- 
sure provided by hand pumps. A clay 
model found in the ruins of Carthage and 
portions of an actual instrument discov- 
ered in 1931 at Aquincum, near Budapest, 
have given full insight into the details of 
its construction [illustrations in GD ii, 
690; also GD, Suppl. Vol., 289]. The 
hydraulis was used particularly in Rome 
in connection with the gladiatorial shows. 
Nero is reported to have performed on it 
[see *Roman music]. See *Magrepha; 
♦Organ XII. 

Lit.: H. G. Farmer, The Organ of the 
Ancients from Eastern Sources (1931); 
SaHMI, 143; Ch. Maclean, in SIM vi; 
J. W. Warman, in PMA xxx; Nagy Lajos, 


HYMN 

Az Aquincumi orgona (1934; in Hunga- 
rian, with a summary in German); W. 
W. Hyde, in Transactions and Proceed- 
ings of the American Philological Associa- 
tion, Philadelphia, 69 (1938). 

Hymn. A song of praise or adoration of 
God (originally, in honor of Apollo; two 
hymns to Apollo of c. 150 B.C. are among 
the most complete remnants of Greek 
music; cf. HAM, no. 6a, b) . In the earliest 
Christian era, the term hymn was applied 
to all songs in praise of the Lord; later on 
it was restricted to newly written poems, 
as distinguished from the scriptural 
psalms and canticles [see ♦Gregorian 
chant II]. 

I. Hymns of the Eastern Churches. In 
the early Christian era Antioch (Syria) 
and Constantinople (Byzantine empire) 
were the centers of hymn writing (hym- 
nody). The movement apparently started 
among the Gnostics, a sect which flour- 
ished in the 2d century. Bardesanes (d. 
223) and his son Harmonius wrote a com- 
plete Gnostic Psalter, i.e., a collection of 
poetic paraphrases of the psalms. The 
great success of this popularizing enter- 
prise (cf. the ♦psalters of the i6th cen- 
tury!) led to imitations among the Chris- 
tians. The Syrian Saint Ephrem (306- 
373) is usually considered the father of 
Christian hymnody. The Eastern Church- 
es (Syrian, Byzantine, Armenian) gave 
the hymns a much more prominent part 
in the service than they ever attained in 
the Western Church [see ♦Byzantine, 
♦Armenian, ♦Syrian chant]. The earliest 
preserved hymn melody is that of the 
♦Oxyrhynchos hymn of the 3d century. 
Cf. H. J. W. Tillyard, Byzantine Music 
and Hymnography (1923); ♦Editions 
XVIII. 

II. Latin Hymns. St. Hilarius, Bishop 
of Poitiers (d. 366), is credited with hav- 
ing written the first Latin hymns, in imi- 
tation of the Syrian hymns which were, 
of course, in Greek (as are all those of the 
early Eastern Churches). His hymns be- 
ing all lost (except one), St. Ambrose (d. 
397) is actually the father of the hymnody 
of the Catholic Church [see ♦Ambrosian 
hymns], together with Aurelius Pruden- 


[345! 



HYMN, ENGLISH 

tius (d. after 405) and St. Augustin (354- 
430). Ambrosius’ iambic dimeter (vj/w/ 
KjfKjfy e.g., Vem credtor spiritus) became 
the standard meter of the innumerable 
Latin hymns of which there are about 120 
still in use, chiefly for the Office [cf. AR, 
230*; a number of hymns of much later 
date, the so-called Rococo hymns, are listed 
separately, under Varia, p. 232"“]. The 
more than fifty volumes of G. M. Dreves’ 
and Cl. Blume's Analecta Hymnica are 
a practically complete collection of medie- 
val hymn-texts; a useful index for quick 
reference is U. Chevalier’s Repertorium 
Hymnologicum. The earliest sources of 
hymn melodies date from the nth cen- 
tury. The great majority of these melodies 
introduce groups of two to four notes 
which fall just as frequently on the strong 
as on the weak syllable. Evidently, they 
do not admit a strictly metrical rendering 
[cf. P. Wagner, Gregorianische F or men- 
lehrcy p. 462]. The polyphonic composi- 
tion of hymns started in the 13th century 
[cf. SchGMBy no. 10; BeMMR, 169; O. 
Ursprung, KathoUsche Kirchenmusi\, p. 
142]. Later composers were Dunstable, 
Dufay [cf. DTOe 27.!], A. v. Fulda, 
Thomas Stoltzer [DdT 65], Tallis, Vit- 
toria, Byrd, and many others. In 1589 
Palestrina published a collection, Hymni 
totius anniy i.e., hymns for the entire year. 
Organ hymns were written by A. Schlick, 
G. Cavazzoni [cf. SchGMB, no. 103: In- 
no], Cabezon, Titelouze, etc.; see *Organ 
chorale I. 

III. German Hymns. For the German 
hymns of the Catholic rites, cf. MoMLy 
395 (Kirchenlied); for those of the Prot- 
estant Church, see ^Chorale. 

IV. English Hymns. See subsequent 
entry. 

Hymn, English. I. Even before the 
1 8th century it was evident that the limita- 
tions, psychological no less than artistic, 
which surrounded the *Psalter as a con- 
gregational musical form, were bound to 
produce a reaction in favor of the hymn. 
The Lutheran ^Chorale, in particular, had 
demonstrated the power of the hymn 
form, and its failure of acceptance in other 
lands cannot be laid to any lack of musical 


HYMN, ENGLISH 

persuasiveness or of practicability, but 
simply to the persistence of the tradition 
of sacro-sanctity with which Biblical texts 
were surrounded to the detriment of the 
purely “man-made” hymn texts of Ger- 
man Reformation writers. The Germans 
must be credited with a greater catholicity 
of viewpoint than many of their neigh- 
bors, for editions of the French Psalter 
were at one time or another in use in 
Germany. England was not so receptive, 
for though Coverdale’s Goostly Psalms 
and Spiritualle Songs (1539, ’46) included 
thirty-six Chorales, these failed to make 
their way. The volume was, to be sure, 
banned by Henry the Eighth, but even 
royal disfavor can hardly account for 
what appears to have been a pretty com- 
plete rejection. Indeed, had the success of 
the hymn as a form in England depended 
solely upon the support of the crown, it 
would have come into its own during the 
reign of Elizabeth, for by decree she ad- 
mitted it to a part in the English Service 
and permitted its inclusion in Day’s 
Psalter. Again, about the end of the first 
quarter of the 17th century, James I gave 
to George Wither a patent allowing him 
to have his Hymns and Songs of the 
Church bound in the same volume with 
the Psalter. But the grip of the latter upon 
the English Service was so strong that it 
was not, perhaps, until a hundred years 
later that the hymn was fully established 
and hymn books began to appear. 

Watts’s first hymnal appeared in 1707 
and was followed in 1737 by John Wes- 
ley’s hymn book published in Georgia. 
After the Wesleys returned to England 
they continued the work undertaken in 
America; and as singing was an important 
feature of the Methodist movement, the 
contributions of the Wesleys were of in- 
estimable value, the use of their hymns 
spreading, as well, into many of the other 
non-conformist branches of the Church. 
The 1 8th century was prolific in the pro- 
duction of hymns which as music do not 
in all cases warrant enthusiasm. The pe- 
riod should not be judged by the extraor- 
dinary *fuguing tunes in which one or 
another part dropped out momentarily, 
sometimes making, upon its re-entrance, 


[346] 



HYMN, ENGLISH HYPER- HYPa 

unintentional rearrangements of the text editorial obsession that the music must be 
which, while more innocent than those to familiar and that the traditional partner- 
be found in some ^catches, are not less ship between certain texts and tunes must 
mirth-provoking. The period was, per- be preserved. Devotion to this policy has 
haps, near enough to the Psalter tradition resulted in the perpetuating from genera- 
to retain an essential musical dignity tion to generation of many texts and much 
which, in the Psalter itself, must have music of inferior worth. The average 
been so all-pervading as to be occasionally quality of denominational hymnals is not 
oppressive. In any case the hymn book high, but in recent years three books of 
output of the 1 8th century is, with reserva- outstanding merit have appeared, namely, 
tions, more to be commended than the The English Hymnal (2d ed. 1933), The 
bulk of 19th-century production. A nota- Oxford Hymn BooJ^, and Songs of Praise. 
ble exception, however, resulted from the Second, the publishing of the melodies in 
rise of interest in Plainsong and the Cho- part arrangements has been detrimental 
rale which occurred in England about the to congregational singing. The best hymn 
middle of the 19th century and which in- tunes are generally within the range of 
troduced into the hymnal an element of the average voice, but many worshipers 
vitality and musical excellence long over- prefer to indulge in a modest tonal excur- 
due. This was the real achievement of sion which, they hope, and perhaps be- 
ipth-century English hymnody and helps lieve, is a rendition of the alto, tenor, or 
us to forget a little the ensuing pallid re- bass part. If congregations could be in- 
flections of romanticism that characterize duced to unite on the melody and leave 
the hymns of the Victorians. The i8th- the harmony to the organ, the vigor and 
century hymn may have been at times assured quality of hymn singing would 
dull, but it has never been charged with miraculously increase, 
musical feebleness or sentimentality. Lit.: W. Douglas, Church Music in His- 

II. In America, as in England, the i8th tory and Practice ( 1937) ; J. T. Lightwood, 
century saw an effort to extend the borders Hymn T unes and T heir Story ( 1 906) ; F. I. 
of congregational musical expression be- Metcalf, Stories of Hymn Tunes (1928); 
yond the field of psalm singing. The first J. Moffat, Handbook to the Church Hym- 
American hymns are credited to William nary ( 1935) ; P. Scholes, Oxford Com- 

Billings (1746--1800), who was followed panion to Music (1938), article “Hymn”; 
by Lowell Mason (1792-1872). English H. B. Marks, The Rise and Growth of 
standards of hymn composition were gen- English Hymnody (1937); G. Dearmer, 
erally adopted in America in the late 19th “The Fall and Rise of the Hynan Tune” 
century and although some hymnals in- {ML vi, no. i). A.T.D. 

eluded psalter and chorale material, the 

emphasis was strongly on the Victorian Hypate [Gr.]. See *Greek music, 
side. One phenomenon connected with 

American congregational song of the lat- Hyper-, hypo- [Gr., above, below J.Pre- 
ter part of the 19th century was the gospel fixes denoting higher and lower pitches. 
hymn. Many of its texts were closely con- Hyper- {hypo-)diatessaron is the upper 
nected with the doctrine of “salvation by (lower) fourth; hyper- {hypo-^diapentCy 
grace” so that their content is often no the higher (lower) fifth. In Greek theory, 
more than an irritatingly priggish assump- terms such as Hyperdorian and Hypodo- 
tion of Christian superiority. Both as lit- rian signify modes (more properly, octave- 
crature and as music they plumbed the species) which start a fifth above and be- 
depths of commonness, but, in spite of low the initial tone of the original octave, 
this, their influence extended beyond the e.g., Dorian on e, Hyperdorian on b, 
confines of the revival meeting and into Hypodorian on A [see *Greek music II 
the regular services of the church. (c) ] . In the medieval system of church 

Two evils, in particular, have beset the modes the prefix hypo- denotes modes the 
modern Protestant hymnal. First, the range (ambitus) of which is a fourth be- 

[347] 



I 


IDIOMATIC STYLE 

low that of the corresponding primary Hyporchema [Gr.]. An ancient Greek 
(authentic) mode [sec *Church modes dancing song from Crete. 

11 ]. 


I 


I. This letter was introduced by Kirn- 
berger to denote the natural seventh, i.e., 
the seventh ^harmonic, such as is pro- 
duced on the natural horn. Its pitch 
( % = 9^9 *cents) is noticeably lower than 
that of the well-tempered seventh (looo 
cents) and that of the seventh in *first 
intonation (996 cents). 

Iamb, lambic. Sec ^Poetic meter; also 
♦Modes, Rhythmic. 

lastian. See ♦Greek music II (c). 

Icelandic music. The inhabitants of 
Iceland possess a highly remarkable tradi- 
tion of folk music which probably reaches 
farther back than any of the other folk- 
traditions of Europe [see ♦Folk song III]. 
A comparison of early manuscripts [Arna- 
magndan MS^ University Library of Co- 
penhagen; cf. WoHN i, 1 19] with recent 
collections shows that music has been 
stationary in Iceland for at least 600 years. 
A characteristic feature of the rimur 
(dancing songs, ballades) is the frequent 
change of meter. Particularly interesting 
is the twisongur (twin-song), i.e., two- 
part singing in parallel fifths, which is 
obviously a remnant of the parallel ♦or- 
ganum of the 9th century, and which is 
still practiced today in certain remote parts 
of Iceland [cf. GD iv, 44; ReMMA, 271]. 

Lit.: B. Thorsteinsson, lslenz\ Thjdd- 
log (1906-09); J. Leifs, Isldndische Vol\s- 
lieder (1929); A. Hammerich, in SIM i; 
E. M. V. Hornbostel, “Phonographierte 
islandische Zwiegesangc” {Deutsche Is- 
landforsckung, 1930); J. Leifs, in ZMW 
xi and DM xvi.i. 

Ictus. In prosody, a stress or accent. The 
term has been introduced into music 
mainly by the monks of ♦Solesmes, as an 
integral part of their rhythmic interpreta- 
tion and performance of Gregorian chant 


[see ♦Gregorian chant VI]. It serves pri- 
marily to mark off those groups of two 
and three notes which form the basis of 
their rendering of the chant. The ictus 
has nothing to do with the speech accent 
(tonic accent); in numerous cases it falls 
on the weak syllable [see Ex.] . The monks 



of Solesmes make it a point that, in actual 
performance, the ictus should not be ren- 
dered as a stress (“ictus nulla cum in- 
tensitate connectionem habet”), nor by 
lengthening of the tone (in the Solesmes 
rhythm all notes have the same duration). 
The question as to which communicable 
form it actually takes has therefore become 
a sort of mystery. Probably the mental 
perception of alternating points of eleva- 
tion and repose (aided by cheironomic 
graphs and by analogies such as the 
waves of the sea or an elastic ball) en- 
able the singer to produce a minimal de- 
gree of distinction. See the authoritative 
explanation in LU, p. xi. Also all the 
Solesmes books [Dom Moequereau, Le 
nombre musical, etc.; particularly, Dom 
Gajard, Notions sur le rhythme grSgorien 

(1935)]- 

Idee fixe. Berlioz' name for the prin- 
cipal subject of his Symphonic Phantas- 
tique in which it occurs in all the move- 
ments [see ♦Cyclic; ♦Metamorphosis], 
representing the artist in various stages of 
his life. It is considered an important 
forerunner of Wagner’s ♦leitmotive. 

Idiomatic style. A style which is prop- 
er to the instrument for which the music 
is written. To write idiomatically is a 
matter of prime concern for modern com- 
posers, particularly in orchestral scoring, 


[348] 



IDIOMELON 


IMITATION 


since the quality of the score is judged 
largely by the degree to which the various 
parts exploit the technical and sonorous 
resources of the instruments without ex- 
ceeding them. With regard to early music, 
however, including that of Bach, the ques- 
tion of idiomatic style has become some- 
what of an issue, since examples abound 
in which the style of writing does not 
conform with the technical properties of 
the instrument or the voice. For instance, 
a piece such as the E major Fugue from 
Wt, CL ii is neither in harpsichord style 
nor in clavichord style, but rather in or- 
gan or even instrumental ensemble style 
(string quartet). Many examples of this 
type show that inattention to idiomatic 
writing cannot always be considered an 
argument against the quality of the music 
or the composer. 

Idiomelon. See under ^Automelon and 
Idiomelon. 

Idiophones. See ^Instruments (Classi- 
fication). 


the ^organa of Perotinus (c. 1225; sec Ex. 
i) and in certain 13th-century motets [cf. 
Y. Rokseth, Polyphonies du Xllle siecle^ 
iv (1941)], imitation found its first defi- 


if IT A, j ■I’ 


8 






Imbroglio [It., muddle]. Operatic 
scenes in which the idea of utter confusion 
is artfully carried out, by giving the sing- 
ers and players parts which, although 
properly coordinated harmonically, are 
advisedly incongruous and contrasting as 
to rhythm and meter. The three orches- 
tras in the ballroom scene of Mozart’s 
Don Giovanni [end of Act I], and the 
street scene of Wagner’s Meistersinger 
[end of Act II] are famous examples. 

Imitation. The restatement in close 
succession of a melody (subject, motive) 
in different parts of a contrapuntal texture. 
This device is most consistently employed 
in the *canon, in which the full length of 
a voice-part is imitated in another (ca- 
nonic imitation). Applied to subjects, it 
forms an essential feature of the *fuguc 
(fugal imitation) as well as of the 16th- 
century motet and of the various pre-fugal 
forms, the ^ricercare, ^canzone, ^fantasia, 
*capriccio. While in a fugue the imita- 
tion is normally restricted to one subject, 
there are usually a variety of such subjects 
in the earlier forms. 

Following a preliminary exploitation in 



nitc realization in the *caccias (canons) 
of the 14th century. The works of Lan- 
dini, Dunstable, Dufay and, particularly, 
Hugo de Lantins show a gradually in- 
creasing use of initial imitation [cf. 
SchGMB, nos. 29, 41, 53, 54, 55 ; HAMy 
nos. 60, 68, 72]. With Josquin (c*. 1500) 
imitation was consistently applied to the 
successive motives of the motet [Ex. 2; see 
*Point (3)]. Throughout the i6th cen- 
tury and the Baroque period imitation 
remained the basis of contrapuntal style 
(^imitative counterpoint). It may be no- 


1 349] 




IMITATIVE COUNTERPOINT 


IMPRESSIONISM 


ticcd that, prior to 1700, fugal imitation 
at the interval of the fourth (lower fifth) 
is much more frequent than that of the 
fifth. Bach would seem to have been one 
of the first to establish imitation at the 
interval of the fifth as a characteristic fea- 
ture of fugal writing [Ex. 3] . 

The *Rococo period (c, 1700-1780) 
brought about a sharp reaction against 
the fugal style of the Baroque era [see 
•Gallant style] . However, imitation freely 
used made its come-back in the mature 
style of Haydn’s and Mozart’s later sym- 
phonies and quartets — and has since re- 
mained an important feature of composi- 
tion-technique, particularly in the devel- 
opment section of symphonies, quartets, 
sonatas, etc. See also *Imitative counter- 
point; •Repetition. 

Lit.: G. Adler, “Die Wicderholung und 
Nachahmung in der Mehrstimmigkeit” 
(VMW ii). M. Schneider, “Zur Satz- 
technik der Notre-Dame Schule” (ZMW 
xiv). See also the literature under •Fugue, 
•Canon. 

Imitative counterpoint. Contrapun- 
tal music based upon •imitation, that is, 
the use of the same thematic material in 
all the parts. The three chief types are: 
•canon (imitation of an entire voice-part), 
•fugue (imitation throughout the piece 
of an initial subject), and •motet (imita- 
tion of several subjects, each one being 
used for one •point of imitation). The 
preludes in Bach’s Wt. CL offer many 
interesting examples of “free imitative 
counterpoint” [e.g., vol. ii, no. 19], 

Imperfect. See •Perfect, imperfect. 

Imponierend [G.]. In an imposing, 
grand, style. 

Impressionism. A musical school of 
the late 19th and early 20th centuries, 
represented chiefly by Claude Debussy 
(1862-1918) and Maurice Ravel (1875- 
1937). Foreshadowed in the works of 
Edouard Lalo and Alexis Chabrier [see 
•French music IV], it found its first full 
realization in Debussy’s PrSlude ^ I’apris- 
midi d*un faune (1892) and still more so 
in his ensuing works, such as the three 


Nocturnes for orchestra (1893-99), the 
orchestral suite La Mer (1903-05), the 
opera PelUas et MSlisande (1902), or the 
collections for pianoforte Images (1905, 
’07), Preludes (1910-13), and Etudes 

(1915)- 

Impressionism, as most new move- 
ments, was rooted in antagonism. De- 
bussy instinctively disliked the dramatic 
dynamism of Beethoven, the heated at- 
mosphere and pathetic exhibitionism of 
Wagner, the introspective emotionalism 
of the Romantic composers in general. 
The paintings of the French impression- 
ists, Monet, Manet, Renoir, and the refined 
poetry of Verlaine, Baudelaire, Mallarme, 
suggested to him a new type of music, 
eminently French in character, a music 
which seems to hint rather than to state; 
in which successions of colors take the 
place of dynamic development, and “at- 
mospheric” sensations supersede heroic 
pathos; a music which is vague and in- 
tangible as the changing lights of the day, 
the subtle noises of the wind and the rain. 
The realization of these ideas led to a com- 
plete abandonment of such typically “Ger- 
man” achievements as sonata, symphony, 
thematic material, development technique, 
and resulted in the introduction of various 
novel devices which are antithetic to the 
principal features of classical and roman- 
tic harmony. Prominent terms of the im- 
pressionistic vocabulary are: unresolved 
dissonances, mostly triads with added sec- 
onds, fourths, sixths, sevenths; the use of 
chords, consonant as well as dissonant, in 
parallel motion: •parallel chords (or glid- 
ing chords); the •whole-tone scale in me- 
lodic as well as chordal combinations; 
frequent use of the tritone; modality, 
particularly avoidance of the leading-tone; 
avoidance of “direction” in the melodic 
contour (preference of vague “zigzag” 
design); irregular and fragmentary con- 
struction of phrases. 

Next to Debussy, Ravel is the main 
representative of impressionism, although 
his classical inclinations, his general feel- 
ing for form, his dance-like rhythms, his 
“verve” and elegance are traits hardly 
compatible with impressionism in its pur- 
est sense. In fact, except for its founder, 

[350] 



IMPRESSIONISM 


IMPROVISATION 


impressionism has not found any full- 
fledged representative, although it has left 
its imprint upon the works of a great 
number of composers, for instance the 
French Dukas, Roussel, de S^verac; the 
English Delius, Bax, Cyril Scott; the Ger- 
man Graner, Schreker, Niemann; the 
American LoefHer, Carpenter, Griffes; 
the Spanish Albeniz; the Italian Re- 
spighi; the Czech Novak; and many 
others. 

After a relatively short time impres- 
sionism began to lose much of its original 
fascination. Its over-refinement and fin- 
de-siecle character were not conducive to 
active contribution and development. It 
is interesting to note that Frenchmen 
played an important part in what might 
be called “subversive activities” against 
impressionism. Debussy’s friend Erik 
Satie contributed much to discrediting 
the rich impressionistic palette by his 
whimsical and barren sketches which look 
like a cynical caricature of the impres- 
sionistic technique [e.g., his Embryons 
dessiches]. It was the French novelist 
Cocteau who pronounced the death-sen- 
tence of impressionism in his aphorism: 
“After the music with the silk brush, the 
music with the axe.” It is a somewhat 
tragic truth that Debussy’s work stands 
before the eye of the present-day viewer 
not as what he intended: the negation of 
Romanticism — but as a part thereof, in 
fact, its very acme and conclusion. On the 
other hand, it should be noticed that some 
impressionistic devices have been taken 
over with characteristic modifications into 
the vocabulary of *New music, particu- 
larly the parallel chords, modified from a 
coloristic into a rhythmic effect [see *Par- 
allel chords] . Sec also ^Modern music. 

Lit.: E. B. Hill, Modern French Music 
( 1924) ; R. Lyr, Les Musiciens impression- 
istes (1938); H. G. Schulz, Musi\alischer 
Impressionismus (Diss. Wurzburg 1938); 
H. F. Kolsch, Der Impressionismus bei 
Debussy (1937); O. Wartisch, Studien 
zur Harmoni\ des musi\alischen Impres- 
sionismus (Diss. Erlangen 1928); E. Ev- 
ans, “French Music of Today” (PMA 
xxxvi); P. Landormy, “Lc Dcclin dc I’im- 
pressionisme” {RM ii); W. Danckert, 


“Liszt als Vorlaufer des Impressionismus” 
(DM xxi.5); A. Capri, “Lc Origini dell* 
impressionismo musicalc” (LRM xi). 

Impromptu [F., improvised]. A name 
used as a fanciful designation for 19th- 
century *character pieces of the Romantic 
period. The best-known examples arc 
Schubert’s Impromptus op. 90 and op. 142 
(probably their title is not Schubert’s but 
that of his publisher, Haslinger; cf. GD ii, 
700) and Chopin’s Impromptus opp. 26, 
36, 51, 66. The title does not refer to the 
presence of improvisatory elements in 
these pieces (all of which are in straight 
style and form), but is meant to char- 
acterize their somewhat casual origin in 
the mind of the composer. 

Improper ia [L., reproaches]. In the 
Catholic liturgy, chants proper to Good 
Friday morning. They consist of three 
passages from the prophets (Popule meus, 
quid feci tibi; Quia eduxisti per desertum; 
Quid ultra debui facerc tibi) each of 
which is followed by the *Trisagion and 
a number of other short texts, sung in 
alternation with Popule meus [cf. GR^ 
198]. They were introduced (around 
1200) from the ^Galilean rites. Palestrina 
composed them in simple four-part note- 
against-note style [jalso bordone\ see 
*Fauxbourdon (4)]. It is with reference 
to these pieces, the artistic significance of 
which has been frequently overrated [see 
also ^Miserere], that the word improperia 
is commonly used. They have been an- 
nually performed on Good Friday in the 
Sistine Chapel since 1560 [for more de- 
tails, cf. GD ii, 700] . Vittoria and other 
masters of the i6th century composed the 
famous text in the same style as Palestrina. 

Improvisation, extemporization. I. 
The art of performing music as an im- 
mediate reproduction of simultaneous 
mental processes, that is, without the aid 
of manuscript, sketches, or memory. In a 
more restricted sense, the art of introduc- 
ing improvised details into written com- 
position. The former type is a “soap- 
bubble” phenomenon the evanescent na- 
ture of which defies documentation and 
detailed description. This is true, at least, 


[351I 



IMPROVISATION 


INCANTATION 

of the great days of improvisation in Gregorian chant, particularly, the alle- 
which masters such as Bach, Handel, luias [see ^Ornamentation]. More clearly 
Beethoven were just as famous for their discernible is its role as an improvised ac- 
art of improvising as for their written companiment to a cantus firmus in the 
compositions. Today, the recording ma- fauxbourdon practice of the 14th and 15th 
chine would afford an easy means of fixa- centuries [see *Fauxbourdon (2)]. In 
tion; unfortunately, the great art of im- the i6th century the improvised execution 
provisation is lost, since it is no longer of ornaments and coloraturas (^diminu- 
practiced by the composers and survives tion; *glosa) played an important part in 
chiefly among organ virtuosos. musical instruction and practice [cf. Di- 

ll. Early musicians famous for their im- ego Ortiz, Trattado de glosas (1553); 
provisation were Francesco Landini [cf. Agostino Agazzari, Del suonare sopra il 
G. Frotscher, Geschichte des Orgelspiels basso (1608); see ^Ornamentation II; also 
(1935) i, 68] and Paulus Hofhaimer under ^Ensemble (3)]. The “melodic 
[ibid,^ 105] . In the i6th century the ability improvisation” continued particularly in 
of improvising in fugal style was a com- the English ^divisions of the 17th century 
mon stipulation for the appointment to while a new and particularly important 
the position of organist [ibid., 181, 247; practice arose in the “harmonic improvi- 
sec *Fantasia (5)]. Important informa- sation” of the *thorough-bass [see also 
tion on this matter is contained in the *Partimento] . In the i8th century the 
Arte de taner fantasia of the Spanish the- improvised coloraturas of vocal virtuosos 
orist Tomas de Santa Maria [cf. O. Kin- led to the *cadenzas of the classical con- 
keldey, Orgel und Klavier im 16. Jahr- certo. An interesting revival of improvisa- 
hundert (1912)]. In the 17th century the tion technique exists in the swing music 
organ improvisations of Sweelinck, Fres- and jam sessions of contemporary *jazz. 
cobaldi, and Buxtehude attracted people Sec also ^Penillion. 
from far-distant places. Bach is known to Lit.: Th. C. Whitmer, The Art of Im- 
have improvised a prelude and a fugue, provisation (1934); A. M. Richardson, 
an organ-trio (i.e., a piece in three obbli- Extempore Playing (1922); M. Dupre, 
gato parts), a chorale prelude, and a final TraitS d' improvisation h Vorgue (1926); 
fugue, all on one and the same hymn-tune, id., Cours complet d' improvisation d 
In 1747, on visiting Frederick the Great Vorgue (1937); G. F. Wehle, Die Kunst 
in Potsdam, he extemporized a fugue on der Improvisation (3 vols., 1925-32); E. 
that “royal theme” which he subsequently Ferand, Die Improvisation in der Musi\ 
worked out in his ^Musical Offering. (1938; historical); Martin Fischer, Die 
John Hawkins is one of several who have Organistische Improvisation im ly. Jahr- 
given a vivid description of the effect of hundert (1929); P. Rosenfeld, “A Plea 
Handel’s extemporization. Mozart fre- for Improvisation” (MM xix, no. i). 
qucntly extemporized fugues or variations i ** . „ . 

on a given theme. There exist a number Incalcando [It.]. Trampling, i.e., 
of enthusiastic accounts about Beethoven’s accelerando. 

fascinating improvisation [cf. Thayer, incalzando [It.]. Pressing forward. 
Ltfe of Beethoven 11, 347 J . In the Roman- 
tic period, Moscheles, Liszt, Franck, and In campo aperto [L., in the open 
Bruckner were famous for their improvi- space], *Neumcs IL 
sations which frequendy formed a part of 

dieir concert programs. Incantation. Properly, a song designed 

III. The second category of improvisa- to spell magic. In operas, the term refers 
tion, i.e., the introduction of improvised to scenes in which spirits arc conjured, 
details within a written composition, is a Famous examples are the song of Medea 
more tangible phenomenon. It probably in Cavalli’s II Giasone of 1649 [cf. 
played an important role in the emergence SchGMB, no. 201] and a scene in Mas- 
of the more ornate (mclismatic) types of scnct’s Roy de Lahore of 1877. 

l35»l 



INCIDENTAL MUSIC 


INNOMINE 


Incidental music. Instrumental music 
designed to be performed during a play. 
Properly speaking, the term does not in- 
clude the music to be played before and 
between the acts [^overture, *entr*acte]. 
The Greek dramas and the ^liturgical 
plays of the Middle Ages made ample use 
of incidental music [for the latter, cf. 
E. Coussemaker, Drames liturgiques du 
moyen-dge (i860)]. Shakespeare fre- 
quently prescribed incidental music, not 
only marches, dances, and songs, but also 
music as a background to monologues or 
dialogues [cf. the beginning of Twelfth 
Night], Nearly all of Purcell’s ^dramatic 
music is incidental music for plays. More 
recent examples are Beethoven’s music to 
Goethe’s Egmont and to Kotzebue’s The 
Ruins of Athens^ Mendelssohn’s music to 
A Midsummer-Night's Dream, Bizet’s 
music to Daudet’s UArlesienne (1872), 
and Grieg’s music to Ibsen’s Peer Gynt 

6875). 

Lit.: Norman O’Neill, “Music to Stage 
Plays” {Musieal Times, 1914); LavE ii.5, 
3373 i Ad. Aber, Die Musil( im Schauspiel 
(1926). See also under ^Dramatic music. 

Incipit [L., it begins], (i) In Gregorian 
chant, the first words of a liturgical text 
(also called intonation^ sung by the cantor 
before the chorus picks up at the place 
indicated by an asterisk; e.g., Ad te levavi 
*animam meam . . . [G/?, i]. — (2) In 
psalm tones, etc., same as *initium (in- 
ceptio). — (3) In the cantus-firmus mo- 
tets of the 13th and 14th centuries, a word 
or two given at the beginning of the tenor 
and serving as a reference to the chant 
from which the tenor is taken; for in- 
stance, Manere, referring to the melisma 
on the word “manere,” which occurs in 
the introit Exiit sermo (inter fratres . . . 
moritur. 'y, Sed: sic eum volo manere . . .) 
[G/?, 39]; see ’•^Motet I. Cf. P. Aubry, 
Recherches sur les **Tenors” latins ( 1907). 

incommeiando [It.]. Commencing, 
starting. 

Indeciso [It.]. Undecided. 

Indian music. See ^American Indian 
music; *Hindu music. 


Indicate [It.]. Assured, prominent. 

Indirectum (properly: in directum). 
See *Psalmody I. 

Indo-Chinese music. Cf. Gaston 
Knosp, “Notes sur la musique Indo- 
Chinese” (RMI xvi, 821) and “Ober an- 
namitische Musik” (SIM viii). 

Inegales [F., unequal (notes)]. See 
^Dotted notes II (d). 

Inflection, inflexion. See under *Mon- 
otone. 

Inganno [It., deception]. Deceptive 
^cadence. 

Ingressa. Name for introitus in *Am- 
brosian chant. 

Initium. The two or three opening 
notes of a *psalm tone. 

Innig [G.]. Heartfelt. 

Inno [It.]. Hymn. 

Innomine [L. in nomine, “in the name” 
(of God)]. Title of a large number of 
English instrumental pieces (for viols or 
keyboard) based on a cantus firmus: 

dfdddcfgfga This cantus firmus 

has nothing to do with the introit In 
nomine Jesu [GR, 48, 541], as is stated in 
a recent reference book, but is almost 
identical with the melody of the antiphon 
Gloria tibi Trinitas [AR, 518]. (An “In- 



glo — rl-a tt-bL Trt-nl-tas ae-ejua- Us 


nomine” by John Bull [FitzwilUam Vir- 
ginal Bool^, i, 160] is correctly labeled: 
“Gloria tibi Trinitas.”) Why these com- 
positions should be named Innominc is 
not clear. The Innomine, together with 
the *Felix namque, was the most favored 
type of cantus firmus composition among 
English composers, comparable to the 
♦L’homme arme of the Flemish masters. 
The earliest example (by Taverner) oc- 
curs in the Mulliner Book of c. 1560 [see 
'"'Virginal books]; others by Blitheman, 


[353 ] 



INQUIETO 

Parsons, John Bull, arc found in the Fitz- 
william Virginal Boo\, Still larger than 
the number of keyboard compositions is 
that of the Innomines for viols [example, 
by Tomkins, in HAM^ no. 176]. The 
main period of the Innomine is the second 
half of the i6th century. Purceirs In- 
nomincs represent a late attempt at re- 
vival. For an interesting description by 
Roger North (1728), see P. A. Scholes, 
The Oxford Companion to Music (1938), 
p. 465. Cf. E. H. Meyer, Die mehrstim- 
mige Spielmusi\ des ly. Jahrhunderts . . . 
(1934), PP- 133^5 ‘‘The ‘In Nomine* 

. . .** (ML xvii, no. i). 

Inquieto [It.]. Restless, uneasy. 

Inscription. In enigmatic *canons, the 
words which indicate, more or less clearly, 
the manner of its resolution [see *Can- 
on (4)]. 

In seculum. One of the most popular 
tenors (cantus firmi) of the 13th-century 
clausulae and motets, taken from the 
Easter Gradual Haec dies [GR, 221] and 
beginning as follows; ccbcdecbccb 
[cf. HAMy nos. 3od, 32d]. This cantus 
firmus is particularly interesting because 
it also occurs in a number of “instru- 
mental motets’* contained in the Bamberg 
Codex [cf. P. Aubry, Cent motets du 
Xllle silcle (1908), ii, nos. 104/8]. One 
of them, reproduced in SchGMB, no. 20, 
bears the inscription In seculum viellatorisy 
possibly with reference to a well-known 
*vielle-player who composed it [cf. 
ReMMAy 325] . Cf. H. Gleason, in BAMS 
vi. 

Instandig [G.]. Imploring. 

Instante [G.]. Urgent. 

Instrument. In i6th-i8<entury usage, 
specifically the harpsichord, occasionally 
also the clavichord; in the early 19th cen- 
tury, the pianoforte. 

Instrumental music. Music performed 
on instruments, as opposed to music per- 
formed by voices (*vocal or choral mu- 
sic). Since in mixed participation the 
voices arc usually treated as the more im- 
portant body, compositions for voices and 


INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC 

instruments (cantatas, operas) are usually 
classified as vocal music. Two main types 
of instrumental music might be distin- 
guished; ^ensemble (chamber, orchestral 
music) and soloist (piano, organ, lute, 
etc.). Following is a concise synopsis of 
the development of instrumental music, 
arranged in three periods in which instru- 
mental music was (a) inferior, (b) equal, 
and (c) superior in importance to vocal 
music. [Regarding the dichotomy instru- 
mental-vocal in early music, see *En- 
semble (3).] 

A. Period of Inferior Importance: 1250- 
1600. Thirteenth century; French *es- 
tampies; instrumental motets *In seculum 
(for the *vielle?). — 14th century; Italian 
estampies (estampida); *Intabulierungen 
of motets for the organ; ^variations. — 
15th century; German polyphonic dances 
[Glogauer and Miinchner *Liederbuch, 

1450]; ^preludes and arrangements of 
chansons for the organ [Ileborgh, Pau- 
mann, Buxheimer Orgelbuch; see *Organ 
music]; *carmina and other instrumental 
pieces by Isaac [DTOe 14. i] and Josquin 
[SchGMBy no. 62]. — i6th century; nu- 
merous *dances for keyboard, lute [see 
♦Lute music] and ensemble; ♦ricercare; 
♦fantasia; ♦canzona; ♦prelude; ♦toccata; 
♦variations. 

B. Period of Equal Importance: 1600— 
1750. Chamber music: instrumental 
♦canzona; ♦fancy; ♦sonata da chiesa; 
♦sonata da camera; ♦trio sonata; ♦ground. 
— Orchestral music; operatic ♦overture 
and ♦sinfonia; orchestral ♦suite; ♦con- 
certo grosso. — Keyboard music: ♦suite; 
♦toccata; ♦fugue; ♦chaconne and passa- 
caglia; ♦variations. 

C. Period of Superior Importance: 1750— 
present. Chamber music: ♦String quartet 
and other types of modern ♦chamber mu- 
sic; ♦violin sonata. — Orchestral music: 
♦Cassation; ♦divertimento; ♦symphony; 
♦symphonic poem. — Piano music; ♦So- 
nata; ♦variations; ♦character pieces. 

Lit.; To A :1j, Schrade, Die handschrifu 
liche Ueberlieferung der dltesten Instru- 
mentalmusi\ ( 1932) ; J. Wolf, “Die Tanze 
des Mittelalters” (AMW i); J. v. Wasie- 
lewski, Geschichte der Instrumentalmusi\ 
im 16, fahrhundert (1878). — To B: L. 


[354 



INSTRUMENTS 

Torchi, La musica instrumentale nei secoli 
XVl—XVlll (RMI, 18971!; also as sepa- 
rate publication); K. Nef, Zur Geschichte 
der deutschen lnstrumentalmusi\ des ly, 
Jahrhunderts (1902); E. H. Meyer, Die 
mehrstimmige Spielmusil^ des 77. Jahr- 
hunderts (1934). Sec the literature under 
the various forms; also under *Organ 
music; *Piano music; ♦Violin music; 
♦Lute music; ♦Dance music. 

Instruments [from L. instruere\ cf. in- 
struction]. The generic name for all 
mechanisms producing musical sounds; 
hence for all musical media with the ex- 
ception of the human voice (and, possibly, 
whistling). 

Classification, While former studies in 
the field of musical instruments were re- 
stricted to those of European art-music, 
the scope of investigation has been wid- 
ened considerably by the recent inclusion 
of the non-European (Oriental, African, 
etc.) instruments which outnumber many 
times those of European music. The 
European instruments were, and usually 
still are classified under three heads, 
namely; stringed instruments^ wind in- 
struments^ and percussion instruments. 

In the scientific classification of all instru- 
ments the first group is called chordo- 
phones [Gr. chordos^ string; phonoSy 
sound]; the second, aerophones [Gr. 
aerosy air, wind] ; the third group, which 
is extremely numerous in non-European 
music, is divided into two classes, idio- 
phones [Gr. idiosy self], i.e., instruments 
which simply consist of elastic material 
(metal, wood) capable of producing 
sound, and membranophones [L. mem- 
branum, skin], i.e., instruments in which 
a stretched skin is the sound-producing 
agent. To these four classes a fifth has 
been added recently, i.e., the electro p hone Sy 
in which the acoustical vibrations are 
produced by electric contrivances. With- 
in each of these categories further distinc- 
tions are made, as appears from the sub- 
sequent survey based on the classification 
established by C. Sachs and E. M. von 
Hornbostel [cf. SaHMIy 455!!] : 

1 . I diop hones, 

A. Struck: *triangle; *gong; *bell; 

£355! 


INSTRUMENTS 

♦chimes; ^Glockenspiel; ♦cymbals; ♦xylo- 
phone; ♦celesta; ♦castanets [see ♦Percus- 
sion instruments]. Also numerous exotic 
instruments, e.g., the Javanese *gambang 
(xylophone) and the Chinese ch’ing 
(stone chimes; see ♦Chinese music IV). 

B. Shaken: ♦rattle, ♦sistrum; ♦crescent. 

C. Plucked: ♦Jew’s harp; also the mu- 
sical box. 

D. Rubbed: ♦glass harmonica; *nail 
violin, 

II. Membranophones, Chiefly ♦drums. 
Classifications can be made according to 
shape (tubular drums, kettledrums, frame 
drums) or material (wood, metal, coco- 
nut, gourd, etc.), fastening of the skin, 
etc. The ♦mirliton may be mentioned as 
a membranophone which is not a drum. 

III. Aerophones, 

A. Free aerophones. Instruments which 
act on the principle of the free (more 
properly, idiophonous) ♦reed: ♦harmoni- 
um; *accordion; ♦regal; ♦sheng; the reed 
section of the organ [see ♦Organ X] . 

B. ♦Wind instruments, i.e., instruments 
in which the sound-generating medium 
is an enclosed column of air. According 
to the device which sets that air into vi- 
bration, the following classes are distin- 
guished: 

1. Trumpets and horns. The device 
is the compressed lips of the player: 
lip-vibrated aerophones, common- 
ly called ♦brass instruments. 

2. Flutes. The device is the sharp 
edge of a mouth-hole. 

a. Vertical flutes. The mouth-hole 
is formed by the upper aperture 
of the pipe (as in blowing on a 
hollow key). Found occasion- 
ally in Egypt and Arabia; ♦pan- 
pipes. 

b. Cross flute. The mouth-hole is 
cut in the side of the pipe. Flute 
proper; see ♦Flute family. 

c. Whisde flutes. The player blows 
from the upper end through a 
flue against the sharp edge cut 
in the side: ♦recorder; ♦flageo- 
let; the flue section of the organ 
[see ♦Organ IX] . 

3. Reed pipes. The device is a (het- 
erophonous) reed. 



INSTRUMENTS 

a. A single reed: clarinets. See 
^Clarinet family. 

b. A double reed: oboes. See *Oboe 
family. 

IV. Chordophones. Four categories can 
be distinguished: 

A. Zithers. The strings are stretched 
between the two ends of a plain-shaped 
body, such as a board or a stick. 

1. Board zithers. The body has the 
form of a flat board. 

a. Psalteries. The strings are 
plucked: *psalterium; ^zither; 
*kantele; *kanun. Keyboard 
psalteries: ^harpsichord; ’••'vir- 
ginal; *spinet. 

b. Dulcimers. The strings are 
struck with a hammer: ♦dul- 
cimer; ♦cimbalom; ♦pantalon. 
Keyboard dulcimer: ♦pianoforte. 

c. The strings are touched by 
tangents: ♦clavichord. 

2. Stick zithers. The body has the 
form of a stick: several exotic in- 
struments, particularly the Hindu 
♦vina. 

3. Long zithers. The body has the 
form of a long board with a slight- 
ly curved surface (originally made 
from the longitudinal segment of a 
bamboo pipe): the Chinese ♦ch’in 
(Japanese koto). 

B. Lutes. Instruments having a body 
with a neck. The following families can 
be roughly distinguished: 

1. Plucked: ♦lute family (round 
back); ♦guitar family (flat back). 

2. Bowed: fiddles; ♦violin family; 
♦viols; ♦vielle; ♦hurdy-gurdy; 
♦tromba marina. 

C. Lyres. Instruments having a yoke, 
that is, two projecting arms connected at 
their upper end by a crossbar: ♦kithara, 
♦lyre, ♦erwth, ♦kinnor. 

D. Harps. Instruments in which the 
plane of the strings is vertical, not parallel, 
to the soundboard. Sec ♦Harp. 

V. Electrophones, See separate entry un- 
der ♦Electronic musical instruments. 

History, Restricting ourselves to the 
consideration of the instruments in the 
field of European culture it will suffice to 
mention the various instruments of the 


INSTRUMENTS 

Bible [see ♦Jewish music], the ♦kithara, 
♦lyre, and ♦aulos of the Greeks, and the 
use of the *hydraulis, *tuba (salpinx), 
and ♦lituus in Rome (chiefly for gladiatory 
shows and for military purposes), in order 
to briefly characterize the pre-Christian 
history of instruments. The fact that, un- 
der the late Roman Empire, instruments 
were chiefly in the hands of the tnimus 
( actors ) , the jocular es ( j ongleur s ) , dancers, 
and other providers of amusement caused 
a general hostility against the practical 
use of instruments in the medieval Chris- 
tian Church though they occur frequently 
in the writings of the Church Fathers as 
religious symbols. Nonetheless, there ex- 
isted — outside the Church — a variety 
of instruments, as is shown in numerous 
pictorial representations ranging from the 
6th to the 13th century. Particularly in- 
formative in this respect are the famous 
miniatures of the 13th-century Spanish 
codex of ♦Cantigas (numerous reproduc- 
tions in GD), Among the medieval in- 
struments are plucked instruments such 
as the ♦harp, the ♦lyre, the ♦psaltery, the 
♦lute, the ♦chrotta; bowed instruments 
such as the ♦erwth, the ♦rebec, the ♦ru- 
bebe, the ♦vielle, the ♦hurdy-gurdy, the 
♦tromba marina; various wind instru- 
ments (trumpets, horns, flutes, shawms, 
bagpipes); the ♦portative (organ), and 
the ♦equichier (clavichord or harpsi- 
chord); bells and bell chimes, drums 
(nacaire), and castanets. Most of these 
instruments came from the Orient, prob- 
ably through the Arabs via Spain. Except 
for the organ and the vielle, these instru- 
ments were used chiefly for the improvised 
(or, at least, unrecorded) accompaniment 
of singers and dancers. 

During the 15th and i6th centuries most 
of the above types continued to be used, 
and developed into more elegant forms. 
As regards the 15th century, our knowl- 
edge is in the main restricted to what has 
been recorded by the painters and drawers, 
particularly in their numerous representa- 
tions of “celestial harmony” showing 
beautifully shaped and decorated instru- 
ments in the hands of angels (van Eijk, 
Memling; cf., e.g., SaHMI, 304). In die 
1 6th century there developed an inde- 

[356] 



INSTRUMENTS 

pendent repertory of music for the organ, 
the harpsichord, and the lute [sec *In- 
strumental music]. Many other instru- 
ments, however, were built and used, as 
is shown by the writings of Sebastian 
Virdung: Musica getutscht (“Music Ger- 
manized,” 1511); Martin Agricola: Mu- 
sica instrumentalis deudsch (1528); and 
Michael Praetorius: Syntagma musicae ii 
(1618). These books, together with other 
evidence such as, e.g., the preserved lists 
of instrumental collections, show that the 
1 6th century placed a marked emphasis on 
the wind instruments. The collection of 
381 instruments left by King Henry VIII 
of England, e.g., comprised 272 wind in- 
struments (cross flutes, recorders, shawms, 
cromornes, horns, cornets, organs, bag- 
pipes) as against 109 stringed instruments 
(virginals, lutes, viols, guitars, clavi- 
chords). An important feature of this 
period was the building of instruments 
in families; in fact, the playing of music 
in homogeneous groups, e.g., on four re- 
corders, four viols, four trombones, re- 
placed to a large extent the mixed ensem- 
bles of the 15th century which enjoyed 
the simultaneous sound of contrasting 
timbres [see *Sound ideal]. 

The 17th century (Baroque) brought 
about a marked trend toward the stringed 
instruments, the soft viol, the delicate lute, 
the “singing” violin. The lute, especially, 
existed in a great variety of sizes and types, 
the chitarrone, the theorbo, the cittern, 
the mandola, etc. [see ^Lute and *Gui- 
tar]. Special types of viols are the viola 
d’amore, the baryton, and the viola pom- 
posa [see *Viol family] . Among the wind 
instruments of the Baroque, the recorder 
and the oboe are prominent, with the 
trumpet and horn coming into use after 
1700. For the ensuing history and the 
usual classification of the modern orches- 
tral instruments, see ^Orchestra and or- 
chestration. 

Lit.: C. Sachs, The History of Musical 
Instruments (1940); id,^ Handbuch der 
Musi}(instrumenten\unde (2d ed. 1930); 
id,y Reallexi}{on der Musikjlnstrumente 
(1913); F. W. Galpin, A Textbook, of 
European Musical Instruments (1937); 
N, BessarabofI, Ancient European Musical 


INTABULIERUNG 

Instruments (1940); H. W. Schwartz, 
The Story of Musical Instruments (1938); 
A. J. Hipkins, Musical Instruments y His- 
toric y Rare and Unique (1888; repr. 1921); 
K. Schlesinger, A Bibliography of Musical 
Instruments and Archaeology (1912); 
Karl Geiringer, Musical InstrumentSy 
Their History . . . (1943); W. Hei- 
Ti\X.ZyInstrumentenkunde {Biickjen sHand- 
buchy 1931). For special literature, see the 
bibliography mSaHMI sind in BessarabofI; 
see also under ^Orchestra. 

Inszenierung [G.]. Get-up (of an op- 
era, play), mis en scene, 

Intabulierung [G.; It. intavolatura]. 
In 16th-century music, the arrangement 
of vocal music (motets, chansons) for the 
keyboard or the lute. The term is derived 
from tabulaturuy i.e., *tablature, and re- 
fers to the change from the original nota- 
tion in single parts (^mensural notation) 
into the score-like (vertical) notation used 
for the tablatures of the soloist instru- 
ments, the organ and lute. The Intabulie- 
rung of a motet or a chanson is the 16th- 
century counterpart of the piano arrange- 
ment of a modern symphony or quartet. 
The chief diflerence between the early 
and the modern procedure lies in the 
greater freedom of the former. Not only 
were original parts omitted or differently 



distributed wherever their range was in- 
convenient for the reach of the hand, but 
also the texture was enriched by the addi- 
tion of coloraturas, passing-notes, etc. [sec 
Ex.]. The artistic importance of these 
arrangements, which appear in distressing 


1 357] 




INTAVOLATURA 


INTERMEZZO 


quantity in the keyboard and lute books 
of the 1 6th century, is, of course, very 
slight. They have been drawn upon chief- 
ly for the study of *musica ficta [E. Fre- 
richs, in ZMW vii; W. Apel, Accidentien 
und Tonalitdt in den Musikjdenf{mdlern 
des 1$, und i6, Jahrhunderts ( 1936) ] , and 
of ornamentation [A. Sobering, Studien 
zur Musi\geschichte der Friihrenaissance 
(1914); O. Kinkeldey, Orgel und Klavier 
im 16, Jahrhundert (1910)]. See *Ar- 
rangement. Examples in HAMy nos. 145, 
160; SchGMBy nos. 35/36 and 626/63. 

Intavolatura [It.]. See ♦Intabulicrung. 
In titles of Italian publications of keyboard 
music (idth/iyth century) the designa- 
tion “Toccate (Canzone, Capricci, etc.) 
d’intavolatura” indicates that the music 
is notated on two staves (piano-score), as 
distinguished from “di partitura” (or 
“spartiti”), that is, pieces notated on a 
different staff for each part, as in the open 
score. 

Integer valor [L., integral value]. In 
mensural notation of the 15th and i6th 
centuries the normal value of a note 
{brevis y semihrevis)y as distinguished 
from the reduced or enlarged values 
caused by the proportions. See *Propor- 
tions. 

Interference. See ^Acoustics VI. 

Interlude. Any type of inserted music 
[see ^Entr’acte; ^Intermezzo]. Specifi- 
cally, short organ pieces played between 
the various verses of a hymn or a psalm. 
These were usually improvised; hence, 
they are rarely found in printed books, 
except in those of the early 19th century 
when the art of improvisation had begun 
to decline. One of the few early books 
containing interludes is: Daniel Purcell, 
The Psalms Set Full for the Organ or 
Harpsichord , , , as also with their Inter- 
ludes of Great Variety {c, 1680; cf. Nagel, 
in MfM XXX, 47). The low standard of 
the later interludes is illustrated by an ex- 
ample from Gresham, Psalmody Improved 
. . . (r. 1780), which is reproduced in 
P. A. Scholes, The Oxford Companion to 
Music, pi. 83 (opp. p. 466) . In the German 


Protestant service short interlude-like pas- 
sages were inserted between the various 
lines of the chorale, rather than after a 
complete stanza. Certain organ chorales 
by Bach illustrate this procedure, e.g., his 
In dulci jubilo (B.-G. xl, 74). 

Intermedium [L.], intermede [F.], 
intermedio [It.]. See ^Intermezzo (i). 

Intermezzo, (i) A theatrical entertain- 
ment of light character, introduced be- 
tween the acts of a serious play or opera 
(interpolations consisting only of instru- 
mental music are more properly termed 
^entr’actes). They are important because 
twice in music history they have led to 
new forms: the 16th-century intermedii of 
stage plays are among the forerunners of 
the opera [see *Opera II], and the 18th- 
century intermezzi of operas were the 
origin of the opera bu§a [ see *Comic op- 
era II (b) ] . A similar process took place in 
the 13th century when certain ^tropes (in 
a way, intermezzi of Gregorian chant) 
developed into the medieval ^liturgical 
drama. 

The most famous of the 16th-century 
intermedii were those performed between 
the acts of Bardi’s UAmico fido during 
festivities attending the marriage of the 
Grand Duke of Tuscany at Florence in 
1589, the music for which was composed 
by Marenzio, Cavalieri, Malvezzi, Bardi, 
Peri, and Caccini. They included solo 
madrigals, airs, madrigal choruses, and 
ballets with considerable instrumental ac- 
companiment. These intermedii usually 
had no relation to the drama nor between 
themselves, each having its own character, 
e.g., “The Harmony of the Spheres,” “The 
Infernal Regions,” etc. [cf. AdHM i, 414; 
O. G. Sonneck, in MA iii] . 

In the later part of the 17th century 
most of the Italian operas performed at 
Paris were furnished with intermhdes 
(ballets and vocal music) by French com- 
posers, especially Lully [cf. H. Prunieres, 
V Opera italien en France (1913)]. In 
Italy itself the intermezzi took on a par- 
ticularly important development which 
can be traced back to 1623 when an opera 
Vamorosa innocenza was performed in 
Bologna with intermezzi which, although 



INTERVAL 


INTERNATIONAL MUSICAL SOCIETY 

inserted between different acts, formed a 
little continuous opera of its own, called 
Coronazione di Apollo, This was the be- 
ginning of a practice of “interwoven twin- 
operas” which continued throughout the 
17th century, uniting a serious plot and a 
lighter one into a unique kind of enter- 
tainment. In the Neapolitan opera of the 
early i8th century the comic intermezzi 
appealed so much to the popular taste 
that they became a dangerous rival of the 
somewhat stereotyped plots of the main 
opera. The final stage of this develop- 
ment is represented by Pergolese’s La 
Serva padrona which, originally per- 
formed as an intermezzo to the serious 
opera 11 Prigionero super bo (1733), was 
so successful that it continued to exist 
independently, as the first opera buffa 
[see ^Cornic opera II] . See also ^Masque. 

Lit.: J. Pulver, “The Intermezzi of the 
Opera” (PM A xliii); O. G. Sonneck, 
“. . . Intermedi ‘Psyche and Amor’; 1565” 
(MA iii). 


c-c 

c~d 

c~e 

c-f 

E: unison 
(prime) 

second 

third 

fourth 

G: Prime 

Sekunde Terz 

Quarte 

F: uni(sson 

) seconde 

tierce 

quarte 

It: prima 

seconda 

terza 

quarta 

L: unisonus 

tonus 

ditonus 

diates- 

saron 


ideas and taste [see also *Expression]. 
His personal intepretation is the great 
privilege of the performer, granted him 
by the composer. A really fine performer 
will always be aware of the responsibility 
towards the work which this privilege 
imposes upon him. 

In the case of early music, interpreta- 
tion is primarily a matter of study of 
standards and styles entirely different 
from those of the current repertory. Al- 
ready Bach presents many problems of 
interpretation which are not primarily 
questions of personal taste, but of histori- 
cal facts. See *Auffuhrungspraxis. 

Interrupted cadence. See ^Cadence. 

Interval. The difference in pitch be- 
tween two tones. The names of the inter- 
vals indicate the number of the tones of 
the diatonic scale included therein. Fol- 
lowing is a tabulation of the terminology 
in English, German, French, Italian, and 
Latin (medieval): 


c-g 

c-a 

c-b 

c-c' 

fifth 

sixth 

seventh 

octave 

Quinte 

Sexte 

Septime 

Oktave 

quinte 

sixte 

septieme 

octave 

quinta 

sesta 

settima 

ottava 


diapente tonus cum ditonus cum diapason 
diapente diapente 


(2) One of the numerous titles of 19th- 
century ^character pieces, suggestive of a 
somewhat casual origin of the piece, as if 
it were composed between works of great- 
er importance (Schumann, Brahms). 

International Musical Society (In- 
ternationale Musik^gesellschaft) and oth- 
ers, see ^Societies III. 

Interpretation. The personal and cre- 
ative element in the performance of music 
which, similar in this respect to the dra- 
matic play, depends upon a middleman 
forming the link between the composer 
and the audience. The player or conduc- 
tor, while studying the composition, ab- 
sorbs it and, consciously or unconsciously, 
models it according to his own general 


The intervals larger than an octave are 
called compound intervals. The first five 
of these also receive special names as fol- 
lows, c~d': ninth or compound second 
[F. neuvieme\ G. None] \ c-e': tenth or 
compound third [¥,dixihme\G.Dezime \ ; 
c-f': eleventh or compound fourth [F. 
onzihme\ G. Undezime] ; c-g': twelfth or 
compound fifth [F. douzieme; G. Duo- 
dezime]. The same intervals occur be- 
tween any two notes, e.g., f-a is a third, 
g-d' is a fifth, b-c' is a second. Intervals 
leading down from a note are character- 
ized by the adjective “lower”; e.g., the 
lower fifth of c is F, etc. See also *Com- 
plemcnt; ^Inversion (i). 

Although, e.g., a third always includes 
three tones, there exist various kinds of 


[359] 



INTERVALS 


INTERVALS 


thirds, according to whether the intervals 
between the tones are whole-tones or semi- 
tones, or, in other words, according to the 
number of chromatic steps contained in 
the interval. The following tabulation 
shows the classification and terminology 
(in English and German; the figures in- 
dicate the number of semitones in each 
interval) : 


third are 2f^, -w, and jn respectively. In 
terms of intervals (initial tone = i) this 
means that the octave is 2, the fifth the 

third |:0 = 2;F = |;T = f-(2) In- 
tervals are added by multiplying their re- 


Second 

Third 

Sixth 

Seventh 


Fourth 

Fifth 

Octave 


Diminished Minor Major 

{verminderte) {\leine) (grosse) 

ci(-db (0) c-db (i) c-d (2) 

clf-eb (2) c-eb (3) c-e (4) 

cf-ab (7) c-ab (8) c-a (9) 

cJf~bb (9) c-bb(io) c-b ( 1 1 ) 

Perfect 

(reine) 

c#-f (4) c-f (5) 

c#-g(6) c-g(7) 

c#--c'(ll) C-c'(l2) 


Augmented 
{uberm'dssige) 
c-d# (3) 
c-e# (5) 
c-aJt (10) 
c-bJf (12) 


c~f# (6) 
c-gjf (8) 
c-cJf' (13) 


Intervals, Calculation of. The fol- spectivc fractions. E.g., the interval of the 
lowing explanation presupposes a knowl- iri/ rri.\- s 

edge of elementary arithmetic, including twelfth (upper fifth) is:F + 0 = -X2=: 

powers, roots, and (optionally) loga- that of the major seventh is: F + T = 

I. The pitch of a tone is determined by f X 7 = that of the third octave is: 

its frequency, that is, by the number of ^ ^ 

vibrations per second produced by the O + O + O = 2 X 2 X 2 = 8, etc. — - (3) 
tone [see ^Acoustics I]. The interval be- ^n interval is subtracted by multiplying 

tween two tones is determined by the its inverted fractions: - O = i; 

quotient (not the difiercncc; see later) ^ 

between the two frequencies. For instance, _ p 1 . _ p _ p „ fourth is 
the interval between the tones 500 and 

800 is 800 : 500 = 1.6; that between the Q - F = 2 X - = the minor third is 

tones 512 and 1024 is 1024 : 512 = 2 (the ^ ^ 

octave); the interval between 512 and 728 p - T = | X - = the major sixth is 

is the same as that between 384 and 546, 255 

i.c., 1.42. In the calculations of intervals 2 Xt== 4 (octave minus minor third), etc. 

the actual pitches are, of course, irrelevant. ® 

An arbitrary tone, usually c, is chosen as HI. The calculation of the intervals, 
the point of departure and is designated particularly of the more complicated ones, 
by the frequency i. can be considerably simplified by disre- 

II. Practically all calculations of inter- garding the octave or, in other words, the 

vals are based upon three elementary in- factor 2. In doing so, the fifth becomes 3 

tervals, namely, the octave (O), the fifth (actually the twelfth), the third becomes 5 

(F), and the major third (T). Experi- (actually the second higher third): F = 3; 

ments already conducted by Pythagoras T = 5. Naturally, by using these figures, 
(6th century B.C.) lead to the following the results are not correct as regards their 
laws: (i) If the frequency of a tone is /i, octave position; however, they can easily 
those of the octave, fifth, and (major) be corrected by multiplying them with 

[3^0 ] 



INTERVALS 

such a power of 2 (2,4,8,— i) that will 

cause the product to lie between i and 2. 
Examples: (i) Calculation of the major 
seventh, i.c., fifth plus third: F + T = 

5 X 3 == 15; to be divided by 8, hence: 

(2) Calculation of the fourth, i.c., lower 

fifth: = to be multiplied by 4, hence 

(3) Find the syntonic comma, that is, 

the difference between the tone e of the 
^Pythagorean system (fourth consecutive 
fifth) and the natural third: 4F — T = 

3^ : 5 = to be multiplied with 
hence — . This method is especially con- 
venient for the reversed calculations, i.c., 
the determination of the interval if the 
ratio is given. Examples: (4) Which inter- 
val is represented by ~? In disregarding 

all powers of two (8 = 2X2X2) we find 
that the interval is 3 X 3> i-c., F + F = 2F, 
hence the second consecutive fifth, d. (The 
fact that the original figure lies between 
I and 2 shows sufficiently that this is the d 
within the normal octave, hence, the sec- 
ond.) (5) Determine the interval So- 
lution: - 4 ^ = 2T — 2F, hence two con- 

secutive thirds minus two consecutive 
fifths, that is, F-sharp. (6) Determine the 
45 

interval — . Solution (the denominator 

contains only powers of 2, 2® = 32): 
3 X 3X 5 = 2F + T, that is, F-sharp. 
Naturally, this F-sharp is not (exactly) 
the same as the one before; the difference 
between them is again the syntonic com- 
ma, as can easily be found by dividing the 
two figures (a quicker method is to subtract 
the two “symbols”: (2F + T) — (2T — 
2F) = 2F + T — 2T + 2F = 4F “ T, a 
quantity which always indicates the syn- 
tonic comma). 

IV. Logarithmic Intervals, Several 


INTERVALS 

drawbacks of the above method are 
avoided if logarithms are used. Accord- 
ing to the fundamental equation of loga- 
rithms: log a X b = log a -f log b, the 
logarithm of a product is equal to the sum 
of the logarithms of the factors (c.g., log 
15 =: log 3 + log 5). If, therefore, two 
intervals ii and i2 are represented, not by 
their frequencies fi and f2, but by the 
logarithms of these figures, log fi and log 
f2, the compound interval ii + i2 is repre- 
sented, not as before by fi X but by 
log (fi X f2) = log fi log fo. It fol- 
lows that, if logarithmic frequencies are 
used, “addition” or “subtraction” of inter- 
vals is done by actually adding and sub- 
tracting figures, instead of multiplying or 
dividing them. The chief advantage of 
the logarithmic frequencies is that equal 
musical intervals arc represented by equal 
distances of a geometric scale. For in- 
stance, in the usual logarithmic scale of 
*cents, the various octaves are indicated 
by the equidistant figures 0, 1200, 2400, 
3600 [Ex., b], while in ordinary frequen- 
cies they are indicated by the figures i, 2, 
4,8... [Ex., a]: 

a 

» 4 F ♦ T 0 

I— Ji 1 1 I 1 1 1 i 1 * 

c O 9 c' o' c* 

b ^ 

•two O 000 two UCO 9000 46CO 

I 1 1 1 1 I » « « 1 

C o Ji c' o» o’" 

Notice that in the ordinary measure- 
ment the fifth g (i“, 3> 6) lies exactly in 

the middle of the octave, although prop- 
erly this place should be occupied by the 
well-tempered fjf, as is actually the case in 
the logarithmic scale. 

V. Logarithmic frequencies are partic- 
ularly important — in fact, indispensable 
— in all calculations concerning tempered 
intervals or microtonic intervals (exotic 
scales). The well-tempered scale consists of 
twelve equal intervals (semitones) within 
one octave. If the interval of the semitone 
be i, the successive tones of the chromatic 
scale would have the frequencies: i (c), 
i (c#), i2 (d), i^ (d#), etc., until (c'). 
Since, on the other hand, the octave has 



INTERVALS 


INTERVALS 


the frequency 2, we have the equation: 

== 2; hence i = ^2 = 1.05946. The 
successive powers of this figure gives the 
relative frequencies of the successive tones 
of the well-tempered scale (e.g., d would 
be 1.05946 X 1-0594^= 1*12246, etc.). In 
using logarithms, the intervals of the well- 
tempered scale are found much more 
simply as the multiples of log i = 0.0251 : 
c = 0 ; c# = 0.025 1 ; d = 0.0502 ; dJf = 0.0753 ; 
... c' = 12 X 0.0251 = 0.3010 ( = log 2). 
The only flaw in this scale is that the im- 
portant interval of the octave is represented 
by the rather cumbersome figure 0.3010. 
This defect, however, can easily be cor- 
rected by multiplying the scale with a 
convenient factor. Various such “enlarged 
logarithmic scales’* are in use; the most 
widely adopted one is that suggested by 
Ellis, in which the enlarging factor is 

so that the octave becomes exactly 

1200. The unit of this measurement is 
called each chromatic semitone 

equals 100 cents [see *Cents]. The for- 


mula for the conversion of interval ratios 

(i) into cents (c) is: c = X log i = 

3986 X log i. For nearly all purposes the 
factor 3986 can be replaced by 4000. E.g., 
the calculation of the fifth is as follows: 

F = 4000 X log = 0.1761 X 4000 = 

704.4 704 cents. If very accurate results 

are desired, the following correction 
should be made: Subtract from the result 
0, I, 2, 3, or 4, according to whether the 
interval lies next to c, eb, f#, a, or c'. 
Therefore, the accurate figure for F is 702 
cents. A similar calculation for T leads to 

T = log j X 4000 = 0.0969 X 4000 = 

387 cents, corrected to 386. With these 
figures for F and T, all the other intervals 
of *just intonation and of the *Pytha- 
gorean system can easily be calculated. 
For instance, the major seventh T -f F is: 
702 + 386= 1088. This result shows that 
the major seventh of just intonation is 12 
cents lower than that of equal tempera- 




P 


E 

j 

Semitone 

256 

243 

= 

90 

i = 100 

+ ii.(C-Db);^ = 92(C-at) 

Whole-tone 

9 

8 

= 

204 

i^ = 200 

1 = 204(C-D)+= i8a(D-E) 

Minor Third 

32 

27 

= 

294 

i^ = 300 

?= 316 

Major Third 

81 

"(54 

= 

408 

i^ = 400 

+ 386 

Fourth 

4 

3 


498 

II 

C/l 

0 

0 

II 

NO 

00 

Augm. Fourth 

729 

512 

= 

612 

11 

ON 

0 

0 

45 

590 

Dim. Fifth 

1024 

729 

■ = 

588 

II 

0 

-= 610 

Fifth 

3 

2 

= 

702 

0 

0 

II 

1= 702 

Minor Sixth 

128 

81 

= 

792 

0 

0 

00 

II 

1 = 814 

Major Sixth 

27 

16 

= 

906 

0 

0 

ON 

II 

1= 884 

Minor Seventh 

16 

T 

=r 

996 

1000 

996 (!>-<:); 1 = 1018 (E-D) 

Major Seventh 

243 

128 

= 

IIIO 

pi = 1100 

1088 (C-B); II- = 1108 (C-Cb) 

Octave 

2 

= 

1200 

ii^= 1200 

2 = 1200 


[362] 



INTIME 


INTROITUS 


ment, iioo. An extensive tabulation of 
intervals is given in RiML, 1857-64 (here 
our letter F is replaced by Q, i.e., Quinte). 
The figures of the second column (“Basis 
10’') are the ordinary logarithms of the 
ratios. They can easily be converted into 
cents by multiplication with 4000 (plus 
the above-mentioned correction). 

VI. Opposite is a tabulation of the 
most important intervals in relative fre- 
quencies and in cents. The letters E, J, 
and P indicate the tones of the systems of 
Equal Temperament (powers of i), of 
Just Intonation (factors 3, 5, and 2), and 
of Pythagoras (factors 3 and 2). For a 
graphic table see ^Temperament III. 

It must be understood that the systems 
P and J actually consist of an infinite num- 
ber of tones within one octave (P one- 
dimensional, J two-dimensional); only 
the simplest of these are given above. 

Unfortunately, the measurement based 
on cents is not the only one in use; various 
others are employed, all of them loga- 
rithmic, but differing in the number of 
units contained in the octave. Following 
is a survey of these other systems: 

*Savart (301 to the octave) = 1000 X 

log i ^ 7 cents (i savart = approxi- 
mately 4 cents) 

Millioctave (1000 to the octave) = 

log i = “ cents (i millioctave = -- 
cents) 

Centitone (600 to the octave) = X 

log i = 7 cents (i centitone = 2 cents) 

For instance, the well-tempered fifth is: 
700 cents = 175.6 savarts = 583.3 milli- 
octaves = 350 centitones. 

See ^Pythagorean scale; *Just intona- 
tion; *Temperament; *Comma. 

Intime [F.], Intimo[It.]. Intimate. 

Intonation, (i) In ensemble perform- 
ance, intonation denotes the singing or 
playing in tune, either as good or bad. — 


(2) In Gregorian chant, the same as *in- 
cipit (i). The opening notes of a psalm 
tone are more properly called initium or 
inceptio [cf. ARy 3*]. — (3) See *Just 
intonation. 

Intonazione. Sixteenth-century Italian 
name for a prelude, designed chiefly for 
liturgical use. The best-known examples 
are those contained in: Intonazioni d'or- 
gano di Andrea Gahrieliy et di Gio. suo 
nepotCy of 1593. They are usually ascribed 
to Giovanni Gabrieli [cf. ^Editions II, 3, 
p. 131], although stylistically they would 
rather seem to be in the idiom of his uncle 
Andrea, to whom they are actually ascribed 
in B. Schmidt's T abulaturbuch (1607). 
Cf. the correct ascription in EiBMy 35. 

Intrada, entrada [It., entrance]. Six- 
teenth/ 17th-century name for opening 
pieces of a festive or march-like character, 
written in full homophonic style [see 
*Entree]. A number of intradas for 5-6 
instruments (the earliest ones in exist- 
ence?) are contained in a publication by 
Alessandro Orologio, of 1593 [cf. GD iii, 
772]. Intradas in duple or triple meter 
figure prominently among the dance-types 
of the German orchestral suites of the early 
17th century, in which they usually, but 
not always, appear at the beginning [cf. 
the suites of M. Franck and V. Hauss- 
mann, in DdT 16; H. Schein, Banchetto 
tnusicale (1617), new ed. by Priifer, vol. I; 
EiBMy no. 26; SchGMBy nos. 153, 154, 
157; RiHM ii.2, 173I. Mozart (Bastien 
and Bastienne) and Beethoven {Battle of 
Vittoria) used the name for short over- 
tures. 

Intrepido [It.]. Bold. 

Introduction. A slow opening section, 
frequently found at the beginning of sym- 
phonies, quartets, sonatas, etc. An intro- 
duction of unusual elaboration and exten- 
sion is that of Beethoven’s Seventh Sym- 
phony, 

Introitus, introit. The initial chant 
of the (Proper of the) *Mass. It belongs 
to the antiphonal chants [see under ♦An- 
tiphon (3)] and is usually in a moderately 



INVENTION 

ornate style. For the form of the introit, 
see *Psalmody III. It was introduced by 
Pope Coclestine I (c, 400) as a chant ac- 
companying the entrance of the priest to 
the altar [cf. the Ambrosian analogue 
“•^ingressa] and consisted originally of an 
entire psalm sung antiphonally. The text, 
particularly that of its first section (anti- 
phon), frequently refers to the occasion, 
c.g., the Christmas introit Puer natus est 
nobis [cf. GRy 33]. Several Sundays de- 
rive their name from the initial word of 
their introit, e.g., Laetare Sunday (fourth 
Sunday in Lent) from the text: Laetare 
Jerusalem {GRy 127]. 

Invention. A term of rare occurrence, 
but known to every musician from Bach’s 
collection (1723) of 15 keyboard pieces in 
two parts, called “Inventiones,” and 15 
pieces in three parts, called “Sinfoniae.” 
The usual denomination, “two-part and 
three-part inventions,” is not authentic, 
but would seem to be justifiable on ac- 
count of the similarity of style in both 
groups. Bach’s reason for choosing his 
terms is entirely obscure. The word sin- 
fonia was, of course, widely used in his 
day, but for an entirely different type of 
music [see *Sinfonia]. The term inven- 
tion was used by Vitali as a title for pieces 
involving special tricks (“invention! curi- 
osc,” 1689; see ^Editions II, 7) and by 
Antonio F. Bonporti as a synonym for 
suites (partitas) in a publication. La Pace: 
“invenzioni o dieci partite a violino e 
continuo” (1714). Four of Bonporti’s 
“inventions” have been reprinted as works 
of Bach in vol. xlv, pp. 1 72-- 189 of the 
B.-G. [cf. V^. Wolffheim, in BJ, 1911; Ch. 
Bouvet, in RdMy 1918]. No less obscure 
than the origin of the name is the develop- 
ment leading to the type represented by 
Bach’s inventions and sinfonias which 
may be characterized best as “studies in 
double or triple counterpoint.” Possibly 
an investigation of the numerous 17th- 
century Italian publications of two-part 
“riccrcares” [sec *Ricercar II (d); in- 
ventio = translation of ricercare ? ] would 
throw light upon the question whether 
Bach “invented the inventions.” It may 
be noticed that the invention style is very 


INVERSION 

frequent in the preludes of Bach’s Wt. CL 
(e.g., vol. i, nos. 3, 9, ii, 13, 15, 18, 19, 20), 
and that it occurs also in the preludes of 
the first three partitas [see *Suite I]. 

Inventionshorn. Sec ♦Horn II. 

Inversion. The general meaning of the 
term is substitution of higher for lower 
tones and vice versa. There are two main 
types of inversion, harmonic inversion and 
melodic inversion. In harmonic inversion, 
a note is shifted to the lower (higher) po- 
sition by means of octave-transposition; 
this device is applied to the simultaneous 
tones of intervals, chords, or entire parts. 
In melodic inversion, a note above an op- 
tional level is made to appear beneath it 
in the same distance. This device is used 
chiefly for the successive tones of a melody 
(hence the name). 

(i) Harmonic Inversion, An interval 
is inverted by transferring its lower note 
into the higher octave, or its higher note 
into the lower octave. For instance, the 
inversion of d-a is a-d' or A-d. By inver- 
sion, a fifth changes into a fourth, a third 
into a sixth, etc. (the numbers indicated 
in the names of the two intervals will 
always add up to nine, e.g., 5 + 4 = 9; 
3 -)- 6 = 9). Both intervals together form 
an octave [see ♦Complement]. Major in- 
tervals become minor, augmented inter- 
vals become diminished, while a perfect 
interval produces another perfect interval. 
For verification, see the table given under 
♦Intervals in which inverted intervals can 
easily be found by looking out for two 
figures adding up to twelve, the number 
of semitones in the octave, e.g., aug- 
mented second and diminished seventh: 
3 + 9 = 12 [Ex. laj. — A chord (triad, 
etc.) is inverted by applying the principle 
just explained to its lowest tone, e.g., by 



changing g-b-d' into b-d'-g' [Ex. ib]. 
For more details sec ♦Harmonic analysis 


[364] 




INVERSION 


INVERTED MORDENT 


IV, — In counterpoint, the principle of 
harmonic inversion leads to an exchange 
of higher and lower parts by means of 
octave-transposition [Ex. ic]. For more 
details see ^Invertible counterpoint. — 
The term inverted pedal (-point) denotes 
the occurrence of a sustained note (pedal), 
not in the bass, but in a higher part [see 
*Pedalpoint]. 

(2) Melodic Inversion, A melody (sub- 
ject) is inverted by changing each ascend- 
ing interval into the corresponding de- 
scending interval, and vice versa. By this 
process, an ascending fifth c-g changes 
into a descending fifth c-F, the ascending 
progression c-d'-e' into the descending 
progression c-b-a. The result is a mirror- 
like exchange of upward and downward 
movements, comparable to the contours 
of a forest and its reflection in a lake [Ex. 
2, from Bach’s Wt. Cl. i]. Inversion is 


2 



said to be strict (or real) if the original 
and the inverted intervals agree exactly 
with regard to their semitonal distance. 
For instance, the strict inversion of c-d'-c' 
is c-bb~ab. Since this procedure destroys 
the tonality, it is practically never used, 
except in Schonberg’s *twelve-tone system 
in which tonality has no place. Normally, 
inversion is “tonal,” i.e., it utilizes the 
degrees of the scale of the key. Inversion 
plays an important part in fugal writing 
[see *Counter-fugue], in the *gigues, and 



in the development sections of sonatas 
and symphonies [Ex. 3, Bruckner, Sym- 
phony no. 7]. 


Inverted mordent. See *Schnellcr. 

Invertible counterpoint. Counter- 
point, i.e., a passage in contrapuntal tex- 
ture, is called invertible if it is so designed 
that, by means of transposition — usually 
of an octave — the lower part may become 
the higher part, or the higher the lower 
[Ex. i]. This is an application of the 



principle of harmonic inversion [see *In- 
version (i)]. The method, if applied to 
two parts, is called double counterpoint; 
if applied to three (four) parts, triple 
(quadruple) counterpoint. 

Although instances of double counter- 
point occur in 13th-century music [cf. 
Y. Rokseth, “Le contrepoint double vers 
1248” in ^Editions XXIV, B, 3/4], it was 
not until the mid-i6th century that it be- 
came adopted as a standard technique of 
contrapuntal style. Ex. 2 (Beethoven, op. 
10, no. 3) illustrates its use in more recent 
composition. 

In the 1 6th and 17th centuries double 
counterpoint was occasionally treated in 
a more elaborate manner, involving trans- 
position at intervals other than the octave. 


1 -..arimmmmi 


* - Yff 

Ifl 1 1 i 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 






For instance, in double counterpoint of 
the fifth (tenth, twelfth), one part is 
transposed to the higher fifth (tenth, 


[365] 


INVITATORIUM 


IRISH MUSIC 


twelfth), whereas the other appears at the 
same pitch or merely in octave-transposi- 
tion, Several examples of this technique 
occur in Scheidt’s Tabulatura nova of 
1624 [Ex. 3, '‘Bicinium duplici contra- 
puncti”; cf. DdT i, 130]. Particularly re- 
markable is its application in Bach’s Fiinf 
canonische Veranderungen uber **Voin 
Himmel hoch da \omm ich her” [Ex. 4] . 
Other examples occur among the canons 
of his *Art of Fugue, This technique is 
in general somewhat less “labored” than 
it is frequently thought to be. A com- 
parison of the various intervals (unison, 
second, third, . . .) with their equiva- 
lents in, c.g., double counterpoint of the 
fifths (fifth, sixth, seventh, . . .) easily 
shows which intervals will make good 
consonances in the original as well as in 
the inverted position. These intervals, 
therefore, must be taken as the basis for 
the devising of the parts. Extensive stud- 
ies of these and other devices of a still 
more learned character (usually combina- 
tions of the double counterpoint with 
canonic treatment) are to be found in 
most of the books on counterpoint [cf. 
also the article in GD ii, 722] . 

The term invertible counterpoint is oc- 
casionally applied to the melodic inversion 
of a subject, etc. [see ^Inversion (2)]. 
Such a usage is unfortunate not only from 
the point of view of clearer terminology, 
but chiefly because melodic inversion, al- 
though frequently to be found in contra- 
puntal writing, does not in any way in- 
volve counterpoint, since it applies essen- 
tially to a single melody. For the ex- 
change of parts without any transposition, 
see *Stimmtausch. 

Invitatorium. In the Roman Catholic 
rites, the first psalm of *Matins, “Venite 
exsultemus Domino” (Ps. 94; Ps. 95 of the 
King James Version: “O come let us sing 
unto the Lord”). It is remarkable as one 
of the few remaining examples of the 
original method of antiphonal psalmody 
[see *Psalmody III], the antiphon being 
sung not only at the beginning and the 
end, as usual, but also between each pair 
of verses. It is sung with va^ing anti- 
phons throughout the year. Being a chant 


of Matins, it is not included in the usual 
Antiphonarium, except for the invitatori- 
um of Requiem Mass (AR, [152]). The 
Liber usualis, however, has the invitatoria 
for Christmas, Easter, Whitsuntide, Cor- 
pus Christi, and Requiem Mass [LU, 368, 
765, 863, 918, 1779]. The invitatorium 
was taken over, minus the antiphon, into 
the Anglican chant where it forms, under 
the name Invitatory {Psalm), a part of 
the Morning Prayer; see ^Service. 

Ionian. See ^Church modes; *Greek 
music II (c). 

Iratamente [It.]. Irate, angry. 

Irish music. The history of Irish music 
is interesting chiefly for its contribution 
to folk song and for its role in early medi- 
eval music. Irish monks were among the 
first propagators of Gregorian chant and 
founded in the 9th century the monastery 
of St. Gall in Switzerland which later 
became the leading center of plainsong in 
Germany. In the 9th century Johannes 
Scotus Erigena {c. 815-877) wrote his 
De Divisione Naturae which contains in- 
teresting remarks about music [cf. J. 
Handschin, in ZMW ix]. In the 12th 
century Giraldus Cambrensis repeatedly 
points out the achievements of Irish in- 
strumentalists and their influence on Scot- 
tish and Welsh music [cf. ReMMA, 392] . 
The oldest pictorial evidences of Irish in- 
struments (lyres? harps?; see *Harp III) 
are reliefs on stone crosses of the 8th and 
9th centuries. Ever since, the harp has 
been considered the national instrument, 
the heraldic symbol of Ireland. Various 
claims to precedence and eminence of 
early Irish music, such as have been ad- 
vanced by G. Flood and others, are not 
substantiated [see *Bards]. Prominent 
Irish composers are Th. Roseingrave 
(1690-1766), John Field (1782-1837), 
Michael W. Balfe (1808-70), composer 
of the opera T he Bohemian Girl, Charles 
V. Stanford (1852-1924), Hamilton 
Harty (b. 1879), Arnold E. T. Bax (b. 
1883, partly Irish). 

Lit.: W. H. G. Flood, A History of 
Irish Music (1905; not always trust- 
worthy) ; R. Henebry, Handboo\ of Irish 



ISOMETRIC 

Music (1928); Ch. M. Fox, Annals of the 
Irish Harpers (1911); H. Hughes, f/mA 
Country Songs; id., "^Historical Songs and 
Ballads of Ireland; A. W. Patterson, “The 
Folkmusic of Ireland” {MQ vi); W. L. 
Lawrence, “Early Irish Ballad Opera . . 
{MQ viii); J. Travis, “Irish National Mu- 
sic” {MQ xxiv); F. Lacy, in PM A xvi; 
A. W. Patterson, in PMA xxiii; J. S. 
Rumpus, “Irish Church Composers . . 
{PMA xxvi); W. H. G. Flood, “Irish Mu- 
sical Bibliography . . {SIM xiii; also 
KIM, 1911, p. 359). 

Isometric. The term is usually applied 
to compositions in which all the voices 
proceed approximately in the same 
rhythmic pattern, e.g., as synonymous 
with strict chordal style (^familiar style). 
See *Polymetric. 

Isorhythmic [Gr., same rhythm]. A 
term introduced by F. Ludwig [SIM, 
1902] to denote a constructive principle 
frequently used in the motets of the 14th 
century, particularly in their tenors. Its 
main feature is the employment of a re- 
iterated scheme of time-values for the 
presentation of a liturgical cantus firmus. 
The tenor of G. de Machaut’s motet He 
Mors — Fine Amour — Quare non sum 
mortuus [cf. OH ii, 28; WoGM ii, iii, no. 
14; F. Ludwig, Guillaume de Machaut, 
Musi\alische Wer\e iii, 9] may serve as 
an example [Ex. i ] . The repeated scheme 



of time-values which is used in the sec- 
tions A, B, C and (half of it) in D, is 
called talea in 14th-century treatises. Be- 
ginning with a, the entire liturgical mel- 
ody, the so-called color, is repeated in 
halved values (diminution), — a proce- 
dure which is usual with Machaut [cf. 
HAM, no. 44.] 


ISORHYTHMIC 

The isorhythmic principle, although 
usually thought of as a characteristic fea- 
ture of the *Ars nova, is the logical de- 
velopment of the modal rhythm of the 
13th century. Modal patterns such as: 

[cf. SchGMB, no. 12] differ from the 
taleae of the 14th century only in length. 
Particularly interesting are examples in 
which the number of notes in color and 
talea (i.e., in the melodic and in the 
rhythmic pattern) are not in proportion, 
thus leading to the repetition of the mel- 
ody (cantus firmus) in different rhythmic 
patterns. The tenor of an Alleluia by Pero- 
tinus [cf. ReMMA, 301] serves as an il- 
lustration [Ex. 2]. Since here the color 



(a, A y> • • •) includes nine notes and the 
talea (A, B, C, . . .) five, the color would 
have to be repeated five times until both 
schemes would come to a simultaneous 
close. Actually, Perotinus stops after the 
fourth color, thus leaving the last talea 
incomplete. 

In the 14th century the isorhythmic 
principle was not only the chief method 
for the rhythmic organization of the ten- 
ors, but was also applied — more freely — 
to the upper parts [for an example by 
Philippe de Vitry cf. ReMMA, 338]. 
Later composers, however, used it so 
rigidly that the motet falls into a number 
of “melody-variations” of the same rhyth- 
mic skeleton (Dunstable, Dufay, and vari- 
ous other composers of the Trent Codices, 
the Old Hall MS, etc.; cf. Dunstable’s 
hymn “Veni creator,” in RiMB, no. 7). 
Around 1400 one finds numerous exam- 
ples in which the isorhythmic principle is 
applied to the upper parts only, the tenor 
being free [cf. Ch. v. d. Borren, Po/y- 
phonia sacra ( 1932), no. 25] . 




ISRAEL IN EGYPT ITALIAN MUSIC 


Israel in Egypt. Oratorio by G. F. 
Handel, composed in 1738. See ^Oratorio 
III. 

Istar Variations. See * Variations IV 
(d). 

Istesso tempo [It.] indicates that, 
though the meter changes, the duration 
of the beat remains unaltered. For in- 
stance, if there is a change from % to %, 
it means J = J.; if the time changes from 
% to 54 , it means J = J. The situation is, 
of course, different if the tempo is so 
quick that the half note becomes the beat. 
In this case, a change from % % would 

have to be interpreted according to the 
equation J = J.; in any case, equations be- 
tween note values are a much more secure 
indication than the somewhat ambiguous 
term istesso tempo. 

Istituzioni e Monumenti delT Arte 
Musicale Italiana. See ^Editions, His- 
torical, XIV. 

Italian Concerto. A composition for 
harpsichord by Bach, so called because it 
is written in the form and style of the 
instrumental concerti of the early i8th 
century Italian school (Vivaldi); see 
♦Concerto III (b). 

Italian music. I. Among the leading 
musical nations Italy has the distinction 
of being that with the longest recorded 
history and, considered as a whole, with 
the most influential position. Foremost 
among the musical contributions of Italy 
is the development of Christian chant, 
which took place in Rome {cantus ro- 
manusy Roman chant) and which is usu- 
ally referred to as ♦Gregorian chant, in 
recognition of the role which Pope Greg- 
ory I (590-604) played in its final codifi- 
cation. Even 200 years before Gregory, 
St. Ambrose (333--397) had established a 
rite which is used today only in Milan 
(♦Ambrosian chant, Milanese chant), 
while his hymns [see ♦Ambrosian hymns] 
were incorporated into the Roman reper- 
tory. The contributions of Italy to the 
post-Gregorian development of the ♦se- 
quences and ♦tropes seem to have been 
restricted to their latest period, the 13th 


century, when Thomas a Celano wrote 
the Dies irae, Thomas Aquino the Veni 
sancte spiritus, and Jacopone the Stabat 
mater [see ♦Sequence (2)]. Guido of 
Arezzo (<r. 980-1050) not only made (or 
established) the epochal invention of the 
♦staff, but also discussed, in his Micro- 
logus, the primitive polyphony of his day 
[see ♦Organum II], as did also the anony- 
mous author of the important Milanese 
treatise Ad organum faciendum (c. 1100). 
Nonetheless, until the end of the 13th 
century, the development of polyphonic 
remained the privilege of France [sec 
♦French music II], and Italy’s contribu- 
tion to the music of the ♦Ars antiqua re- 
mained restricted to monophonic religious 
songs, the ♦laude. The 14th century sees 
the first flowering of Italian polyphonic 
music in the ♦caccie and ♦madrigals of 
Giovanni da Cascia (or de Florentia) and 
Jacopo da Bologna (fl. c, 1350), leading to 
one of the outstanding peaks of musical 
art in the blind Francesco Landini (1325- 
97), whose ♦ballatas owe their artistic 
perfection to an amalgamation of French 
polyphony with Italian melody [see ♦Ars 
Nova], Other composers of the Landini 
period are Laurentius de Florentia and 
Paolo tenorista. The trends of Italian 
music around and after 1400 have not 
been wholly clarified. Composers, such 
as Matheus de Perusio, Antonellus and 
Filipoctus de Caserta, Bartolomeo de Bo- 
nonia, Nicolaus Zacharias, wrote mainly 
secular pieces of French derivation (bal- 
lades, virelais, rondeaux, frequently with 
French texts) in a highly complex, even 
mannered, style [cf. ApNPM, 403ff]- 
Giovanni Ciconia, who appears as the 
central figure of this period, cultivated 
sacred music (motets, mass items) in a 
more dignified and “festive” style, similar 
to that of Dunstable, as did also his 
younger contemporary Antonius Roma- 
nus [cf. SchGMBy nos. 29, 30; for addi- 
tional examples, cf. WoGM ii, iii, nos. 
3off]. Important theorists are Marchettus 
de Padua {Pomerium^ c. 1325; not 1274, 
cf. ApNPM, 368ff), Theodoricus de Cam- 
po (c. 1350), and Prosdocimus de Belde- 
mandis (r. 1400). 

II. Renaissance, During the 15th cen- 


[368] 



ITALIAN MUSIC 


ITALIAN MUSIC 

tury Italian music fell into an almost com- mental music (♦sonata, *concerto grosso; 

plete eclipse, at least as far as our knowl- Rossi, Marini, Legrenzi, Buonamcnte, 

edge goes. Northern composers, however, Vitali, Vivaldi, Corelli, Tartini, Veracini; 

such as the Burgundian Dufay and the see also *Bologna School) and of organ 

Flemish Obrecht Isaac, Josquin, traveled music (Trabaci, May one [sec ♦Neapolitan 

to the south, and features of harmony or School], Frescobaldi, Michelangelo Rossi, 

balance found in their works have fre- Pasquini, Zipoli, Domenico Scarlatti), 

quently, though with doubtful authen- Around 1750, when Italian vocal music 

ticity, been ascribed to the “Sun of Italy.” declined in an overgrowth of empty virtu- 

While art music declined, folk song seems osity, composers such as Sammartini, 

to have flourished [see ♦Villota], and it is Locatelli and Piatti worked towards the 

from this sphere that, towards the end of conquest of a new style in instrumental 

the 15th century, Italian music came to music, simultaneously with the ♦Mann- 

new life, in the ♦frottola (Marco Cara, heim School of Germany. The leadership, 

Tromboncino) and in the ♦canti carna- however, soon fell to Germany, and Italian 

scialeschi. Once more, Flemish masters music remained in the hands of academics 

took the lead in raising these unpreten- such as Padre Martini or cheap entertain- 

tious songs to the high standard of the ers such as Paradisi, Rutini, Paganelli 

♦madrigal, but after 1550 we find Italian [see ♦Rococo; ♦Gallant style]. A resume 

composers, such as Costanzo Festa, An- of Italian Baroque music would be in- 

drea Gabrieli, Luca Marenzio, Gesualdo, complete without mentioning such out- 

in successful competition with the oltra- standing achievements in the field of mu- 

montani. In the field of sacred music sical reproduction as the ♦bel canto [see 

(♦motet, ♦mass) Rome became the central also ♦castrati] and the building of violins 

place through Palestrina (1525-94) and [see ♦Violin] . 

his numerous successors [see ♦Roman IV. Opera jy 6 o-Present. Around 1760 
School], while in Venice Giovanni Ga- the leadership in the field of instrumental 
brieli (1557-1612), by uniting masses of music passed from Italy to Germany and 
choral and instrumental sounds, achieved for about 100 years Italian composers de- 
an unparalleled peak of pomp and splen- voted their exclusive interest to the opera, 
dor [see ♦Venetian School]. Hardly less Instead of building up a national opera, 

consequential were the contributions of however, most of them were attracted by 

16th-century Italian organ composers the operatic centers outside of Italy, main- 

(Cavazzoni; Andrea Gabrieli; Claudio ly Paris. It was in Paris that Niccola Pic- 

Merulo), who created the ♦ricercare, the cinni (1728-1800) became a dangerous 
♦canzona, and the ♦toccata. rival of Gluck and that Antonio Sacchini 

III. The epochal events which, (1734-86) competed with Piccinni. An- 

around 1600, led to the inauguration of a tonio Salieri, the teacher of Beethoven and 

new era of music history, the Baroque, arc Schubert, worked in Vienna and Paris, 
too well known to be repeated here. Suf- and Maria Luigi Cherubini (1760-1842) 

fice it to mention terms such as ♦camerata, became the central figure of French music 

♦Nuovc musiche, ♦monody, ♦thorough- during the Napoleonic era, while Gasparo 

bass (basso continuo), ♦opera, ♦oratorio, Spontini (1774-1851) played a similar 
♦cantata, — all of which arc exclusively role at the court of Berlin. Gioachino 
Italian affairs — and names such as Cac- Rossini (1792-1868) was the first to write 

cini. Peri, Cavalieri and, above all, Monte- again a great Italian opera in his Barbiere 

verdi. To the numerous masters of the di Siviglia (1816). His Guillaume Tell 

vocal forms (opera: Monteverdi, Cesti, (1829), written for Paris, marks the bc- 

Cavalli, Al. Scarlatti, Pcrgolese; oratorio: ginning of the “grand op6ra” which was 
Cavalieri, Carissimi, Caldara; cantata: continued by Gaettano Donizetti (1797- 
Grandi, Carissimi, Stradella, Al. Scarlatti, 1848) and Vincenzo Bellini (1801-35), 
Leonardo Leo, Jommelli) must be added whose early death terminated an artistic 
others who worked in the field of instru- activity of great promise. 

[369 ] 



JACK 

In marked contrast to the above-men- 
tioned stands Giuseppe Verdi (1813- 
1901), vi^ho devoted his long life to the 
establishment of a national opera. From 
the early Nabucco (1842) to the late 
masterworks Otello (1886) and Falstaff 
(1893) style shows a steady progress 
to great artistic heights, a progress which 
is all the more remarkable since he suc- 
ceeded in escaping the all-pervading in- 
fluence of Wagner. He was followed by 
three composers each of whom wrote only 
one successful opera: Arrigo Boito (1842- 
1918; Mefistofele, 1868), Pietro Mascagni 
(b. 1863; Cavalleria Rusticana, 1890), 
and Ruggiero Leoncavallo (1858-1924; 
I Pagliacci, 1892), the last two being 
known as the founders of the *Verismo. 
Italian opera took on a more lyrical and 
slightly sentimental tinge with Giacomo 
Puccini’s (1858-1924) world successes 
La Boheme (1896) and Madame Butter- 
fly (1904). Among the more recent oper- 
atic composers Italo Montemezzi (b. 
1875; L' A more dei tre Re, 1913) and 
Ildebrando Pizzetti (b. 1880; Debora e 
Jaele, 1921) are outstanding. 

V. Modern Instrumental Music. It was 
not until the late l[9th century that a re- 
newed activity in instrumental music 
started in Italy. Giovanni Sgambati 
(1841-1914) wrote symphonies and 
chamber music in the style of Brahms, as 
did also Giuseppe Martucci (1856-1909). 
Neither these, however, nor their suc- 
cessors, such as Enrico Bossi (1861-1925) 
or Leone Sinigaglia (b. 1868), succeeded 
in breaking the all-powerful position of 
the opera, and not until 1910 did tenden- 
cies towards a more universal and cosmo- 
politan attitude become noticeable. The 
radicalism of the *Futurists remained a 


JALOUSIESCHWELLER 

purely theoretical affair, but opened the 
door for really constructive work done by 
composers such as Ottorino Respighi 
(1879-1936; see ^Symphonic poem), 
Francesco Malipiero (b. 1882), Alfredo 
Casella (b. 1883). While Respighi in his 
symphonic poems builds on the tradition 
of the late Romanticism, the other two, 
together with several younger composers, 
represent an essentially modern *neo- 
classicism. 

Lit.: R. A. Streatfield, Masters of Italian 
Music (1895); LavE i.2, 611-910; ii.i, 
14611 {modern)-, AdHM ii, loSyff {mod- 
ern ). — Middle Ages and Renaissance: 
ReMMA, 360]! (bibl. p. 458!!; see also list 
of records, p. 476f ) ; W. Korte, Studie zur 
Geschichte der Musi\ in Italien im i. 
Viertel des 15. fahrhunderts (1933); E. 
Dent, Music of the Renaissance in Italy 
(1934); see also *Laude; *Ars nova; ’••'f rot- 
tola; ♦madrigal; ♦Editions XIV. — Ba- 
roque: L. Torchi, La Musica instrumen- 
tale italiana nei secoli XVl-XVUl (1901; 
also in RMl, 1897-1901); F. Torrefranca, 
Le Origini italiane del Romanticismo mu- 
sicale (1930); ♦Editions II. 

Italian overture. See ♦Overture 1 . 

Italian sixth. See ♦Sixth-chord. 

Italian Symphony. Mendelssohn’s 
Fourth Symphony, in A (1831), so called 
because of the Italian character of the 
themes (the last movement is a ♦taran- 
tella). 

Ite, missa est, Deo gratias [L., “Go, 
the congregation is dismissed; thanks 
to the Lord”] . The concluding salutation 
at ♦Mass. It forms a part of the Ordinary 
[cf. GR, 7^, 18*, etc.]. The word Mass 
[L. missa] is derived from this sentence. 


J 


Jack. Sec ♦Harpsichord I, Jaleo. A Spanish solo-dance in moderate 

triple time, accompanied by castanets, 

Jagd- [G., hunt]. Jagdhorn, hunting 

horn; Jagdquartett, Jagdsymphony, see Jalousieschweller [G.]. ♦Venetian 
La *Chassc. swell. 

[370] 



JAM SESSION 


JAPANESE MUSIC 


Jam session. See *Jazz IV. 

Janizary music fG. Janitscharenmu- 
Music of the Janizary, the military 
bodyguard of the Turkish sovereigns (c. 
1400-1826) or pieces written in imitation 
thereof. The characteristic instruments 
of the Janizary were big drums, cymbals, 
triangles, and the Turkish ^crescent. 
Around 1800, this type of music was ex- 
tremely popular in Europe [see ^Military 
band]. Mozart imitated it in his Abduc- 
tion from the Seraglio and in the Ttir- 
\ischer Marsch of his Pianoforte Sonata in 
A (K.V. 331); Beethoven, in his Ruins of 
Athens (cf. also his Variations op. 76) 
and, most effectively, in the finale of his 
Ninth Symphony (tenor-solo: Froh wie 
Deine Sonnen fliegen). The harpsichords 
and pianofortes of the late i8th century 
were frequently provided with the fani- 
tscharenzug (Janizary stop) which pro- 
duced a rattling noise. Cf. N. Bessaraboff, 
Ancient European Musical Instruments 
(1941), pp. 2off; P. Panoff, “Das musika- 
lischc Erbe der Janitscharen” {Atlantis x). 

Janko keyboard. See ^Keyboard III. 
Cf. R. Hausmann, in ZIM v. 

Japanese music. Japan owes its music, 
as its culture in general, to the Chinese. 
Not only, however, have the Japanese 
actively developed this heritage, but they 
have also preserved many elements of 
older Chinese music which have been lost 
in its home country. 

I. Types of Music. The music of the 
Japanese can be divided into two main 
categories which correspond to the sacred 
and secular fields of Western music. In 
the former category we find: (a) Gaga\u. 
This is the ancient Chinese temple music 
which was introduced into Japan around 
A.D. 600 and which marks the beginning 
of Japanese musical history. It is orches- 
tral music, performed by small shawms 
{hichiri\i)y flutes {sha\uhachi) , mouth- 
organs (sho), lutes {biwa)y drums, and 
gongs. — (b) Ka(n)gura. This is the 
indigenous Japanese temple (Shinto) mu- 
sic which is used today for the most solemn 
worship. It originated in the 13th century 
(Heian period) when Japan became con- 


scious of its aboriginal culture, and may 
well contain elements of a tradition prior 
to the Chinese influence. Today it is 
played on the hpto and flutes. It is a reci- 
tative confined to a few tones [Ex. i ] . To 



the same category belong the Saihara 
songs, autochthonous songs used at the 
Emperor’s court and executed by a soloist, 
a small group of singers, together with 
shoy hichiri1{iy and fuye (flute). — (c) 
Halfway between sacred and secular is 
Noga\uy or No. This is a musical play 
which may be compared to the ^liturgical 
drama of the Middle Ages with which it 
was coincidental in rise {c, 1000-1200). 
The performance of the No is strictly 
traditional, restrained, ceremonial, with 
idealized action and typified characters 
(the warrior, etc.). The music is a very 
ancient type of recitation (said to be of 
Buddhistic origin), moving in small in- 
tervals of somewhat uncertain intonation, 
including numerous Oriental ornamenta- 
tions (portamento, tremolo, vibrato), 
dramatic and emotional, and quickly 
varying in speed and mood [Ex. 2]. The 
singer is sometimes accompanied by flutes 
and small drums [cf. Lachmann, p. 107]. 

The secular music as it exists today 
originated in the i6th to the i8th century 
(Edo period). It is fresh and lively, 
strongly rhythmical, and is played chiefly 
on the samisen and the \oto [sec V]. It 
includes operatic music, instrumental 
chamber music, and vocal music. Within 
the field of operatic music {Katarimono) 
the Japanese distinguish between a great 
number of types, according to subject- 


[371] 



JAPANESE MUSIC 

matter, social standards, etc. For instance, 
Ithyu bust is an aristocratic type which, in 
a way, may be compared (socially) to the 
French opera of Lully; whereas Gidayu 
is “music for the merchant,” i.c., a popular 
opera or operetta, rather noisy and full of 
cheap effects. The chamber music (fre- 
quently instrumental and vocal combined) 
is the most interesting field of Japanese 
music. A favored form, which dates back 
to the 1 8th century, is the ]iuta. It con- 
sists of an opening song (S), an instru- 
mental piece (I), and a final song (S). 
Sometimes the scheme is broadened to a 
rondo-like arrangement: S I S I S. An- 
other form of special interest is the Dan- 
mono. These arc melodic variations on a 
theme of 7 or 8 measures, for the koto 
alone [cf. the example in GD ii, 76] . An- 
other type of 18th-century chamber music 
is the SanXyoXu^ performed on the sami- 
sen, koto, and shakuhachi. Kumi are 
pieces for voice and koto. 

II. Scales. The most frequent scale of 
Japanese music is a semitonic penta-scale 
[see ^Pentatonic] : c db f g bb c' (descend- 
ing: c' ab g f db c), called zo}{uga\u- 
sempS. It exists in three modes: hirajoshiy 
\umoiy and iwato. Older scales of Chinese 
origin and of rarer occurrence (chiefly 
used in sacred music) arc: c d f g a c' 
{ritsusen) and c d e g a c' {ryosen). (It 
must be noted that the information on 
the Japanese scales, as found in different 
sources, is extremely varied; the above 
details are therefore given with reserva- 
tion.) All these scales have the absolute 
pitch of the ^Chinese huang chung (c = 
f). Tritone progressions such as f-g-h-c 
arc frequent in popular music. 

III. Rhythm. Japanese music, like Chi- 
nese, is practically always in duple time. 
However, the phrases are frequently of 
irregular length (five or seven measures), 
in contrast to the more strictly “regular” 
scheme of Chinese music. The rhythms 
provided by the drums are in those pe- 
culiar arrangements also found in Hindu, 
Javanese, Arabic music wihich, for the 
European car, obscure the fundamental 
time and beat, c.g.: 4 1 / / J- J- 1 

IV. Counterpoint^ Harmony, Although 
Japanese music, as all Oriental music, is 


JAPANESE MUSIC 

essentially monophonic, it frequently 
includes certain “polyphonic” (*hctero- 
phonic) elements. The rhythm of the 
drums is markedly independent from — 
in fact, operating against — that of the 
singers or players of melodic instruments. 
The music for voice and koto shows 


*heterophonic treatment, frequently with 

a peculiar technique of anticipation, the 

- d SoT)g 

“r"T r‘ ■ 


A Koto 

11 

_zJ ki- 

If 

i —1 

^r-f- 



koto playing the chief notes of the vocal 
melody just one eighth-note before it ap- 
pears in the voice or vice versa [cf. Lach- 
mann, pp. 75, 115]. See Ex. 3. On the 
koto, “harmonies” such as g— d, g-db, 
g-b-c', etc., are used sparingly. 

V. Instruments, The most important 
instrument of Japanese art-music is the 
l{pto^ the Japanese variety of the Chinese 
*ch!in. Other instruments directly taken 
over from China are the sho (Chinese 
*sheng), the biwa (Chinese *pip’a). More 
strictly indigenous instruments are the 
samisen^ a guitar used by street singers 
and geishas [see *Guitar family]; the 
hichirihi, an oboe (not a flute) with a 
characteristic metal disk encircling the 
mouthpiece; the kpkyu, similar in shape 
to the samisen, but bowed; and the sha\u- 
hachi, a long flute of ancient origin which 
calls for an especially difficult technique of 
blowing [cf. SaHMI, 213] . 

Lit.: F. T. Piggott, The Music of the 
Japanese (2d ed. 1909); D. Arima, Japa- 
nische Musi\geschichte auf Grund der 
Quellen]{unde (Diss. Vienna 1933); Hisao 
Tanabe, Japanische Musi^ (i93^)i R* 
Lachmann, Musil{^ des Orients (1929); 
Ch. Leroux, La Musique classique japo- 
naise (1911); N. Peri, Essai sur les gam- 
mes japonaises (1935); LavE i.i, 242; 
F. T. Piggott, in PM A xviii; H. Werck- 
meister, in Mp xiii; O. Abraham and 
E. V. Hornbostel, in SIM iv (14 pp. of 
music); K. Takano, in AMF ii (bibl.); 
R. Lachmann, “Musik und Tonschrift des 
No” (Kongressbericht der Deutschen 


[373] 



JARABE 

Musi^gesellschaft, 1926); K. Takano, in 
LRM xii. — Collection of Japanese Koto 
Music (from Sh. Isawa, Extracts from the 
Report , ..on Music . . ., 1884) ; Sh. Isawa, 
'f Collection of Koto Music (Tokyo, 1888 
and 1913); '\Den\maler der Japanischen 
Ton\unst, ed. by Kanetune-Kiyoske and 
Syioti Tudi (Tokyo, 19301!; cf. Horn- 
hostel, in ZMW xiv, 235); Tokyo Ongaku 
Gakko (Tokyo Music School), Sokyo- 
\ushti (Songs accompanied by the So), 
2 vols. (1914), 

Jarabe. A 19th-century Mexican dance 
derived from the Spanish zapateado (shoe- 
tapping). The music is similar to the 
mazurka, and the dancing imitates a 
lover pursuing an evasive girl. 

Javanese music. I. Orchestra. Javanese 
music is particularly noteworthy for its 
highly developed orchestral art which is 
cultivated at the various provincial courts 
and villages as a musical background for 
festivities and dances. The Javanese or- 
chestra, called gamelan{g) ^ includes chief- 
ly various types of chimes, made from 
wood {gambang, a. xylophone); from 
bronze slabs {gender^ saron^ demoeng)\ 
from bamboo pipes of different lengths 
{angJ{lung)\ from metal disks, or vases 
(honang\ set of gongs); etc. While these, 
together with a two-stringed violin (r^- 
bab^ played by the conductor, a psaltery 
{tjempelung)y and flutes {soeHng)y rep- 
resent the “melody-section” of the Java- 
nese orchestra, single gongs and drums 
supply the punctuating percussion. The 
musical texture of the orchestral pieces is 
a *heterophonic web of great rhythmical 
variety. All the instruments follow one 
and the same melodic line in various de- 
grees of rhythmic animation and melodic 
elaboration [see Ex.]. This music prob- 
ably came from China [see ^Chinese mu- 
sic I], but developed in Java into a flam- 
boyant style of its own. 

II. Scales. The scales of Javanese music 


JAVANESE MUSIC 

are of particular interest because they in- 
clude intervals which differ more radically 
from those of our scale than the intervals 
of Chinese, Japanese, and Hindu music. 
The tones frequently lie just between our 
chromatic tones, thus approximating 
quarter-tones. Two different tone systems 
(wrongly called “modes”) are distin- 
guished, namely slendro and pelog. Each 


Rabab (violin) 


JL j - j — J "~J — J - j:— 


^Gambanq(xylopbone) ^ ^ ^ 


Gender (matollophone) 

-A J J - J . . » f- J— 

m 




•3 • 1 1 [ 1 • 

^ Saron(mc^allophone) , , 


f J 

J- 1 "3 -J 1 rrj 


^ V w 

Damoenq( bass Saroft) _ 1 



p: 4 




k 

\ Bonnanq I.ll.llltqon 

r r r r r ' 

5 chimes) 

r 

( — --zf... 

■: f « -y — 


: 1 ^ I 

Tielempoenq (psaltery) _ 

-0 — 





tf-* d ■* 

Kendanq (drums) 

^ . J ^ 

J , ^ J. 


Gonq ^ 

r " 

♦ _ _ ^ 

r 

1 ■" - ^ f 



of these is said to exist in three modes, 
which, however, are not clearly character- 
ized. The Javanese describe slendro as 
consisting of wide intervals, pelog of 
narrow steps. In fact, slendro is a penta- 
tonic scale consisting of five nearly equal 
intervals of 240 cents (a whole-tone plus 
a quarter-tone) each, as shown in the ac- 
companying drawing. Pelog is more 


0 240 480 720 9^0 1200 

I — I — ^-1 — » — I — — I — J — I — I — 1—1 — I — I 

0 too 200 300 400 SoO 600 700 SOO 900 1000 1100 1200 

CC#])J)# E FF#GG#AA#3 C 

[373] 



JAVANESE MUSIC 

difficult of explanation, since there is a 
considerable variation in different instru- 
ments. Hornbostel’s theory, according to 
which it originated as a succession of 
^Blasquintetiy has been questioned by re- 
cent scholars (M. F. Bukofzer, C. Sachs) 
who interpret it as consisting of two con- 
junct tetrachords each of which is divided 
(approximately) into a semitone and a 
major third, similar to the chromatic 
genus of ancient Greek music, as follows 
(descending): 

/■ * '» 
c' c' b 

b g fit e 

V ) 

The two thirds are filled in by two addi- 
tional tones thus leading to a seven-tone 
scale from which, however, selections of 
five tones are made for practical purposes. 
Following is an example of the actual 
pitches of a pelog instrument (read de- 
scending) ; 

12345678 

c f+ g (a+) b c (d-) e 
no 150 255 140 115 190 240 

According to Bukofzer, the slendro system 
originated in the 8th century A.D., when 
invading Buddhists selected from the 
older pelog scale the tones i, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8. 
The result is a scale of almost equidistant 
pentatones, such as occur in slendro. The 
corresponding tones in pelog and slendro 
could be shown to be of the same pitch. 

Pieces in slendro partake of the static 
character of Chinese music [cf. Lach- 
mann, Musi\ des Orients^ Beispiel 6, 7 
(pp. Ill, 113); LavE i.5, 3156], while 
pieces in pelog show more conjunct, even 
chromatic, motion, use quicker rhythms 
and ornamental figures, and are more 
dynamic and expressive [cf. Lachmann, 
ihid,^ Beispiel 8 (p. 113); /W., “Ausser- 
Europaische Musik,” p. 21]. Pelog prob- 
ably represents an autochthonous musical 
style. 

Lit,: J. Kunst, De Toon\unst van Java 
(1934); id,y De Toonkunst van Bali 
(1925); id,y Hindoe^javaansche Muzieh^ 
instrumenten (1927); R. Lachmann, 
Musi\ des Orients (1929); id,y “Ausser- 
Europaischc Musik” (in BuHM)\ LavE 
i.5, 3i47ff; MePhee, in BAMS vi; C. 


JAZZ 

Stumpf, “Tonsystem und Musik der Sia- 
mesen” {Sammelbdnde fur vergleichende 
Musil{wiss€nschajt i, 1922); E. v. Horn- 
bostel, “Formanalysen an siamesischen 
Orchesterstiicken” (AMW ii); M. F. Bu- 
kofzer, “The Evolution of Javanese Tone 
Systems” {Intern, Congress of the AMS 
19^9 [1944]); Ch. Koechlin, in BSIM, 
1910 (transcription for European instru- 
ments of a gamelang piece). Extensive 
list of special studies in J. Kunst, De Toon- 
\unsty vol. ii. 

Jazz. A generic name for 20th-century 
styles in the music usually associated with 
American popular dancing; more prop- 
erly, that branch thereof which came {c, 
1915) to be distinguished in some respects 
from its predecessors Ragtime {c, 1890- 
c, 1915) and Blues (c, igioS), as well as, 
by some enthusiasts, from the more recent 
Saving (c. 193511). Such distinctions as 
are valid between these types will best 
appear from the following chronological 
account, which is presented with due 
warning that the distinctions are not al- 
ways present owing to cross influences 
between one style and another. 

I. Ragtime makes its appearance at an 
indeterminable date toward the end of 
the 19th century, one of the first published 
rags being the “Harlem Rag” (1895) by 
the pianist T. M. Turpin, which was soon 
followed by W. Scott Joplin’s “Maple Leaf 
Rag” (1899), and others. Ragtime de- 
scended from the early minstrel show 
tunes (cakewalk, buck-and-wing, jig) of 
the 1840’s and later (an early example is 
“Old Zip Coon,” better known as “Tur- 
key in the Straw,” 1834), as well as from 
the early marches (“Jagtime Johnson’s 
Ragtime March,” 1901). Like theirs, its 
harmony is conventional and is based 
largely on the common tonic, dominant, 
and subdominant triads of the major 
mode, with a regular phraseology. How- 
ever, owing to its (often improvisatory) 
creation and performance primarily by 
pianists (who rejected, as in later Jazz, the 
subtler pedal effects in favor of a percus- 
sive tone), with or without a small un- 
standardized group of additional instru- 
ments, the melody of Ragtime becomes 


[374] 



JAZZ 


JAZZ 


somewhat more instrumental in style 
(most of the rags had no text) through 
the persistent exploitation, as a funda- 
mental characteristic, of Negroid rhyth- 
mic complications such as the use of me- 
lodic motives comprising groups of three 
or six notes in conflict with the 2/4- or 
4/4-meter [see Ex. i], which, by giving 



"'rrrr' Irrrr'rrrr' 

different distributions of the notes with 
respect to the normal accentuation of the 
measure, produces a form of syncopation 
sometimes called '‘secondary rag” or 
“*polyrhythm.” “Primary rag,” on the 
other hand, is produced by other types of 
syncopation, such as: (i) the placing of a 
shorter note on what is normally a rela- 
tively accented and a longer note on what 
is normally a relatively unaccented portion 
of the measure, a procedure by no means 
unknown to European classical music 
(found notably in Schumann), and very 
frequently in Negro spirituals, as shown 
in Ex. 2 (this is a figure typical of the 
cakewalk and tango) ; (2) the suppression, 
by a rest or tie, of an accent proper to the 
normal rhythmic pulse already established 
by the same voice, or else in a counter- 
rhythm to the normal pulse simultaneous- 
ly present in other parts [see, e.g.. Ex. 3, 
4]; (3) the anticipation or retardation of 
an accent, especially by having it appear 
on the fraction of a beat, e.g.. Ex. 5 be- 
comes as Ex. 6 or Ex. 7. 

One of the earliest “bands” (in popular 
idiom any group of instruments combined 
for the purpose of playing marches or 
popular dance music) which played 
marches, etc., in the free improvisatory 
manner later characteristic of true Jazz 
was that of the Negro cornettist Buddy 
“King” Bolden {c. i895ff) at New Or- 


leans (the fount of so much Ragtime and 
Jazz), most of whose (5-7) musicians 
could not read music, and improvised 
collectively, often with surprising dis^ 
sonant and contrapuntal effects. The in- 
troduction of Ragtime to the rest of the 
world is credited to the white pianist Ben 
Harney, who appeared at Tony Pastor’s 
in New York in 1897 and published a 
piano method, his Ragtime Instructor^ the 
same year, while the first New York stage 
appearance (Proctor’s Theater) of an or- 
chestra playing such music seems to have 
taken place in 1905 (Will Marion Cook’s 
Memphis Students) from which time to 
about 1910 Ragtime reached its peak, 
thereafter to decline in favor of the Blues 
so that by 1915 it had all but disappeared 
(merging into Jazz) with the notable 
exception of the instruction books and 
pianistic tours de force of Zez Confrey 
(“Kitten on the Keys,” 1921). Irving 
Berlin’s “Alexander’s Ragtime Band” 
(1911) has none of the rhythmic com- 
plexity of the true rag and belongs to the 
transition period to Jazz. 

II. Despite evidence of earlier examples 
(“Mamie’s Blues,” c, 1900) the traceable 
history of the Blues (which influenced so 
much Ragtime and Jazz) begins with the 
“Memphis Blues,” written by the Negro 
cornettist and band leader W. C. Handy, 
in 1909, though not published till 1912 
(his “St. Louis Blues,” 1914). The prin- 
cipal sources of the Blues appear to be the 
Negro work songs and spirituals [see 
*Negro music II, III]. The Blues were 
originally distinguished from Ragtime by 
several features: (i) in the early, and 
many later, examples groups of 12 meas- 
ures are characteristic rather than those 
of 8, 16, and 32 found in Ragtime (and 
Jazz); (2) although, as in Ragtime, Jazz, 
and spirituals, the major mode predomi- 
nates, there is, in the Blues, more frequent 
harmonization with seventh-chords of the 
dominant type, especially with those on 
the flat or subdominant side of the key 
(II?’^, IV^*^) — heretofore exceptional in 
American popular music — as well as 
with those in rapid successions producing 
so-called ^barbershop harmonies [Ex. 
8] ; (3) the melody is in the tradition of the 


[375] 




JAZZ 

work songs and spirituals and differs from 
that of Ragtime owing to the fact that, un- 
like the latter, the Blues (whose greatest 



exponent was the Negro singer Bessie 
Smith) began as vocal music and only 
later developed as a type for instruments 
alone (Ellington’s “Blue Light”), and 
consequently the early Blues are more 
singable than Ragtime; (4) Blues usually 
possess special melodic features (also 
found in spirituals) such as (a) certain 
“blue” notes, that is, notes (in particular 
the III and VII degrees) whose intona- 
tion is unstable and lies between the nor- 
mal major and minor pitches, (b) the use 
of portamento, and (c) cadential formulas 
which avoid the VII degree in favor of II 
or VI as penultimate tone of the melody; 
(5) the nature of many early texts be- 
wailing the loss or absence of a lover in- 
fluenced the general style toward the de- 
clamatory with a steady pulsating accom- 
paniment, and invited a smoother, less 
percussive and less staccato rhythm as well 
as a slower tempo in the Blues of New 
Orleans and St. Louis (as contrasted with 
the fast Blues of Texas); (6) the Blues 
(e.g. “Memphis Blues”) frequently use 
habanera or tango rhythms such as in Ex. 
9; (7) and finally, the Blues introduced 
the “break,” i.e., brief improvised instru- 
mental cadenza (usually about two meas- 
ures) characterized by many syncopa- 
tions. 

III. Waning Ragtime and waxing Blues 
together contributed (c, the ear- 

liest ingredients of fazz, a word of un- 
certain origin, which first appears in print 
in 1916. An important figure in the tran- 
sition is the Negro pianist-composer Fer- 
dinand “Jelly Roll” Morton (1885-1941) 
whose compositions (“King Porter 
Stomp”) and adaptations (“Tiger Rag” 
from a French quadrille) have formed the 
basis of much subsequent Jazz treatment. 
From about 1912 onward Jazz begins to 
spread beyond its source — the cheap sa- 


JAZZ 

loons (“barrel houses”) and brothels of 
New Orleans’ red light district (Story- 
ville) — through the activities of the Ne- 
gro Jim Europe’s syndicated dance or- 
chestras of the Clef Club in New York 
(1912), as well as of the first white or- 
chestra to play the Negro type of music, 
the Original Dixieland Jazz Band (19121!; 
Chicago Boosters’ Club, 1914; Reisen- 
weber’s in New York, 1917-18). From 
this time on there emerges a “refining” 
influence, largely the product of white 
musicians (Art Hickmann at the St. Fran- 
cis Hotel, San Francisco, 1914!!). In its 
early stages Jazz inherited the various 
devices of syncopation and the regular 
16- and 32-measurc groupings of Ragtime, 
while from the early vocal Blues it in- 
herited a more vocal type of melody — 
emphasized from about 1929 by a special 
soft, sliding, and sentimental style of sing- 
ing known as crooning (Rudy Vallee, 
Bing Crosby) — and greater melodic 
(“blue” notes) and harmonic resources 
(borrowed dominant seventh-chords) 
along with a somewhat slower tempo and 
smoother rhythm as well as the use of 
“breaks.” In the course of time (1920’s), 
other and non-Negroid influences enter, 
among them the sentimental ballad-type 
of melody (often with a Viennese oper- 
etta flavor, as with Sigmund Romberg 
and Jerome Kern) along with harmonic 
devices derived from 19th-century Roman- 
ticism and 20th-century impressionism 
(added sixths, minor sevenths, and ninths 
to final and other triads, e.g.: c-c-g-a, 
c-c-g-bb, c-e-g-bb-d) . As a consequence. 
Jazz becomes a heterogeneous body of 
popular pieces some of which, e.g., Whit- 
ing and Donaldson’s (“My Blue Heaven,” 
1927) are devoid of any (written) synco- 
pation or other inheritance from either 
Ragtime or Blues, and, as they stand, arc 
Jazz only in the sense that they were per- 
formed by Jazz bands and served for danc- 
ing the fox trot, which had displaced (c, 
1914) the earlier two-step and one-step 
and had become a generic term embracing 
such special steps as the Shimmy (c, 1918— 
23), the Charleston (c, 1922-26) with its 
characteristic rhythm [Ex. 10 or Ex. ii], 
the Black Bottom (1926), and their sue- 

I376] 



JAZZ 

ccssors, though not including the defi- 
nitely foreign importations (tango, rhum- 
ba, conga) or the perennial waltz. 

These melodic and harmonic develop- 
ments were accompanied by that toward 
a more or less standardized instrumental 
group. In Jazz the piano largely relin- 
quishes the primacy it possessed in Rag- 
time; for although it is firmly entrenched 
for harmonic functions and as the back- 
bone of the “rhythm” section (with banjo 
or guitar, stringed or wind bass, and 
drums with “traps,” i.e., percussion in- 
struments and other effects too numerous 
to mention), nevertheless the melodic 
element passes to other instruments. The 
latter are conventionally divided into 
“reeds” (clarinets, saxophones) and “brass- 
es” (trumpets, cornets, trombones), with 
other instruments (violins, etc.) occasion- 
ally added, especially as, in the course of 
the 1920’s, the orchestras grew larger and 
the style more pretentious (“Symphonic 
Jazz” of Paul Whiteman and others), 
often with emphasis laid upon showman- 
ship (Waring’s Pennsylvanians). With 
the increase in resources, jazz treatment 
spread from tunes written for such treat- 
ment to compositions from the standard 
concert literature (Paul Whiteman’s ver- 
sion of Rimsky-Korsakov’s “Song of In- 
dia,” 1924). Smooth professionalized per- 
formance, achieved after laborious and 
meticulous rehearsal, replaced the earlier 
spontaneous and impromptu rendition, 
and the arranger (notably Ferdie Grofe 
with Whiteman, igigS) emerges as at 
least as important as the composer. Under 
these conditions Jazz becomes, indeed, a 
highly sophisticated and standardized 
product — much of it (“production num- 
bers”) designed for revues and musical 
comedies on stage and screen — which 
was no longer the output of obscure per- 
formers but of certain specialists in this 
type of composition whose work is han- 
dled by a group of music publishing 
houses in New York (recently also with 
connections in Hollywood) known col- 
lectively since the turn of the century as 


JAZZ 

‘ Tin Pan Alley.” Milestones in the his- 
tory of this type of Jazz were the inclusion 
of popular tunes on the program of the 
serious concert singer Eva Gauthier in 
1923, and Paul Whiteman’s Aeolian Hall 
concert (1924) of Jazz and Blues, which 
included the first {performance of the 
“Rhapsody in Blue” by George Gershwin 
(1898-1937). Gershwin’s works from 
1919 (“Swanec”) onward, including nu- 
merous musical shows (Pulitzer prize 
winner, “Of Thee I Sing,” 1931-32) as 
well as the folk opera. Porgy and Bess 
(1935), represent the peak of this genre 
not excelled by his contemporaries and 
successors such as Cole Porter (from 
“An Old Fashioned Garden” in “Hitchy- 
Koo,” 1919), Richard Rogers (from the 
show “A Connecticut Yankee,” 1927), 
and Marc Blitzstein who has employed 
Jazz (and other styles) in his satirical 
“Play with music,” “The Cradle Will 
Rock” (1937). 

IV. While the white musicians (White- 
man, Ted Lewis, Guy Lombardo) were 
largely concerned in developing commer- 
cial Jazz of the type just described, the 
true tradition was continued by small 
groups (4-7 men), mainly Negroes, and 
produced an important figure in the Ne- 
gro trumpet virtuoso and “scat” singer 
(i.e., interpolation of nonsense syllables 
and other peculiar vocal effects), Louis 
Armstrong. Largely under the influence 
of Armstrong there arose (c. 1925) the 
type known as “Hot Jazz” (Armstrong’s 
Hot Five) as distinct from the conven- 
tional tyjpes thereafter known as “Sweet” 
or “Symphonic Jazz.” Apart from Arm- 
strong’s influence on other cornettists 
(most notably the white musician “Bix” 
Beiderbecke, 1923-31), attempts were 
made to imitate his vibrato and his short 
expressive phrases on other instruments 
such as the clarinet, the saxophone, the 
trombone, and even the piano (by brief 
and light broken-octave tremolos). In 
addition to these and other innovations of 
timbre (e.g., a coarse or “dirty” tone) and 
technique (e.g., the contrapuntal and me- 
lodic liberation of the left hand on the 
piano, or the practice of beating on the 
drum all four quarters instead of only the 


[377] 



JAZZ JAZZ 

ist and 3d, or 2d and 4th), Hot Jazz is mutes) provided for improvisation as an 
marked by a general freedom from re- integral part of the composition. Passing 
straint as well as a more subtle type of im- over the somewhat lighter and less per- 
provisation and a more personal style of cussive “Kansas City style’' of the early 
playing with each performer. The in- 1930’s with its riff technique (short "•'osti- 
formal conditions of performance under nato melodic figures by the band against 
which Hot Jazz originated are similar to which one of the instruments improvises), 
those which had produced early Ragtime, mention must be made of a special type of 
so that a fundamental resemblance be- piano blues known as Boogie-woogie^ 
tween the two is to be expected. Unfor- which was heard at Negro “rent parties” 
tunately, however, the subtleties of per- in Chicago in the early 1920’s (Jimmy 
formance, especially in the realm of im- Yancey, “Pine Top” Smith) long before it 
provisation, which are characteristic of became famous in the world at large {c, 
both Hot Jazz and Ragtime (and may 1936) with Albert Ammons and Meade 
exist to some extent even in Sweet Jazz), “Lux” Lewis (“Honky Tonk Train 
are matters which defy notation and arc Blues”). This type of playing is character- 
lost to us in the case of Ragtime — whose ized by an ostinato bass figure, usually 
reign antedated the phonographic record- sharply rhythmic, against which the right 
ing of much music in this category — hand rhapsodizes freely, the sections usu- 
though they are preserved in the case of ally comprising 12 measures and the treat- 
Hot Jazz, whose early records have be- ment often being contrapuntal (some- 
come collectors’ items among enthusiasts, times in only two widely-spaced parts), 
]am sessions^ i.e., impromptu perform- with repeated tones, broken-octave trem- 
ances, with their emphasis on melodic olos, and short figures reiterated in great 
interpolations (often lasting through sev- rhythmic variety. 

eral choruses) by various soloists collec- V. From about 1935 on, with the rise 
tively or in turn, led to: (i) in composi- of the clarinettist Benny Goodman and 
tion, a simplification of the harmony the brothers Tommy and Jimmy Dorsey, 
(fewer and less complicated chords and the term Swing (a word which seems to 
modulations) as compared to Sweet Jazz; be of largely subjective import referring 
(2) a more energetic rhythm, though not to subtle and desirable rubato, and which 
necessarily a faster tempo; (3) an avoid- is accompanied by a strange and wonder- 
ance of complete preparation of all de- ful jargon of technical terms, such as 
tails in rehearsal and of commercial “Tin “licorice stick” for clarinet, etc.) comes 
Pan Alley” arrangements; (4) an aban- into use to denote what appears to be a 
donment of any deliberate attempt to pre- continuation of the Hot Jazz tradition, 
serve an easily singable melody — while “Swinging” of the classics and even of 
certain passages (especially for the trum- folk music (e.g., the version of “Loch 
pet) approach a type of vocal declama- Lomond” by the Negro singer Maxine 

tion; (5) a return to the creative function Sullivan) takes place, and with the in- 

of the performer (as improviser). crease in numbers (big bands) and varie- 

On the East Coast the pioneers in Hot ties of instruments (vibra-harp, electric 
Jazz numbered Fletcher Henderson (who guitar, harpsichord), the cultivation of 
developed [c. i93ofI] the modern tech- crispness of attack (especially in the 

nique of Jazz orchestration by giving his “rhythm” section), as well as of precision 

arrangements the effect of improvisations in ensemble (Goodman), and of per- 
in characteristic Jazz idioms), the white formance divorced from dancing (Swing 
drummer Ben Pollock and his orchestra, concerts). Swing gives occasional indica- 
and, above all, the Negro band leader and tions of rounding out a cycle similar to 
composer (“Mood Indigo”) “Duke” El- that from Ragtime to Symphonic Jazz 
lington, whose arrangements (some in almost two decades earlier. 

“jungle style” calling for the growling VI. Occasional claims to the contrary 
effect produced by “wa-wa” trumpet notwithstanding, Jazz shows no signs of 

[378] 



JAZZ 

becoming the American art music of the 
future, perhaps because, despite the in- 
terest and stimulation it affords, its appeal 
is too primitive and immediate. Never- 
theless — quite apart from the essays in 
the traditional larger forms by Jazz com- 
posers themselves (Gershwin’s “Concerto 
in F” for piano and orchestra, 1925; Mor- 
ton Gould’s “Chorale and Fugue in Jazz,” 
1936) — Jazz has contributed at least a 
variety of rhythmic and instrumental ef 
fects to music in general, and direct imita- 
tions as well as more subtle influences 
from this type of music are found in the 
work of more serious composers from the 
time of Debussy (“Golliwog’s Cake 
Walk” from his Children s Corner, 1908), 
and especially during the decade or so 
after the visits to Europe of Will Marion 
Cook’s Southern Syncopators (with the 
eminent Negro clarinettist Sidney Bechet) 
in 1917 and of Jim Europe in 1918 (Par- 
is), as the following (necessarily incom- 
plete) list of examples shows: 

1915 John Alden Carpenter, Concertino 
for Piano and Orchestra (ragtime 
rhythms) 

1917 Erik Satie’s ballet (for Diaghileff) 
Parade (“Rag-Time du paquebot”) 

1918 Igor Stravinsky, Histoire du soldat 
(movement “Ragtime” for solo violin 
and other instruments) 

1918 Igor Stravinsky, Ragtime for eleven 
instruments 

1920 Darius Milhaud’s ballet Le Boeuf 
sur le Toit (jazz rhythms) 

1922 Paul Hindemith, 1922 Suite jiir 
Klavier (movements “Shimmy” and 
“Ragtime”) 

1922 John Alden Carpenter’s ballet (jazz 
pantomime) Krazy Kat (“Fox trot,” 
“Blues”) 

1923 D. Milhaud’s Ballet negre La Crea^ 
tion du Monde (jazz rhythms and in- 
strumentation; blues intonations) 

1924 Louis Gruenberg, The Daniel Jazz 
for small ensemble and solo voice, to 
text by Vachel Lindsay 

1925 A. Honegger, Concertino for piano 
and orchestra (jazz rhythms) 

1925-26 E. Krenek’s opera Jonny spielt 
auf (“Shimmy,” “Blues,” “Spiritual”) 

1926 John Alden Carpenter’s ballet 5 ^- 


JEWISH MUSIC 

scrapers (fox trot rhythms, blues melo- 
dies) 

1926 Aaron Copland, Concerto for piano 
and orchestra (Charleston and other 
jazz rhythms; special jazz mutes for 
trombone) 

1927 Maurice Ravel, Sonata for violin and 
piano (second movement: “Blues”) 

1928 Constant Lambert, Rio Grande for 
voices and orchestra (jazz rhythms) 
Lit.: W. Sargent, Jazz Hot and Hybrid 

(1938; bibl.); Ch. Delaunay, Hot Dis- 
cography (1941); R. Goffin, Aux fron- 
tihres du jazz (1932); B. Goodman and 1 . 
Kolodin, T he Kingdom of Swing ( 1939) ; 
W. C. Handy, Father of the Blues, an 
Autobiography (1941); W. Hobson, 
American Jazz Music (1939); H. Panas- 
sie. Hot Jazz (1936); id,. The Real Jazz 
(1942); F. Ramsay and C. E. Smith, 
Jazzmen (1939) ; P. E Miller, Down Beats 
Yearbook of Swing (1939); Miller’s Year- 
boo\ of Popular Music (1943); Ch. E. 
Smith and others. The Jazz Record Boo\ 
(1942); M. R. Rogers, “Jazz Influence on 
French Music” {MQ xxi); C. Austin, in 
ML vi, no. 3; V. Thompson, in MM xiii, 
no. 4 and xiv, no. 3 (on Swing). L. H. 

Jete [F.]. See ^Bowing (e), 

Jeu [F., play]. In organ music, jeu 
means stop; jeu de fonds, foundation stop; 
jeu de mutation, mutation stop; ]eu h 
bouche, flue stop; ]eu d'anche, reed stop. 
Jeu de timbres, ^Glockenspiel. Jeu-partie, 
see *Tenso. 

Jewish music. I. The Original Tradi- 
tion. The frequent references in the Bible 
to musical instruments have been put to- 
gether by modern scholars (Idelsohn) into 
a lively picture full of interesting traits. 
The music of the temple (the “High- 
Church” in Jerusalem, comparable to St. 
Peter’s in Rome) was in the hands of pro- 
fessional musicians, the Levites. It would 
seem that instruments such as the hasosra 
(chatzotzra, a silver trumpet, used in 
numbers up to 120 in Solomon’s time), 
the *magrepha (a pipe organ of a very 
powerful sound), the tziltzal (cymbals), 
and others chiefly served for signaling 
purposes, i.e., to announce the entrance 


[379] 



JEWISH MUSIC 

of the priests, to give the sign for the con- 
gregation to prostrate themselves, etc. 
Many instruments mentioned in the Scrip- 
tures have an Egyptian ancestry, e.g., the 
nevel (probably a large harp, played with 
the fingers), the Xtnnor (a lyre, played 
with a plectrum, similar to the Greek 
kithara; sec *Harp III), the hal'd (prob- 
ably a double-oboe and, like the Greek 
aulos^ used for highly exciting and virtu- 
oso-like music; it had to be banned from 
ritual use), etc. The only instrument to 
survive up to the present is the ^shofar, a 
ram’s horn which also belonged (and still 
belongs) to the class of signaling instru- 
ments. [Cf. the detailed study of the 
Biblical instruments in SaHMI, 106-127.] 

The instrumental music of the temple 
fell into oblivion after its destruction, in 
A.D. 70. The chanting, however, of the 
Bible (believed to have been established in 
the 5th century B.C.) survived in the vari- 
ous synagogues and to the present day, 
representing the oldest extant type of Jew- 
ish music [see section II]. Particular in- 
terest attaches to the singing of the psalms 
which is expressly indicated in inscrip- 
tions such as “To the chief Musician on 
Neginoth” [for a correct interpretation of 
these inscriptions, see ^Psalms] . The sing- 
ing was entrusted to professional musi- 
cians. A number of psalms, however, give 
evidence that the congregation occasion- 
ally participated in the performance by re- 
sponding “hallelujah” or “amen” after 
each verse of a psalm [see *Responsorial]. 
Some early sources also make reference to 
choral singing in two answering groups, 
i.e., to the method known as *antiphonal 
singing. 

Although no documents of early Jew- 
ish music exist, considerable light has 
been shed upon the state of music in the 
late pre-Christian era by the studies of 
Idelsohn who examined the musical tradi- 
tion of Jewish tribes in Yemen (South 
Arabia), Babylonia, Persia, Syria, etc. A 
comparison revealed a startling simi- 
larity among the chants sung by these 
tribes which, living in strict isolation, 
could hardly have had any contacts with 
each other after their separation from their 
common home. The conclusion to be 


JEWISH MUSIC 

drawn from these facts is that these melo- 
dies date back to a period anterior to the 
destruction of the temple and that they 
have been preserved for about 2000 years 
with only slight alterations. They may 
therefore be held to approximate very 
closely the Jewish chant of the pre-Chris- 
tian era. No less interesting is the close 
resemblance between some of these melo- 
dies and certain melodies of Gregorian 
chant. For instance, a chant used by the 
Jews of Yemen for the recitation of the 
Pentateuch (as well as of certain psalms) 
shows a striking similarity to the Gre- 
gorian psalm tones [Ex. ij. 



II. The Main Types of Jewish Chant. 
The oldest type of Jewish ritual music is 
the chant used for the reading of the prose 
books of the Bible, such as Pentateuch, 
Prophets, Ruth, etc. This chant, usually 
referred to as cantillation^ consists of a 
succession of stereotyped melodic for- 
mulae each of which is represented steno- 
graphically by a sign written above or 
below the scriptural text. These signs, 
the taamim or accents^ developed, no 
doubt, from an earlier system of gram- 
matical accents designed to assist the read- 
er in the proper emphasis and rendition 
of the important words of the text [see 
*Ekphonetic notation]. The oldest extant 
source for the ta’amim is a MS of the 9th 
century (London, Brit. Mus. no. 44451; 
for nth/ 12th-century MSS cf. A. Gas- 
touc in TG xxii). For almost one thou- 
sand years the musical meaning of these 
signs was handed down orally among the 
Jewish singers and, therefore, has been 
exposed to extensive variation in the dif- 
feient periods and localities. Fortunately 
their late-medieval status has been re- 



corded by Johannes Reuchlin (De Accen- 
tibusy 1518) and S. Miinstcr {Institut 'iones 





JEWISH MUSIC 

Hebraicae, 1524). The accompanying 
Ex. 2 shows one of these signs, the “t’lisha 
(talsd) gadola” (“major drawing out”) 
in four variants: (a) as recorded by Miin- 
ster; (b) as sung today in Northern Eu- 
rope; (c) from Morocco; (d) from Egypt 
and Syria. 

It must be noticed that even within one 
and the same rite, e.g., that of the North- 
European ( Ashkcnasic) Jews, a given sign 
indicates different melodic formulae de- 
pending on which book of the Bible is 
chanted. Each of these books has its own 
mode, usually based on a tetrachordal 
scale (e.g., d-g, g-c'), and therefore the 
rendition of the ta’amim varies in pitch 
and other details from one book to an- 
other. Ex. 3 shows the same text sung 


/\m . 3 ^ 3 ^ ^ 

|> ft 

J 7 I J 


- - 

Ka-y«'hi t 

hav ha-de- ba- rtm. ha* el- leh 

_kJ 



m 

^ Wi ,e h. a- hi* hi)k4,t. ba- rxm KvetUb 

c 

■ 3 . 3 . 


1 JTl' 1^ — >14 j-'fl 

m 

^ Wa ye- ht a- hav ha* die- ba- txm ha-«tUh 


(a) in the ordinary Pentateuchal mode, 

(b) in the penitential Pentateuchal mode, 
and (c) in the Prophetal mode. Extensive 
tables of the ta’amim are given in The 
Jewish Encyclopedia, article “Cantilla- 
tion” and in Idelsohn’s Jewish Music . . . , 
p. 46; cf. also F. L. Cohen, in PM A xix; 
S. Rosowsky, in PMA lx. Example in 
HAM, no. 7. 

Next in antiquity to the cantillation of 
the Bible is that of the prayers. This is 
not based on a set of stereotyped melodic 
formulae indicated by signs, but rather 
belongs to the general category of *melody 
types. For each service there exist certain 
traditional themes or motives, but the 
actual singing is a free vocal fantasia, fre- 
quently of a highly virtuoso character, 
which retains only the barest outline of 
the prayer-motive (mainly in the closing 
formula). These more or less freely cre- 
ated melodies arc known as hazzanut, a 
word derived from chazzan, the name of 
the professional precentor to whom the 
singing of the prayers is entrusted. From 


JEWISH MUSIC 

the Middle Ages through the end of the 
19th century these chazzanim were the 
main carriers of Jewish ritual music. 
They were chosen mainly for the beauty 
of their voices and for their ability in im- 
provising upon the prayer-motives. Even 
the most famous among them had, until 
the middle of the 19th century, no knowl- 
edge of music and were unable to read 
notes. 

Finally there exist a number of melodi- 
cally fixed chants. These represent the 
most recent development of ritual music, 
starting after the 9th century. Most of 
these melodies show evidence of contact 
with different strata of Gentile music. 
E.g., the famous Kol Nidrc is pardy bor- 
rowed from Gregorian chant; the begin- 
ning of Maoz Zur is taken from the Prot- 
estant chorale “Nun freut Euch Ihr from- 
men Christen,” and one of the melodies 
for Adonai Melek is borrowed from Ver- 
di’s opera La T raviata. 

III. Semi-religious and Fol\ Song. To 
the former category belong the zmiroth, 
i.e., the table chants used for the singing 
of grace in the home or, e.g., for the do- 
mestic recitation of the “Haggadah,” the 
story of the redemption from Egypt. An 
important treasure of semi-religious songs 
exists in the hasidic melodies, created by 
the Hasidim, a pietist sect which origi- 
nated in the early i8th century in Poland 
and Russia. Music played an important 
part in their creed as a means of ecstatic 
communication with God. 

The Jews of East Europe possess a large 
repertory of domestic songs, including 
love songs, working songs, lullabies, wed- 
ding tunes, dance melodies, etc. Some 
3000 such songs have been gathered under 
the auspices of the Petrograd Jewish Folk- 
Song Society, founded by pupils of Rim- 
sky-Korsakov. Outstanding among the 
collectors of Jewish folk song was A. Z. 
Idelsohn whose Thesaurus of Oriental 
Hebrew Melodies (10 vols., 19141!) in- 
cludes the results of his research in Mo- 
rocco, Yemen, Bocchara, Persia, Palestine;. 
Poland, etc. 

IV. The European Development. Short- 
ly after 1600, Jews for the first time par- 
ticipated in the musical life outside of the 



JEWISH MUSIC 

ghetto. Abramo dalPArpa Ebreo was a 
famous singer at the court of Mantua, 
from 1542 to 1566. Allegro Porto Ebreo 
published a book Nuove musiche in 1619 
and two collections of madrigals in 1625. 
The most important of these Jewish com- 
posers was Salomone Rossi (d. 1628), who 
was one of the pioneers of violin music 
[see ^Sonata B, I; *Romancsca; *Rug- 
giero] and who was the first to compose 
polyphonic music for the Jewish service, 
in his Hashirim Asher Lishlomo of 1622. 
Needless to say, these compositions, writ- 
ten for chorus and soloists, completely 
break away from the Jewish tradition. 
His procedure remained without imme- 
diate succession. 

Around 1700 some of the wealthier 
German synagogues employed instru- 
mental music for the Friday-evening serv- 
ice and had organs installed, and choirs 
were fairly generally employed. Since 
there was no traditional music available 
for such performances, the current reper- 
toire of non-Jewish music was used, and 
the lack of tradition and authority in this 
matter easily accounts for the rapid in- 
trusion of secular and even operatic ele- 
ments, of dance-tunes and Rococo-arias. 
Ahron Beer (1738-1821), one of the first 
chazzans who possessed some musical 
knowledge, made an extensive collection 
of compositions for the service and of 
traditional Jewish songs, including two 
versions of the Kol Nidre, marked 1720 
and 1783. A different line was followed 
by Israel Jacobson (1768-1828), who was 
an exponent of the reform movement and 
who, in the first Reform Temple (Seesen, 
Westphalia, 1810), not only used organ 
and bells, but also German chorales, pro- 
vided with Hebrew texts [cf. Idelsohn, 
p. 237]. The natural reaction against 
Jacobson’s complete Christianization of 
the Jewish service led to the moderate re- 
form of Salomon Sulzer (1804-90), who 
declared that the “restoration should re- 
main on historical grounds” and that “the 
old tunes should be improved, selected 
and adjusted to the rules of art” {Denkj- 
schrift, 1876). Although Sulzer succeeded 
in bestowing upon the musical service a 
fundamental character of dignity and ap- 


JEWISH MUSIC 

propriateness, his compositions and ver- 
sions of songs leave much to be desired, 
because they represent current European 
idioms rather than Jewish tradition. A 
similar statement is true with regard to 
Louis L^wandowski (1821-94) whose 
thorough training in musical theory, har- 
mony, etc., enabled him to write choruses 
in the character of Mendelssohn’s oratorio 
style. His complete service, Kol Rinnah 
(1871), has been widely adopted, on ac- 
count of the facile and pleasing nature of 
its tunes. In America, synagogue music 
started by imitating the current European 
exnmnles (Alois Kaiser of Baltimore; 
Max Spickler and William Sparger of 
New York; Edward Starck of San Fran- 
cisco). Recently, however, there has been 
a remarkable movement towards inde- 
pendent development, represented by a 
number of choral compositions of a dis- 
tinctly Hebraic character, mostly for the 
Sabbath Service. Among the contributors 
we find Ernest Bloch, Frederick Jacobi, 
Lazare Saminsky, and Tsadore Freed. 

Throughout the 19th and 20th centu- 
ries, Jews have played an active part in 
the development of European music, as 
composers (Giacomo Meyerbeer, 1791- 
1864; Jacques Halevy, 1799-1862; Felix 
Mendelssohn, 1809-47; Jacques Offen- 
bach, 1819-80; Karl Goldmark, 1819-80; 
Gustav Mahler, 1860-1911; Arnold Schon- 
berg, b. 1874; Ernest Bloch, b. 1880; Da- 
rius Milhaud, b. 1892; George Gershwin, 
1898-1937; Aaron Copland, b. 1900, and 
many others), and even more prominently 
as performers and conductors (Joachim, 
Kreisler, Heifetz, Menuhin, Godovsky, 
Schnabel, Serkin, Myra Hess, Damrosch, 
Bruno Walter, Klemperer, to name only 
the most outstanding). 

In the past twenty years there has been 
a movement to create what might be 
called a “Jewish national music,” com- 
parable to the national music of other 
countries and races. The leader of this 
movement is Ernest Bloch who, in his 
Israel Symphony (1915), Symphonie 
Orientale^ and other works, has used dis- 
tinctly Hebraic idioms. 

Lit.: A. Z. Idelsohn, Jewish Music in its 
Historical Development (1929); id,. 


[382] 



JEW’S HARP 

^Thesaurus of Hebrew Oriental Melodies^ 
10 vols. (19140); S. B. Finesingcr, Music 
Instruments in the Old Testament ( 1926) ; 
L. Saminsky, Music of the Ghetto and the 
Bible (1935); G. Salesky, Famous Musi- 
cians of a Wandering Race (1927); LavE 
i.i, 67; ii.4, 2287; Richard Wagner, Juda- 
ism in Music (1850; transl. 1910); P. 
Nettl, ‘‘Some Early Jewish Musicians” 
(MQ xvii) ; L. Sabaneev, “The Jewish Na- 
tional School in Music” (MQ xv); A. Z. 
Idelsohn, “Parallelen zwischen gregoriani- 
schen und hebraisch-orientalischen Ge- 
sangsweisen” (ZMW iv); id,, “Parallels 
between the Old French and the Jewish 
Song” (AM V, no. 4; vi, no. i); id,, 
“Deutsche Elemente im alten Synagogen- 
gesang” (ZMW xv); id., in ZMW viii; 
H. Loewenstein, in ZMW xii. Additional 
bibl. in MoML, 374. 

Jew’s harp or trump [F. guimharde\ 
G. Maultrommel], A primitive instru- 
ment consisting of an elastic strip of metal 
fixed in a small iron frame in the shape of 
a horseshoe. The frame is held between 
the teeth (the name Jew’s harp is prob- 
ably a perversion of Jaw’s harp), and the 
elastic strip is made to vibrate by a twang 
of the fingers. Although the instrument 
as such produces only one sound, the dif- 
ferent partials can be made prominent by 
shaping the mouth in different ways. The 
instrument is very ancient and wide- 
spread. It is mentioned and depicted in a 
Chinese book of the 12th century, and 
specimens have been found in Japan, 
Borneo, Siberia, North-Germany (14th 
century), Norway, etc. In the early 19th 
century it was temporarily revived by 
virtuosos who used larger instruments 
with several vibrating reeds. Cf. SaHMl; 
bibl., p. 471; M. Heymann, “La Guim- 
barde” (RM iv). 

Jig- An English popular dance of the 
i6th century which is especially impor- 
tant as the forerunner of the *gigue. 
Probably the name is not derived from the 
medieval giga [see *Gigue (i)]j but is 
an old English word [L. focus] denoting 
some sort of farcical ballad. Names such 
as Kemp’s Jig, Slaggin’s Jig, refer to fa- 


JOTA 

mous clowns of the English comedy. The 
“Nobody’s Jigg” which appears in vari- 
ous sources is the jig of the clown R. Rey- 
nolds who played the role of “Nobody” in 
the popular comedy Somebody and No- 
body, The English comedians who, in the 
early 17th century, invaded the Nether- 
lands, Scandinavia, and Germany, intro- 
duced the jig into these countries. Accord- 
ing to a recent theory, the jigs were also 
introduced into America where they were 
imitated by the Negroes and gradually 
transformed into the grotesque dances of 
the minstrel shows. In this resixet, it is 
interesting to note the “jazz-like” rhythm 
[see ^Dotted notes III] in our example 
[Mr. Slaggin’s Jigg, from The Dancing 



Master (1686); cf. M. Danckert, Zur 
Geschichte der Gigue (1924), p. 17]. 


Jingling John. See ^Crescent. 

Jodel. See *Yodel. 

Jongleur. See *Minstrel; ^Troubadours. 
Also reference under *Estampie. 

Joropo. The most characteristic dance 
of Venezuela. It is in quick %-meter with 
short melodic phrases and strongly ac- 
cented accompaniment in simple rhythms, 
occasionally (particularly in the coastal 
regions) with some syncopation. 

Jota [Sp.]. A dance of Aragon (north- 
ern Spain) in rapid triple time, performed 
by one or more couples and accompanied 
by castanets. One of the most popular 
melodies has been used by Liszt in his 
Spanish Rhapsody no. xvi (Folies d*Es- 
pagne et Jota Aragonese) and by Glinka 
in his orchestral overture Jota Aragonesa, 
Other examples occur in Falla’s The 
Three-cornered Hat and in compositions 
of Saint-Saens, Albeniz, etc. Statements 
regarding the medieval or Arabic origin 
of the Jota [cf. J. Ribera, La Musica de lo 
Jota Aragonesa (1928)] are, needless to 
say, entirely unfounded. Cf. G. B. Brown, 
in BAMS ii; Ex. in LavE i.4, 23730. 


[383] 




JUBILUS 

Jubilus. The long melismatic vocaliza- 
tion of the Alleluias, sung to the final 
vowel a--- [e.g., GR, 5]. See * Alleluia; 
•Neuma; ^Sequence. 

Jupiter Symphony. Mozart’s Sym- 
phony in C major, K.V. 551, composed in 
1788. The name is unauthentic, but aptly 
expresses the '‘majestic” character of the 
symphony which offers a striking contrast 
to the G minor Symphony (K.V. 550) 
written in the same year. 

Justiniane. See under *Villanella. 

Just intonation [G. Reine or natur- 
liche Stimmung \ . A system of intonation 
and tuning in which all the intervals are 
derived from the natural (pure) fifth and 
the natural (pure) third [see * Acoustics 
III], Therefore, all the intervals of just 
intonation are contained in the formula 
mXF + uXT (F=: fifth, T = third). 
The formula for the relative frequencies 

is therefore: (I-)® X (7)"* Their calcu- 
lation is particularly easy if [as explained 
under ♦Intervals, Calculation of, III] the 
octaves, i.e., all the factors 2, are disre- 
garded at first, so that the formula for the 
relative frequencies becomes: 3"^ X it^ 
which m and n designate the number of 
fifths and thirds contained in the interval 
m question. There result the following 
values for the C major scale: 


JUST INTONATION 

1891]. A selection of these tones is given 
under ♦Intervals, Calculation of, VI. 

Just intonation has the advantage of giv- 
ing the three fundamental triads: c-e-g, 
f-a-c', and g-b-d' as “natural triads” 
(characterized by the ratio 4:5:6; e.g.: 
24:30:36 = 4:5:6), which are more “eu- 
phonious” than those in ♦Pythagorean or 
in ♦well-tempered tuning. However, its 
disadvantages are much more numerous 
and, in fact, so serious as to make it prac- 
tically useless. The chief disadvantages 
are: (a) The tones of the C-major scale 
include one “dissonant” fifth, namely d-a, 

which is ^ (|^) instead of | (|i). (b) 

The C-major scale has two different whole 

tones, j (major tone) and ^ (minor tone) ; 

their difference is the syntonic ♦comma 

(c) Modulation is impossible; already 

the first three tones of the G-major scale: 
g-a-b have different intervals from those 
of the C-major scale: c-d-e. Hence, two 
different tones a would be necessary, one 
for the sixth of c, the other for the second 
of g. The difficulties would rapidly in- 
crease with the introduction of chromatic 
tones, (d) In chordal music, just intona- 
tion produces pure triads and has, there- 
fore, been considered ideal for a cappella 
music in the style of Palestrina, etc. How- 


c d( = 2F) e(=T) 

I 9 5 


f(=-T) 

1 

3 


g( = F) a( = T-F) b(=T+F) 


5 



15 


Reduced into the normal octave, they be- 
come: 

edefgabe' 


t= i: I 


9 6 4 3 5 16 

S T J 2 1 8 


£ = 24: 24 27 
Intervals: ~ ^ 


30 „ 32 ^36 „ 40 ^45 ^48 

16 9 10 9 16 
16 1 "T i Is 


ever, the principle of pure triads can be 
maintained only at the expense of a con- 
stant lowering in pitch. For instance, if 
the succession of chords indicated in our 
example were sung in pure triads, the 



Owing to the presence of two constituents 
(F and T) the complete system of just in- 
tonation forms a two-dimensional infinite 
multitude of tones [G. Tongewebe; cf. C. 
Eitz, Das mathematisch-reinc Tonsystem^ 


notes indicated by black heads would have 
the following frequencies: c = i; a =^; 


d = 






JUST NOTE AND ACCENT 

40 2 80 . . 

C = 27 X -g = i.e., the syntonic com- 

81 

ma (~) lower than the initial c. Since 

harmonies including the supertonic (this 
chord is responsible for the lowering of 
pitch) are particularly frequent in the 
Palestrina style, just intonation proves un- 
satisfactory for exactly that type of music 
for which it has frequently been recom- 
mended. The conclusion to be drawn 
from all these facts is that the interest of 
just intonation lies only in the theoreti- 
cal field, and that its application to actual 
performance is limited to occasional 
chords (initial, final triads) in a capella 
music. 

Lit.: J. M. Barbour, “Just Intonation 
Confuted” (ML xix); id., in BAMS ii; 
L. S. Lloyd, “Just Temperament” (ML 
xx). See also under * Acoustics; *Tem- 
perament; ^Intervals. 

Just note and accent. These words 
occur in Milton’s sonnet “To Mr. H. 
Lawes on his Airs.” The first eight lines 
are as follows: 

Harry whose tuneful and well measur’d Song 
First taught our English Music how to span 
Words with just note and accent, not to scan 
With Midas Ears, committing short and long; 


kanCjn 

Thy worth and skill exempts thee from the throng, 
With praise enough for envy to look wan; 

To after age thou shall be writ the man 
That with smooth aire couldst humor best our 
tongc. 

Whatever Milton may have had in mind 
— and his judgment certainly was not 
entirely objective, inasmuch as Henry 
Lawes set music to the poet’s masque 
Comus — in the sense in which the phrase 
“just note and accent” is now generally 
taken, much more is implied than the 
mere coincidence of a normally accented 
word or syllable with a strong or second- 
ary strong beat; indeed, all the subtleties 
of text setting are suggested: variations of 
meter within the bar which supply flexi- 
bility of declamation; the selection of a 
note in the melody which does not lay too 
much stress upon a relatively unimportant 
bit of text, and, in general, the whole 
character of the melody as it partners and 
interprets the words to which it is set. 
Both William and Henry Lawes followed 
the tradition of text treatment established 
in the earliest Italian operas, applying 
those principles to the English language. 
See *Text and Music. Cf. E. J. Dent, 
Foundations of English Opera (1928); 
H. C. Colies, Voice and Verse (1928). 

A. T. D. 


K 


K. Sometimes used instead of *K.V. 

Kadenz [G.]. (i) ^Cadence; (2) *Ca- 
denza. 

Kaiserquartett [G.]. See ^Emperor 
Quartet. 

Kalevala. The Finnish national epic 
[see ^Finnish music]. Sibelius has com- 
posed a number of ^symphonic poems 
based on stories from this epic. 

Kalt [G.]. Cold. 

Kammer- [G., Chamber]. Kammerton, 
chamber pitch [see *Pitch (2)]. Kam- 
mer musik.i chamber music. Kammer- 
kantate^ chamber cantata, etc. 


Kanon. (i) German for *canon. — (2) 
A type of medieval Byzantine poetry [see 
’•^Byzantine chant II] . — (3) See *Kanibi. 

Kantate [G.]. ^Cantata. 

Kantele. See under ^Finnish music. 

Kantorei [G.]. In the 15th and i6th 
centuries a singing group in the employ 
of a church or of a prince’s court; subse- 
quently groups of amateurs who provided 
music for the service of their communities. 
For literature cf. MoML, 384. 

Kanun. An Arabic *psaltery with 26 gut 
strings. The name, which is derived from 
the Greek word canon, i.e., monochord 
[see *Canon (2)] occurs as early as the 


[385] 



KANZONE 


KEYBOARD 


loth century in a story of The Arabian 
Nights, In the later Middle Ages (12th 
century?) the instrument was imported 
into Europe. See ^Psaltery. 

Kanzone [G.]. (i) ♦Canzona. — (2) 
*Canzo. 

Kapelle [G.]. ^Chapel, usually in the 
connotation of “private or small orches- 
tra,” e.g., Hoff^apelle (court orchestra), 
Militdrkapelle (military band). Kapell- 
meister^ originally an honorable title 
(Bach served as a Kapellmeister to Prince 
Ernst of Cothen, from 1717 to 1723), is 
now an old-fashioned provincialism for 
Dirigent (conductor). The term Kapell- 
meistermusil{ is a derogatory designation 
for compositions of a formally correct 
design, but lacking in imagination and 
originality — as the pieces of the Kapell- 
meister were. 

Kapodaster [G.]. ♦Capotasto. 

Katzenmusik [G.]. *Charivari. 

Kazoo. See *Mirliton. 

Keck [G.]. Audacious. 

Kehraus [G.]. The last dance of a ball. 

Kemantche. See ^Arabian music II. 

Kentbugle, Kenthorn. Same as key 
bugle; see *Brass instruments V (c). 

Kerabe. Old German for ^Kehraus. Sec 
*Nachtanz, 

Kesselpauke, Kesseltrommel [G.]. 
Kettledrum. See also *Pauke. 

Kettenform [G.]. See under *Forms, 
Musical (after A, I). 


(2) By way of specialization the term 
adopts the meaning of “main key” to 
which other keys are tonally related, hence 
practically coterminous with ^tonality 
[F. tonaliti\ G. Tonart\ It. tonalith\ . Some 
writers maintain that there is a subtle 
difference between key and tonality, but 
usually fail to make this distinction suffi- 
ciently clear [see ^Tonality]. There is, 
however, a distinct difference between 
key and scale, the former term encom- 
passing many melodic and harmonic 
formations which are not contained in 
the scale (e.g., the Neapolitan sixth 
f-ab-db' in C major). 

According to the 12 tones of the chro- 
matic scale, there are 12 keys, one on C, 
one on C-sharp, etc. (this number is in- 
creased to 14 or 15 by the notational dis- 
tinction between ^enharmonic keys, such 
as C-sharp and D-flat, G-sharp and A-flat). 
With any given key there is a choice of 
^modality, i.e., of certain variations in the 
tones which form the scale. E.g., in C we 
have the choice between major (mode): 
c d e f g a b c'; minor (mode) : c d eb f g 
a(b) b c'; Lydian mode: c d e flf g a b c'; 
and others derived from the ^Church 
modes. Of these, only the first two are 
usually considered, and are actually 
(though not quite logically) distinguished 
as different keys, thus leading to a total 
number of 24 keys, one major and one 
minor on each tone of the chromatic scale. 
See *Key-signature; *Key relationships. 
Cf. W. W. Roberts, “Key Quality” (ML 
xi, no. i). 

Keyboard. I. The whole set of keys, 
such as in pianofortes, organs, harpsi- 
chords, etc. (^Keyboard instruments). 
The modern keyboard usually includes 


Kettledrum. See ^Percussion instru- 
ments A, i; also *Drums. 

Key. (i) On pianos, organs, etc., the 
visible parts of the action [F. touche\ G. 
Taste; It. tasto] which are depressed by 
the fingers of the player [see ^Keyboard]. 
In wood winds the term applies to com- 
parable devices, i.e., the levers covering 
the side-holes [F. clef; G. Klappe; It. 
chiave \ . 


C 1 D 1 E f 

1 T 

= G 1 A 1 B e 

TliJli I 

Lc 1 0 t F 

nr 

»l 0 ^ Bbl C 1 


eighty-eight keys for seven full octaves, 
from Cl to c'"", and a quarter octave 
added at the lower end of the compass. 


[386] 




KEYBOARD 


KEYBOARD 


In each octave there are seven white and 
five black keys, arranged as illustrated in 
Ex. I. This arrangement is the natural 
result of the fact that the fundamental 
scale of European music consists of seven 
tones which are given to the white keys. 
Except for the steps e-f and h-c' the in- 
tervals between these tones are whole- 
tones each of which admits the introduc- 
tion of a semitone in between, represented 
each by a black key. Although the intro- 
duction of equal temperament, by per- 
mitting unlimited transposition, seriously 
weakened the dominating position of the 
white keys, the old “C major keyboard’' 
has proved fully capable of adapting itself 
to the new system and has, to the present 
day, successfully withstood all attempts 
at reform, e.g., the adoption of the truly 
“chromatic keyboard” [Ex. 2] in which 
the arrangement — and consequently the 
fingering — would be the same for all 
the scales. 

II, History, The earliest keyed instru- 
ment was the organ. According to Gal- 
pin’s reconstruction of the Greek ’*‘hy- 
draulis, this instrument had 19 keys about 
8 inches long and 2 inches wide. Organs 
of the 9th and loth centuries A.D. had a 
number (8 to 10) of large keys, called 
linguae (tongues), which were pulled out 
and pushed in. The trustworthiness of 
reports that keys of organs were so large 
and heavy that they were played with the 
fist is rather doubtful. Around 1200, the 
keyboard covered nearly three octaves 
(from G to e"; see *Hexachord). From 
then on, its compass as well as the number 
of chromatic keys steadily increased. The 
early 14th-century organ pieces from the 
Robertsbridge Codex (Brit. Mus. Add, 
2^550) make use of all the chromatic tones 
in at least one octave. A normal device of 
all the old keyboards was the *short oc- 
tave. The 16th-century experiments in the 
field of enharmonic music (Vicentino) 
led to the construction of keyboards with 
separate keys for C# and Db, etc. [see 
’^Arciorgano]. In the 17th century, key- 
boards had an average compass of four 
octaves, with all the chromatic notes, ex- 
cept for the lowest range. Bach’s harpsi- 
chord had over five octaves. Broadwood, 


in 1794, made the first keyboard (piano- 
forte) with six octaves, from Ci to c""; 
this was the compass of the Broadwood in- 
strument used by Beethoven from 1817 on. 

III. Modern Reforms, Within the past 
fifty years various unsuccessful attempts 
have been made to improve the keyboard. 
The Jan^o }{ey board (patented 1882) had 
six rows of short keys arranged somewhat 
similarly to the keys of a typewriter. 
Each row included the keys for a whole- 
tone scale, that beginning with C in the 
rows I, 3, 5, and that beginning with C# 
in the rows 2, 4, 6. Thus, each octave had 
36 keys, three for each tone of the chro- 
matic scale. In spite of certain advantages 
and of initial success (Liszt and Rubin- 
stein recommended it), the Janko key- 
board failed to supersede the traditional 
one. Later modifications and simplifica- 
tions {Adam key board, Durand keyboard, 
Clavier Hans) met with the same fate. 
Mageot's keyboard, called “piano a dou- 
bles claviers renverses” (1878), had two 
keyboards the lower of which, intended 
for the right hand, had the usual arrange- 
ment, whereas the higher one, for the left 
hand, had the reverse arrangement, i.e., 
with the keys for the high notes on the 
left side. The advantage claimed for this 
innovation was identical fingering of, e.g., 
the ascending scale, for both hands. The 
Clutsam keyboard (1909) arranged the 
keys in a slightly curved instead of a 
straight line, taking into account the fact 
that the arms of the player move in arcs. 
This arrangement has become widely 
adopted for organ pedals. Moor’s Duplex 
Coupler Grand Piano imitates the two 
manuals of the harpsichord. The upper 
of the two keyboards, otherwise normal, 
gives the tones of the higher octave, and 
can be coupled with the lower. This key- 
board greatly facilitates the execution of 
the usual virtuoso effects and permits the 
execution of many others not possible on 
the usual keyboard. Its failure to win ac- 
ceptance might be ascribed to the decreas- 
ing interest in purely virtuoso playing. If 
invented 50 years earlier it would prob- 
ably have been a great success. Another 
use of two keyboards is made in the 
quarter-tone keyboards (Haba, 1923; 



KEYBOARD INSTRUMENTS 


KEY SIGNATURE 


Stoehr, 1924), in which the upper key- 
board is a quarter-tone higher than the 
lower. At present, it would seem that at- 
tempts to enlarge the traditional keyboard 
are less likely to succeed than those lead- 
ing in the opposite direction, by eliminat- 
ing the highest and lowest tones which, 
being seldom used in domestic music, 
unnecessarily raise the size and the price 
of the instrument. 

Keyboard instruments. Generic name 
for instruments having a keyboard, par- 
ticularly with reference to the period prior 
to c, 1750 during which there was fre- 
quently no clear distinction between the 
repertoires of the organ, the harpsichord, 
the clavichord, etc. [see *Key board mu- 
sic] . 

Lit.: Ph. James, 'Early Keyboard Instru- 
ments from Their Beginnings up to 1820 
(1Q30); id,, in PM A Ivii; V. G. Wood- 
house, “Old Keyed Instruments and their 
Music” {ML i, no. i); C. Krebs, “Die 
besaiteten Klavierinstrumente bis zum 
Anfang des 17. Jahrhunderts” {VMW 
viii); H. Brunner, Das Klavierhlangideal 
Mozarts und the Klaviere seiner Zeit 
(1933); see also under ^Keyboard music; 
♦Pianoforte. 

Keyboard music. The term is partic- 
ularly used with reference to the periods 
prior to 1750 in which there was frequent- 
ly no clear distinction between music for 
the organ, harpsichord, or clavichord. In 
modern German writings the term Kla- 
viermusi\ is occasionally used in the same 
meaning. A 16th-century Spanish term 
is tecla [cf. A. de Cabezon’s Obras de 
musica para tecla, harpa y vihuela (1574), 
“Musical works for keyboard, harp, and 
lute”]. Regarding the numerous at- 
tempts — not wholly successful — of 
modern scholars to draw clearer lines of 
distinction within the realm of early key- 
board music, particularly between the 
repertories of the harpsichord and the 
clavichord, cf. N. Wilkinson, in ML iv, 
no. 2; L. A. Coon, in PAMS, 1936; K. 
Nef, in JMP x; E. Bodky, in DM xxiv, 
no. 2; R. Buchmayr, in Bach Jahrbuch, 
1909; various authors in Bach Jahrbuch, 
1910. Sec also ♦Clavichord; ♦Harpsi- 


chord; ♦Instrument; ♦Klavier; ♦Piano- 
forte music; ♦Organ music. 

Key bugle. See ♦Brass instruments V 

(c)- 

Keynote. Same as ♦tonic. 

Key-relationship. A term used to in- 
dicate the degree of relationship or affin- 
ity between two keys. All keys are related, 
but in different degrees. The order of 
relationship generally follows that of the 
tones in the series from consonant to dis- 
sonant: fifth (dominant), fourth (sub- 
dominant), third (mediant), etc. In par- 
ticular, the following species are distin- 
guished: (a) Parallel key: major and mi- 
nor key with the same tonic (C major and 
C minor), (b) Relative key: major and 
minor key with the same signature (C 
major and A minor; C minor and E-flat 
major), (c) Related keys: keys the sig- 
nature of which differs by not more than 
one sharp or flat from that of the main 
key (in C major: A minor, G major, E 
minor, F major, D minor; in A minor: 
C major, E minor, G major, D minor, F 
major). Cf. W. H. Frere, “Key-relation- 
ship in Early Medieval Music” (PMA 
xxxvii; also in KIM, 1911, p. 114). 

Key signature. The sharps or flats 
appearing at the beginning of each staff 
which indicate the ♦key of a composition. 



A given signature indicates one of two 
keys, a major key or its relative minor 
key; these are designated in the accom- 
panying table by a white or a black note. 
Memorizing of this scheme is facilitated 
if it is observed that in a sharp signature 
the keynote is immediately above the last 
sharp if the key is major; below, if it is 
minor; and that in a flat signature the 
keynote is that of the penultimate flat if 
the key is major, or a third below, if it is 
minor (e.g., three sharps, f#, c#, gt: A 
major or F-sharp minor; three flats, bb, cb, 
ab: E-flat major or C minor). Normally 




KEY TRUMPET 


KLAPPE 


the number of key signatures is twelve, 
corresponding to the twelve chromatic 
tones of the octave. This number is in- 
creased, however, to 13, 14, or even 15 by 
the notational distinction between ’••'en- 
harmonic keys, e.g., C-sharp and D-flat. 
See also ’••‘Circle of fifths. 

In early music the use of key signatures 
is very limited. Until the late 15th cen- 
tury the only signature of frequent occur- 
rence is one flat (Dorian, Lydian); and 
this is used mostly in the lower voices only 
[see ’•“Partial signatures]. In the i6th 
century the increased use of transposed 
modes led to signatures (usually partial) 
with two flats. Not until the middle of 
the 17th century were sharps generally 
adopted as signatures. Actually, the scope 
of keys in use was somewhat wider than 
is suggested by the variety of signatures, 
since the keys were usually written with 
fewer signs in the signature than they are 
today, and with more accidentals during 
the course of the composition. Thus, the 
flat minor keys (D minor, G minor, C 
minor) were usually notated with one 
flat less than in modern practice, the flat 
for the sixth being omitted. Likewise, 
the major keys (G major, D major, A 
major) are sometimes notated without a 
sharp for the leading tone in the signature. 
A well-known example is Handel’s Harp- 
sichord Suite in E (containing the *Har- 
monious Blacksmith) which has three 
sharps only in the original. 

Key trumpet. See *Trumpet II. 

Kielfliigel [G.]. Old name for the 
harpsichord. 

Kin. See *Ch’in. 

Kindlich [G.]. Child-like. 

Kinnor. See *Harp III; ’•“Jewish music I. 

Kirchen- [G., church]. Kirchenjahr, 
church year; KirchenJ^antate, church can- 
tata; Kirchenmusi\, church music; Kir- 
chenschluss^ plagal cadence; Ktrchenso- 
nate, sonata da chiesa; Kirchentoity church 
mode; Kirchenlied, church song, either 
the Protestant ^chorales or the Catholic 
hymns written in German (in contra- 
distinction to the older Latin *hymns). 


Kit [F. pochette\ G. Taschengeige\. A 
small, narrow fiddle to be carried in the 
pocket, and used by the dancing masters 
of the 1 8th and early 19th centuries. It 
existed in two different types, one a dimin- 
utive violin, the other a descendant of the 
medieval ’•“rebec. 111. on p. 800. 

Kithara. The foremost instrument of 
ancient Greece, consisting of a wooden 
soundbox, two curved lateral arms, and a 
crossbar. A number of strings, varying 
from five (8th century B.C.) to seven 
(7th century) and finally eleven (5th cen- 
tury), was stretched between the sound- 
box and the crossbar. The tuning of the 
traditional type with five or six strings 
was anhemitonic: e g a b d' (e'). The 
tuning of the outer strings could be 
changed to f and f' [see *Greek music II 
(d)]; the additional strings of the later 
periods would seem to have been mainly 
octave-duplications of the original ones. 
Although there was no finger board on 
the kithara, a limited degree of stopping 
was possible by merely pressing a finger 
against the string near to its lower end. 
Thus, the pitch of a string could be raised 
a quarter-tone, a semitone or a whole- 
tone. It was this practice which led to the 
curious system of Greek instrumental 
notation, as has been convincingly shown 
by C. Sachs [cf. his Mu 5 i\ des Altertums 
(1924); also AdHM i, 45]. The kithara 
was the instrument of Apollo, and repre- 
sented the Greek ideal of \alo\agathia 
(harmonious moderation), as contrasted 
with the “emotional” ’•“aulos, the attribute 
of Dionysos. Illustration under ^Zithers. 
See *Lyra. 

Kl. Short for Klarinette. 

Klagend [G.]. Lamenting. 

Klang [G.]. Sound, sonority. Klang- 
bodeUy sounding board. Klangfarbe, tone 
color, timbre; Klangfolge, chord progres- 
sion; Klanggeschlechty mode (major or 
minor) ; Klangidealy see ’•“Sound ideal. 

Klappe [G.]. Key of wind instruments. 
Klappenhorn, -trompete^ i.e., key bugle, 
key trumpet. 


[389] 



KLARINETTE KREUTZER SONATA 


Klarinette [G.]. Clarinet. 

Klausel [G.]. Cadence, particularly 
those of 16th-century polyphonic music. 

Klaviatur [G.]. Keyboard. 

Klavier [G.]. Pianoforte. Klavier- 
auszug, piano-arrangement; Klavier stuck^^ 
piano piece; Klavier spiely piano playing. 
Sometimes the term is used in the mean- 
ing of manual {Or gel mit 2, 5, *'Kla- 
vieren**). — Prior to the introduction of 
the pianoforte, that is, until about 1775, 
the term Klavier (usually spelled Clavier) 
was applied generically to denote either 
or both the harpsichord and the clavi- 
chord. Hcn:e, titles such as Clavierubungy 
or Wohltemperiertes Clavier contain no 
evidence as to the intended instrument. 
With Ph. Em. Bach and his contempo- 
raries Clavier preferably means the clavi- 
chord. 

Kleine Oktave [G.]. The ‘‘small oc- 
tave,” from c to b. See ’"‘Pitch names. 

Kl. FI. [G.]. Short for Kleine FlotCy 
i.e., piccolo. 

Klingend [G.]. Sounding, resonant. 

Kl. Tr. [G.]. Short for Kleine Trom- 
mely i.e., side drum. 

Knarre [G.], ^Rattle, 

Kniegeige [G., knee violin] Viola da 
gamba. 

Koechel-Verzeichnis. See *K.V. 

Kollectivzug [G.]. Composition step 
or combination stop of the organ 

Kolorieren [G.]. To introduce colora- 
turas, ornamentations, into a pre-existing 
composition, as was frequently done in 
the ^intabulierungen of the i6th century. 
See *Colorists. 

Komponieren ; Komponist [G.]. To 
compose; composer. 

Kondakarion. In Russian church mu- 
sic, manuscripts of the 12th and 13th cen- 
turies which contain collections of short 
hymns of praise {}{pnda\^ from *Kon- 


takion?). They contain melodics written 
in an early type of notation, the so-called 
\onda\arny-not2iXiony which has not yet 
been deciphered. See ’"‘Russian music I. 
Cf. also ReMMAy 96; WoHN i, 90. 

Kontakion. See ’"‘Byzantine chant II. 

Kontra- [G.], •bassy double-bass; -jac- 
tury "‘contrafact; -jagotty contra bassoon; 
-bass\larinettey double-bass clarinet; -o\- 
tave, contra octave [see ’"‘Pitch names]; 
’pun\ty counterpoint; -subjecty counter- 
subject. 

Kontretanz [G.]. *Contredanse. 

Konzert [G.]. Concert or concerto. 
Konzertmeistery concertmaster. 

Konzertstuck, see ^Concertino (2). 

Kopfstimme [G.]. Head voice. 

Koppel [G.]. Coupler. 

Korean music. The musical culture of 
Korea is largely based upon that of 
*China. Cf. A. Eckhardt, Koreanische 
Mu$i 1 { (1930); Chunk Sik Keh, Die 
Koreanische Musi\ (Diss. Basle 1934); 
J. L. Boots, Korean Musical Instruments 
(Seoul, 1940). 

Kornett [G.]. See under ’"‘Cornet. 

Kortholt. Same as ^Curtail; see *Oboe 
III. 

Koto. See *Ch'in; ’•^Japanese music. 

Ktakowiak [G.] *Cracovienne. 

Krebskanon [G.]. Crab canon; \rebs- 
gangigy in retrograde motion. 

Kreisleriana. Title of Schumann’s op. 
16, a collection of eight “Fantasien” for 
the pianoforte, composed 1838. The name 
refers to the whimsical and capricious fig- 
ure of the Kapellmeister Kreisler who 
plays a prominent role in several fantastic 
novels by the German novelist E. T. A. 
Hoffmann [see ^Contes d’Hoffmann, 
Les]. 

Kreutzer Sonata. Beethoven’s Violin 
Sonata op. 47, composed in 1803, origi- 
nally composed for the Negro violinist 


[390] 



KREUZ 


LAI 


Bridgctower (1780-1860) whom Beetho- 
ven accompanied on the first perform- 
ance. Beethoven, however, dedicated the 
composition to the violin-composer and 
virtuoso Rodolphe Kreutzer (1766-1831). 

Kreuz [G.]. Sharp. 

Kriuki (Krjuki). See ^Russian music 
I; ^Znamenny chant. 

Krummhorn [G.]. *Cromorne; sec 
♦Oboe III. 

Kuhreigen [G.]. *Ranz des vaches. 

Kujawiak. A Polish dance from the 
province of Kujawy. It is a rapid variety 
of the mazurka. Chopin’s mazurkas op. 
6, no. 6; op. 30, no. 4; op. 41, no. i are 
kujawiaks. 

Kunst der Fuge. See *Art of Fugue. 

Kunstlied [G.]. A term — used in 
America rather than in Germany — for 
the “art songs” of German composers 
such as Schubert, Schumann, Brahms, in 
contrast to German folk songs. It is also 
applied to the 16th-century polyphonic 
songs with German text (Hofhaimer, 
Senfl), 

Kurz [G.]. Short. Kurz 0 \tave, short 
octave. Kurzer Vorschlag, short appog- 
giatura. 


K. V . Abbreviation for KocheUVerzetch- 
nisy that is, the chronological list of all the 
works of Mozart which was made by L. 
von Kochel (published in 1862, revised 
edition of Einstein in 1937; supplements 
in MR i, ii). Mozart’s compositions are 
usually referred to by the numbera of this 
list, e.g., K.V. 357, or K. 357. 

Kyriale. See ^Liturgical books. 

Kyrie [Gr. Kyrte eleison, Lord, have 
mercy]. The first item of the Ordinary 
of the *Mass. Its full text is: Kyrie elei- 
son; Christe eleison* Kyrie eleison. Each 
of these three invocations is sung three 
times, usually with the melodies repeated 
according to the scheme: aaa bbb ccc 
[cf. GRy 18*], or aaa bbb ccc', the last 
reiteration being slightly extended [cf. 
GRy 8*]. Another frequent scheme, 
probably of later origin, is: aba ede efe 
[cf. GRy II*]. In the loth and nth cen- 
turies the Kyries were frequently troped 
(farced Kyrie) by the interspersion of 
attributes, e.g., Kyrie lux et origo eleison 
[see *Trope (4); *Farce] . Although these 
tropes have disappeared, the Kyries are 
still named after them, e.g., Kyrie lux et 
origo, 

Kyrieleis [G.]. See *Leise. 


L 


L. Short for left or [G.] lin\s; L.H., left 
hand; [G.] linl{e Hand, 

La. See *Solmization; *Pitch names; 
*Hexachord. 

Labial pipes [G, Labialpfeifen], Same 
as *Flue stops. 

Landler. An Austrian dance in the 
character of a slow waltz. It was very 
popular in the early 19th century, before 
the * waltz came in vogue. Mozart (K.V. 
606), Beethoven (ii Mddlinger Tdnzey 
1819), and Schubert (op. 171) wrote col- 
lections of Landler. See *Dance music IV. 


Lage [G.]. Position, either with refer- 
ence to violin-playing (erstey zweitey , , . 
Lagey i.e., first, second . . . position); or to 
chords {enge or weite Lagey i.e., close or 
open position); or to range.s of voices and 
instruments {hohe or tieje LagCy i.e., high 
or low range; gute or schlechte Lage. good 
or bad range). 

Lagnoso [It.]. Doleful. 

Lai, Lay [G. Letch; not to be confused 
with •Lcis(e) or *Laisse]. A form of 
medieval French poetry and music char- 
acteristic of the *trouv^rcs of the 13th 
century, adopted later by the German 


[391 ] 



LAI 


LAMENTATIONS 


Minnesinger (14th century). From the 
standpoint of text the lais are poems (usu- 
ally addressed to the Virgin or to a lady) 
consisting of 60, 100, or more lines of 
from 4 to 8 syllables each; the whole fall- 
ing into irregular stanzas of from 6 to 16 
or more lines each. Each stanza is based 
on one or two rhyme-syllables, and there 
is a great variety in the schemes of meter 
and rhyme to be found in the various 
stanzas, for instance: a^ b*^ a^ a^ b'^ a^ 
b^ b^ b^ b^ b^ b*^ b^ (the letters indicate 
lines with the same rhyme; the figures 
give the number of syllables in the line). 

The musical structure of the lai is es- 
sentially that of the sequence [see ’••'Se- 
quence (2)] from which it evidently de- 
rived, but with certain additional traits 
of elaboration or modification, such as 
one may expect to find in the later stages 
of a development. Instead of the double 
versicles of the sequence, there are triple 
vcrsicles and quadruple versicles (a mel- 
ody three or four times repeated), as well 
as “single versicles.,” involving no repeti- 
tion. Following is the scheme of one of 
the shortest lais, Guillaume le Vinler’s 
“Espris d’ire et d’amour” [Jeanroy, no, 8; 
cf. HAM, no. 19 c]: 

I II III 

A B C D E 

a a ba bi bj c c d d d Ca Ci Cg 
IV V 

F G H I 
f f g h h h i 

(a, b, etc., are the versicle melodies; A, B, 
etc., the musical sections; I, II, etc., the 
poetic stanzas, according to Jeanroy; bi, 
b2 denote different endings for the same 
melody.) Another name for the lai is 
descort (“disorder”), a term which has 
been interpreted as referring to the ex- 
tremely variable structure of the lai in 
contrast to the “fixed forms,” such as the 
ballade, rondeau, etc., or to some other ele- 
ment of irregularity [cf. RcMMA, 225]. 

The German counterpart of the lai is 
the 14th-century Leich, Here the double- 
versicle structure of the sequence is, as a 
rule, rigidly observed. For instance, Hein- 
rich Frauenlob's “Unser Frauen Leich” 
[cf. Runge, p. i] consists of 44 stanzas 
(“lieder”) sung to 22 melodies (“tone”). 


It is interesting to note that Machaut’s lai, 
the last example of the French repertory, 
is written in a form which is still closer 
to that of the sequence, in which the first 
and the last melody usually were sung 
only once. In fact, the scheme A BB CC 
DD . . . PP Q is strictly observed by 
Machaut, the only modification being that 
A and Q are sung twice instead of once, 
B-P four times, instead of twice. 

Lit.: A. Jeanroy, L. Brandin and Pierre 
Aubry, '\Lais et descorts fran^ais (1901); 
F. Wolf, Ueber die Lais, Sequenzen und 
Leiche (1841); F. Gennrich, “Das Form- 
problem des MmnQSdings' {Deutsche Vier- 
teljahrsschrift fur Literaturgeschichte, ix, 
319). P. Runge, "fDie Sangesweisen der 
Colmarer Handschrift (1896); G. Hase, 
Der Minneleich Meister Alexanders 
(1921); Holz-Saran-Bernouilli, fD/V ]e- 
naer Lie der handschrift (1901); DTOe 
20.ii (Frauenlob and others); H. Spanke, 
in ZMW xiv; J. Handschin, in ZMW xii. 
See also the general literature under 
*Trouveres and *Minnesinger. 

Laisse. See ^Chanson de geste. 

Lament. Scottish and Irish music for 
bagpipes and, sometimes, song, used at 
the funeral of members of the clan or at 
other occasions of a mournful character. 
Each clan had its traditional tunc. Cf. 
GD iii, 79; sec also *Ho-hoane. 

Lamentations. Music set to the La- 
mentations of Jeremiah. In the Roman 
Catholic service the lamentations are 
sung at the office of matins on Thursday, 
Friday, and Saturday of Holy Week 
(*tenebrae), in a simple recitation-tone 
[L 27 , 626, 669, 715]. A characteristic 
feature of the text, taken over from the 
Bible, is the enumeration of the verses by 
Hebrew letters: Aleph. Quo modo sedit 
. . . Beth, Plorans ploravit . . . , etc. From 
the mid- 1 5th throughout the 17th cen- 
tury, many composers wrote polyphonic 
settings of the famous text in order to en- 
hance the dramatic character of tenebrae. 
A simple chordal style similar to that of 
the ^passions was preferred. The earliest 
example is by Ockeghem (1474). In 
1506, Petrucci published two volumes, 


[392] 



LAMENTO 

Lamentationes Jeremie Prophete, which 
include settings by Johannes Tinctoris, 
de Orto, Tromboncino, and others. In 
1532, a setting by Carpentras (real name 
Elzear Genet, c, 1475-1548) was pub- 
lished which was used until 1587 at the 
Papal Chapel instead of the ancient plain- 
song. In 1557, Leroy and Ballard pub- 
lished a collection of settings {Piissimae 
et sacratissimae lamentationes Jeremiae 
prophetae) which, in addition to Car- 
pentras’ composition, included others by 
Pierre de la Rue, Fevin, Arcadelt, Festa, 
and Claude le Jeune. In 1588, Palestrina 
published his Lamentationum liber pri- 
mus [complete ed., vol. 25] which sup- 
planted Carpentras’ composition in the 
service of the Papal Chapel [for more de- 
tails, cf. GD iii, 80]. Other settings are 
by Stephan Mahu, Caspar Werbeckc 
[SchGMB^ no. 58], Cristobal Morales 
(1564), Tallis, Byrd, Handl (DTOe I5.i), 
Giov. Maria Nanini, and Gregorio Al- 
legri. In 1640, the latter’s composition 
was added to the (incomplete) setting of 
Palestrina. Even today, the Sistine Choir 
uses the settings of these two composers. 
For Palestrina’s complete and original 
composition, cf. R. Casimiri, 11 Codice 59 
(1919). A composition by F. Couperin 
illustrates the application of a highly ex- 
pressive aria style to the text. 

Lamento. Music of an elegiac, mourn- 
ful character. A dance of the 14th cen- 
tury bears for an obscure reason the title: 
Lamento di Tristan {SchGMB, no. 28]. 
In 17th-century opera the Lamento is a 
scene expressing utter despair, usually 
placed shortly before the unexpected “turn 
to the happy end.” This type was in- 
augurated by Monteverdi’s famous La- 
mento d* Arianna of 1607 [SchGMB, no. 
177]. Cf. A. Westrup, in MR i. See also 
*Tombeau. 


Landini cadence. A cadence, named 
after Francesco Landini (1325-97), in 



which the sixth degree (a, “Landini 
sixth”) is inserted between the leading 


LATIN AMERICAN MUSIC 

tone (b) and the octave (c'). Frequently 
the altered fourth (f#) appears in the 
middle part, as a leading tone to the 
dominant (g) [sec Ex., a], a formation 
which properly belongs to the Lydian 
mode [Ex., b]. The use of this cadence 
is much more extended than is suggested 
by its name. It occurs in the works of G. 
de Machaut (1300--77; cf., e.g., SchGMBy 
no. 26, “loyaument”), is used frequently 
by Landini, and forms a characteristic 
feature of the music of the ^Burgundian 
School, usually in the ornamented variety 
illustrated under c. There are cases, 
however, in which the “flatted” formula 
[Ex., d] would seem to be required [cf. 
ApNPM, 106]. See •Cadence II. 

Langsam [G.]. Slow, 

La Poule [F., The Hen]. Haydn’s 
Symphony in G minor (no. 83, 1786), 
the second of the “Paris” Symphonies. 
The name seems to refer to the second 
subject of the first movement. 

La Reine [F., The Queen]. Haydn’s 
Symphony in B-flat (no. 85, 1786), the 
fourth of the “Paris” Symphonies. The 
name refers to Queen Marie Antoinette 
who was particularly fond of the sym- 
phony. 

Larga [L.], large. In mensural nota- 
tion, rare name for the largest values, 
either the maxima or even multiples of it 
[cf. RiML, 997]. 

Largando. Same as •Allargando. 

Larghetto [It.]. The diminutive of 
•largo, therefore, less slow than this tem- 
po. Also, title for pieces in such a tempo. 

Largo [It., broad, large]. Very slow in 
tempo, usually combined with great ex- 
pressiveness. See *Tcmpo marks. 

Latin American music. See articles 
under *Argentina, •Brazil, •Chile, •Co- 
lombia, •Mexico, •Peru, and •Venezuela. 

Lit.: Bibliography of Latin American 
Fol\ Musicy compiled by G. Chase (Li- 
brary of Congress, 1942); Ch. Seeger, 
Music in Latin America (1942); N. Slo- 
nimsky, “Music of Latin America” (in 


[393] 



LAUBE SONATA 


LAUDA 


preparation); Boletin L^atino-Amevicano 
de Musica^ ed. by F. C. Lange (5 vols. 
published, 1935, ’36, ’37, ’38, ’42, with 
musical supplements); G. Chase, The 
Music of Spain (1941; chapter on “His- 
panic Music in the Americas,” with bibli- 
ography and record list); G. Duran, Re- 
cordings of Latin American Songs and 
Dances (Music Division, Pan American 
Union, Washington, 1942); E. Hague, 
Latin American Music (1934); Hand- 
boo\ of Latin American Studies, an an- 
nual bibliographical guide published by 
Harvard University Press, includes a sec- 
tion on music; F. C. Lange, Latin-Ameri- 
can Art Music for the Piano (1942); 
Partial List of Latin American Music 
Obtainable in the United States (Music 
Division, Pan American Union, Wash- 
ington, 1942). K. G. Izikowitz, Musical 
. . . Instruments of the South American 
Indians (in Goteborgs Kungliga Veten- 
s\aps . . . Samhdlletf vol. v, 1936). See 
also bibliographies under ^Central Amer- 
ica; ♦Cuba; ♦Libraries 11 . G, C. 

Laube Sonata. See ♦Moonlight Sonata. 

Lauda [It., pi, laude; praise; the less 
correct forms laude (sing.), laudi (pi.), 
are also used]. Hymns of praise and de- 
votion in the Italian language which from 
the 13th century down to the middle of 
the 19th century played an important part 
in the religious life of the Italian people. 
Their origin and early development were 
closely connected with the activity of 
St. Francis of Assisi (1182-1226) as well 
as with that of the many penitential fra- 
ternities (flagellants; see ♦Geisslerlieder) 
of the 13th and 14th centuries. Later, nu- 
merous congregations, called Companie 
de Laudesi, or Laudisti, were founded 
who devoted much of their activity to the 
cultivation of devotional singing among 
the Italian people. The musical and dra- 
matic representations which took place 
in their meeting-halls led, in the i6th 
century, to the ♦oratorio. Till the middle 
of the 19th century the laudesi continued 
to be centers of religious life. 

The laude of the 13th century are mo- 
nophonic songs which show a certain in- 


fluence of the French troubadour music. 
Their textual structure is that of a refrain 
poem, consisting of several (from two to 
ten and more) stanzas (S) of four or six 
lines each, alternating with a refrain 
(♦ritornello, R) of usually two lines: 
R S R S . . . S R. Music is provided for 
the refrain and the stanza, and that of the 
latter usually borrows some melodic mem- 
ber from the former, in a great variety 
of schemes, c.g.: ABabab, ABcdab, 
ABcdeb, ABccdb, ABccab 
(capital letters indicate the refrain). The 
last scheme, which may also be repre- 
sented thus: Abba (or, with repetition 
of the refrain, A b b a A) is that of the 
French ♦virelai (or of the Italian ♦ballata). 
This form, however, plays a much less 
prominent part in the laude than some 
scholars have maintained. Only about a 
dozen of the laude are cast in the form of 
the virelai, and most of these show con- 
siderable modifications in the repeated 
phrases, such as are not found in the vire- 
lai proper [cf. Sancto Lorenzo in AdHM 
i, 211] . One of the few examples of strict 
virelai form is given in HAM^ no. 21b. 
The usual transcription in four-four me- 
ter [Liuzzi; BeMMR, i53f] is, to say the 
least, hypothetical [cf. Y. Rokseth, in 
Romania (Paris) Ixv, no. 259; see also 
under ♦Vierhebigkeit] . The original 
MSS are in ♦plainsong notation. 

There is a wide difference in time and 
in style between the 13th-century laude 
and the next ones preserved, contained in 
collections by Petrucci from the early 
years of the i6th century. These arc 
polyphonic, in a simple chordal style bor- 
rowed from the ♦frottola [Ex. in BeMMR, 
218]. In the second half of the i6th cen- 
tury Fra Serafino Razzi inaugurated a 
vast literature of laude in the popular 
styles of the villanella, canzonetta [Ex. in 
SchGMB, no. 120] . Frequently folk songs 
and dance melodies were used for the re- 
ligious texts, a procedure which shows a 
striking similarity to the methods of the 
Salvation Army. The numerous publica- 
tions of the 17th century are important 
sources of early Italian folk song [see 
reference under ♦Ruggiero] . 

Lit.: F. Liuzzi, fLa Lauda e i primordi 


[394] 



LAUDES 


LEDGER LINES 


della melodia italiana (2 vols., 1935); N. 
Garzi, Le Laudi di cod, Cortenese ( 193^) > 
K. Jeppesen, Die mehrstimmige italien- 
tsche Lauda um i$oo (1935); D- Alalc- 
one, “Le laudi . . . nei secoli XVI e XVIF* 
(RMl xvi); E. J. Dent, “The Laudi Spiri- 
tuali . . (PM A xliii); K. Jeppesen, “Die 
neuentdeckten Bucher der Lauden . . 
(ZMW xii); J. Handschin, in AM x. 

Laudes [L.]. (i) See *OfSce hours 
(lauds). — (2) Name for Gloria tropes 
[see *Trope (4)]. 

Lauf [G., run; pi. Ldufe], A rapid pas- 
sage, particularly in scales. For Laufwer\ 
sec ’’“Mechanical instruments III. 

Launedda. A Sardinian triple clarinet, 
evidently of Oriental origin [see *Clari- 
net IV]. It consists of three pipes made 
of cane, the two longer of which are tied 
together. The two highest pipes have 
four holes each, the lowest one is an un- 
changeable bourdon. The music played 
on the launeddas is, therefore, in two parts 
over a sustained pedal. Cf. G. Fara, in 
RMl XX, xxi, XXV. For the peculiar tech- 
nique of blowing, cf. SaHMI, 91; also 
*Oboe family III. 

Laute [G.j. Lute. Lautentabulatur^ 
lute tablature, 

Lautenclavicymbel. A harpsichord 
with gut strings, instead of the usual 
metal strings. The tone was very much 
like that produced by the gut strings of 
the lute (the reference to “checking by a 
damper of cloth” — GD iii, 1 15 — is evi- 
dently a confusion with the lute-stop of 
the ordinary harpsichord). Such harpsi- 
chords are mentioned as early as 1511, by 
Virdung. For the description of an in- 
strument of 1718, cf. SaRMy 239. In 1740 
Bach had such an instrument made for 
his own use which, according to Adlung, 
Musica mechanica ii, 139, produced a 
sound like a theorboe or, if damped by the 
lute-stop, like a lute. Cf. O. Fleischer, in 
ZIM i. 

Lavolta. See * Volta (i). 

Lay. See *Lai. 


Leader, (i) Conductor (in America) 
or concertmaster (in England). — (2) 
See *Fugue I (g). 

Leading motive. See ^Leitmotif. 

Leading tone or note [F. note sen- 
sible\ G. Leitton], The seventh degree of 
the scale, a semitone below the tonic; so 
called because of its strong tendency to 
“lead up” (resolve upwards) to the tonic. 
This progression (b-^') is the character- 



istic step of the regular cadence in major 
as well as minor [see Ex., a] and is, there- 
fore, extremely frequent in music of the 
17th to the 19th century. 

The consistent and compulsory use of 
the leading tone is one of the chief fea- 
tures of modern major and minor, as 
opposed to the modes, most of which 
(Dorian, Phrygian, Mixolydian, Aeolian) 
have a whole tone (subtonium) below the 
tonic, not a semitone (subsemitonium) 
[see Ex., b]. Although in modal music 
the subsemitonium, i.e., the leading tone, 
could be introduced by sharpening the 
subtonium, this did not result in a com- 
plete suppression of the diatonic seventh 
[see *Musica ficta]. Thus, earlier music 
usually wavers between the natural and 
the sharped varieties, as illustrated in our 
example (c). In the 14th and early 15th 
centuries the sharped degrees were more 
frequent than they were during the en- 
suing period of Flemish music (1450-- 
1600) [see ♦Landini cadence]. Cf. L. H. 
Skrbensky, Leitton und Alteration in der 
abendldndischen Musi\ (Diss. Prague 
1938). 

League of Composers. See *Socicties, 

Musical I, 4. 

Lebendig, lebhaft [G.]. Lively. 

Ledger lines. Short lines drawn 
through the stem of notes which are too 
high or too low to be represented on the 
staff. They are usually avoided in early 
music, by the introduction of lower or 


[395] 



LEERE SAITE 


LEITMOTIF 


higher clefs. The earliest source in which 
they are extensively used is Marcantonio 
da Bologna’s organ book Ricercare^ mo- 
tettiy canzoni of 1523 [cf. ApNPM, 4]. 

Leere Saite [G.]. Open string. 

Legato [It., bound]. To be performed 
without any perceptible interruption be- 
tween the notes (a), as against leggiero 



or non-legato (b), portato (c), and stac- 
cato (d). Legatissimo is either a more 
forceful indication of legato, or a sort of 
super-legato in which the preceding note 
is held for a short moment together with 
the following one (e). The first line in 
the illustration shows the notes as written; 
the second line shows the approximate 
effect. 

Legende, legende [G., F.]. Romantic 
name for compositions based upon, or 
suggestive of, a devotional or legendary 
narration. For F. Liszt’s Die Legende 
von der heiligen Elisabeth y see under 
•Oratorio IV. 

Leger lines. See •Ledger lines. 

Leggiero, con leggerezza, leggia- 
dro. Light and graceful, with slight 
pressure of the key or of the bow, and 
with a touch of non-legato [sec •legato]. 

Legno [It., wood]. Col legno means, in 
violin playing, tapping the strings with 
the stick of the bow, instead of bowing 
them. Stromenti di legnOy wood-wind in- 
struments. 

Leich [G.]. See *Lai. 

Leicht [G.]. Light. 

Leidenschaftlich [G.]. Passionate. 

Leier [G.]. Usually, the *lyrc. In ear- 
lier usage, the *hurdy-gurdy {Drehleiefy 
Radleiefy Bettlerleier) , Schubert’s well- 
known song, Dcr Leier manny portrays a 


player of the hurdy-gurdy (not of the 
street organ; see •Leierkasten). 

Leierkasten [G.]. Street organ. 

Leise [G.]. Soft. 

Leise [G.]. Medieval congregational 
hymns in the German tongue, so called 
because of their refrain: kyrie cleis(on) 
which was abbreviated into l{irleis or leis. 
The oldest specimen, Unsar trohtiny dates 
from the 9th century. Several Protestant 
chorales belong to this category, e.g.. Nun 
bitten wir den heiligen Geist, and Christ 
ist erstanden [cf. AdHM, 448]. There is 
frequent confusion of the terms Leise and 
•Leich [cf. GD i, 636]. 

Leiter [G.]. (i) Scale (Tonleiter). — 
(2) Leader of an orchestra. 

Leitmotif [German speWmg Leitmotiv, 
i.e., leading motive]. A term coined by 
R. Wagner’s friend H. von Wolzogen (in 
“Motive in Wagner’s Gdtterdammerung,” 
Musi\alische$ Wochenblatt, 1887; Wag- 
ner himself had used the term Grund- 
themUy basic theme) to denote the funda- 



mental method of composition in Wag- 
ner’s later operas, that is, the representa- 
tion of the acting personalities, of typical 
situations, and of recurrent ideas by mu- 
sical motives. For instance, in the Ring 
des Nibelungs there are motives charac- 
terizing the Ring (Ex. i), the Contract 
(Ex. 2), Valhalla (Ex. 3), the Sword (Ex. 
4), etc. These leitmotifs arc used, not as 
rigidly fixed melodies, but in a very flex- 
ible manner, frequently modifying their 
rhythm, intervals, according to the special 
requirement of the momentary situation 
[see •Metamorphosis]. It should be no- 
ticed that the extensive “Tables of Leit- 
motifs” usually found in the popular 
editions of Wagner’s operas are not by 
him, nor arc any of the names they bear. 


[396] 




LEITTON 


LETTER NOTATION 


Undoubtedly, enthusiastic writers and 
editors have gone too far in their search 
for leitmotifs and in their dogmatic tabu- 
lation which is obstructive rather than 
conducive to an understanding of the true 
meaning of this device. 

Although Wagner was the first to make 
consistent use of the leitmotif, his method 
is adumbrated in various earlier composi- 
tions. In Gretry’s Richard Coeur de Lion 
(1785) the theme “Une fievre brulante” 
[cf. AdHMi 747; Beethoven wrote varia- 
tions on it] appears nine times. Mozart 
in his Don Giovanni uses the same mo- 
tive for the two appearances of the dead 
Commendatore (Act II, Scenes iii and v). 
In Mehul’s Ariodante (1799), a charac- 
teristic theme called “cri de fureur’* is used 
repeatedly to express the vengeance of the 
deceived lover [cf. AdHM, 748] . A well- 
known example, though outside the field 
of opera, is the *idSe fixe of Berlioz’ Sym- 
phony Fantastique. The recurrent use of 
thematic material in Carl Loewe’s BaL 
laden may also be mentioned. Many of 
the post- Wagnerian operatic composers 
(Richard Strauss, Pfitzner, d’Indy) have 
adopted Wagner’s procedure, which also 
had an influence on symphonic music, 
particularly the symphonic poem. 

Lit.: K. Wdrner, Beitr 'dge zur Geschich- 
te des Leitmotivs in der Oper (Diss. 
Berlin 1931); id., ZMW xiv; M. Lamm, 
Bntwichlung des musi\alischen Motivs 
in den Tondramen R. Wagners (Diss. 
Vienna 1932); L. Sabanew, “Remarks on 
the Leitmotif” {ML xiii, no. 2); G. E. H. 
Abraham, “The Leitmotiv since Wagner” 
{ML vi, no. 2); E. Haraszti, “Le Pro- 
bleme du leit-motif” {RM iv). 

Leitton [G.]. Leading tone. 

Lento [It.]. Slow. See *Tempo marks. 

Leonora Overtures. The three over- 
tures which Beethoven wrote for his op- 
era ^Fidelio, prior to the final overture, 
known as Fidelio (or, somewhat incor- 
rectly, Leonora no. 4) Overture. Leonora 
no. 2 was written for a performance in 
1805, no. 3 for one in 1806, no. i for a 
performance planned at Prague, in 1807. 
The name refers to the original title of 


the opera Leonore. The Fidelio Overture 
was written in 1814. 

Lesson. Seventeenth- and 18th-century 
name for English instrumental pieces, par- 
ticularly for the harpsichord or the organ. 
The term does not imply any special con- 
notation of form or style, nor necessarily 
a pedagogical purpose; in fact, it would 
seem to be just as general and, therefore, 
meaningless, as the modern term “piece.” 
In the 17th century the term is frequently 
used for a suite (Suite of Lessons), c.g., 
in Matthew Locke’s Melothesia, A Choice 
Collection of Lessons for the Harpsichord 
and the Organ (1673). In the i8th cen- 
tury we find organ-verses as well as so- 
nata-like compositions thus named. 

Letter notation. The use of letters for 
the indication of tones is restricted today 
to theoretical and instructive purposes; 
see *Pitch names. In earlier periods they 
were also used for the writing down of 
music. This usage occurred first in an- 
cient Greece [see ^Notation II]. In the 
Middle Ages the letters a, b, c, . . . were 
used in different ways for the tones of the 
diatonic scale [cf. ApNPM, 27]. A sys- 
tem starting with the letter A for the tone 
c seems to have been employed chiefly in 
connection with certain instruments, such 
as the monochord, or sets of bells {nolae, 
tintinnabulae). Two other methods of a 
more advanced character are given below: 

(1) a b c d c f g h i 

(2) r A B C D E F G a b 

Modern: G A B e d c f g a b 

( 1 ) k 1 m n o p 

(2) c d c f g alblcl 

Modern; c' d' e' f' g' a' b' c" 

The method (i) which is frequently (but 

with doubtful justification) called Boe- 
thian notation is of interest because its 
letters were used in various books of Gre- 
gorian chant to clarify the pitch ot the 
neumatic signs, e.g., in the Antiphonarium 
Montpellier, H. 139 [cf. ^Editions XXIII, 
A, 7,8; also WoHN i, opp. p. 44], as well 
as for the setting down of early two-part 
compositions [cf. ApNPM, 207!]. The 
system (2), usually known as Guidonian 
letters, already occurs in the treatise of 


[397] 



LEUTO 


LIBRARIES 


Oddo of Clugny [sec ^Theorists] and is 
therefore more properly termed Oddonic 
{Odoistic) letters. This system was uni- 
versally adopted for theoretical and de- 
monstrative purposes, for which it is used, 
with minor modifications, to the present 
day. In the i6th century, however, it 
attained practical significance in the 
German keyboard tablaturcs and in the 
French lute tablatures [see *Tablatures]. 
Sec also ^Romanian letters. 

Leuto. Old Italian spelling for lauto^ 
lute. 

Levalto. See * Volta (i). 

Levare [It.]. To take off. Si levano i 
sordini^ take off the mutes. 

Levatio, levazione [It.]. ^Elevation. 

L.H. Left hand. 

L’homme avm€ [F., “The armed 
man’*]. A 15th-century French folk song 
[according to Pietro Aron’s Toscanello 
( 1523) by Busnois, who probably was the 
first to set it polyphonically] which rose 
to immortality because of its frequent use 
as a tenor of polyphonic Masses [see 
♦Mass B, II (b) and (d) ] . The tune, with 



its recently discovered text [cf. D. Plame- 
nac, in Rapport sur le congres archeolo- 
gique et historique (Bruges, 1925)], is 
here reproduced. There exist more than 
thirty Masses based on this melody (Missa 
Vhomme armi). Among the composers 
were Dufay [cf. HAM, no. 67], Busnois, 
Caron, Ockeghem [cf. HAMy no. 73], 
Obrccht, Tinctoris, Josquin, Brumcl, de 


la Rue [cf. HAM, no. 92], Pipclaere, 
Senfl, de Orto, Morales, Palestrina, and, 
in the 17th century, Carissimi. In 1930, 
Joh. N. David composed a “Fantasia super 
L'homme arme.” Cf. O. Strunk, in BAMS 
ii; O. Gombosi, in ZMW x, xi, xii. 

Libraries. The making known of the 
contents of music libraries on a compre- 
hensive scale is one of the uncompleted 
tasks of musicology. A beginning was 
made by Robert Eitner in his Biogra- 
phisch-bibliographisches Quellen-Lexi\on 
(Leipzig, 1900-04, 10 vols.) and its sup- 
plement, Miscellanea musicae bio-biblio- 
graphica (Leipzig, 1912-16, 3 vols.), 
which together list and locate in libraries 
the principal MS and early printed 
sources for the period up to about 1800. 
The discovery of much new material and, 
in particular, the rapid development of 
United States collections since the turn 
of the century have made the P-L, 
though still indispensable, inadequate for 
contemporary needs. 

The compilation of a new “world- 
Eitner” would take account, as he did, of 
the necessary preliminary work of organ- 
izing and cataloguing collections of mu- 
sic and the publication of their catalogues. 
A “Catalogue of music catalogues,” which 
might well be a first step in this program, 
has been in the course of compilation at 
the headquarters of the International So- 
ciety for Musicology in Basle [cf. AM v, 
141]. 

In the absence of a modern P-L, the 
musicologist must rely on a knowledge 
of the principal general and special union 
lists now available, a practical working 
knowledge of the contents of the principal 
collections of musical material, familiarity 
with the existing published catalogues of 
these collections, and acquaintance with 
the principal literature on music library 
resources. 

In the lists below an attempt is made to 
present this information systematically 
for the principal geographical regions. 
Mention is made, however, only of the 
few most outstanding collections of re- 
search materials in each country. For the 
others, the cited literature must be con- 


[398] 




LIBRARIES 


LIBRARIES 


suited. In the case of the United States, sic is included are the filming by the Li- 
the information is preceded by an account brary of Congress of Americana in United 
of some general developments of library States libraries, and the copying of irre- 
resources and services. placeable material in English libraries 

I. United States. At the time of the ap- which was begun in the summer of 1941 
pointment of O. G. Sonneck as chief of with the financial support of the Rocke- 
the music division of the Library of Con- feller Foundation. American musicolo- 
gress (1902), only a few libraries in the gists have supplied lists of desiderata for 
United States possessed notable research both projects. In both, negatives will be 
material in music [cf. Sonneck in SIM v, deposited in the Library of Congress and 
329!!]. The development of these re- copies made available to other libraries 
sources at the Library of Congress by and to scholars. 

Sonneok and his successors, Carl Engel, A special project in music is the Music 
Oliver Strunk, and Harold Spivacke, has Microfilm Archive, Otto E. Albrecht, di- 
been the most notable of any single United rector, which is supplying subscribers. 
States Library. Other public reference with 2500 frames a year. Material to be 
collections have grown substantially, how- copied is selected from an as yet unpub- 
ever, and while libraries in the United lished census of European music MSS in 
States can never be expected, in the nature the United States, compiled by Dr. Al- 
of the case, to equal the richness of Euro- brecht. Material which has been filmed 
pean collections in primary sources, in by the Archive is included in the Union 
some special fields they are equal or su- List of Microfilms, cited below. Films 
perior to European libraries, even in Eu- sent to subscribers in 1941-42 include 
ropean material. Music has also shared such items as holographs of Mozart’s 
in the development of general library symphony K. 318 and of the first sym- 
services. Among these, the system of inter- phonies of Schumann and Brahms; three 
library loans has been of great value in MSS of English virginal music; Spohr’s 
making library resources more generally unpublished opera, Alruna; and the La- 
available. (For the code under which this borde and Mellon chansonniers. 
system operates, cf. American Library Lit.: Journal of Documentary Repro- 
Association, F«//e//V/ 34: 199-200, March, duction (1938-; general and technical 
1940, and, with revisions, Library Journal articles and bibliographies); R. C. Cibella, 
65: 802-3, Oct. I, 1940.) Intercontinental Directory of Microfilm Sources (1941); 
library loans, while made to a limited ex- Union List of Microfilms, Philadelphia 
tent when conditions were favorable, may Bibliographical Center (1942); O. E. 
be expected to be virtually eliminated in Albrecht, “Microfilms and musicology” 
the future by the development of inex- [PAMS, 1938]. 

pensive processes of photoduplication. B. Phonograph Records. Nearly all 
These have, in fact, reduced the number United States music libraries with an 

of such loans made within single coun- organized music collection have added 
tries. phonograph records to their materials in 

A. Photoduplication. A comparatively recent years. Usually equipment is pro- 
recent development that has greatly ex- vided for playing the records on the prem- 
panded the resources of libraries is the ises, but some libraries circulate records 
application of microphotography to the also. The Carnegie Corporation of New 
duplication of library materials. Many York has aided this development sub- 
libraries have taken advantage of this in- stantially through its College Music Set 
expensive method of securing copies of (catalogues 1933 and 1937). This con- 
rare material, and several cooperative tains a basic stock of books, music, and 
projects among United States libraries records, and has been presented to insti- 
have resulted in the copying of very large tutions to enable them to expand their 
quantities of early material in history and music instruction. The phonograph rec- 
literaturc. General projects in which mu- ord is also the medium for the collection 

[399] 



LIBRARIES 


UBRARIES 

and preservation of a vast folk song litera- the New York Public Library, of the Li- 
ture. The largest collection is in the Ar- brary of Congress* Catalogue of Early 

chive of American Folk Song, Division Boo\s on Music as a union list of this 

of Music, Library of Congress (cf. its material in United States libraries. 

Chec\ hist of Recorded Songs in the Eng- E. General Literature on U nited States 
lish Language to July Washington, Music Collections, Music Teachers* Na- 

1942, 3 vols.), from which copies arc tional Association, Music Departments of 

available to libraries and scholars. The Libraries (1922; Bulletin, 1921, no. 33, of 

contents of other United States collections the U. S. Bureau of Education); “Libra- 

arc summarized in George Herzog’s Re- ries and Collections of Music . . . United 

search in Primitive and Folk^ Music in the States of America” {GD iii, 185 and 

United States^ Washington, 1936 (Bulle- Suppl. VoL, 360); O. Strunk, State and 

tin no. 24 of the American Council of Resources of Musicology in the United 

Learned Societies). States (1932; Bulletin no. 19 of the Amer- 

C. Music Library Association, This ican Council of Learned Societies), sup- 

association, founded in 1931, aims to fur- plemented by the Council’s Report on 

ther the development of collections of Publication and Research in Musicology 

music in the United States and Canada. (1938); L. R. McColvin, Music Libraries^ 

It has contributed substantially to the so- vol. 2 (1938, pp. 274— 292); O. E. Albrecht, 

lution of technical problems and has in- “Music Libraries in Philadelphia” {Over- 

itiated important projects in cataloguing tones^ Dec., 1939 and reprinted). 

of music and phonograph records, bibli- F. Principal Public Reference Collec- 
ography, indexing of periodicals, micro- tions. Library of Congress, Division of 
filming, etc. Its publication, Notes, 1934-, Music, In extent {c, 1,500,000 volumes 

issued four times yearly, should be con- and pieces) and richness of resources, one 

suited for numerous articles on Associa- of the greatest music libraries of the world, 
tion projects and activities. To its virtually complete American ma- 

D. Catalogues and Union Lists, For terial, secured through the provisions of 
information on general works that locate the copyright act, have been added corn- 
material in United States libraries, cf. prehensive collections of music and litera- 
C. M. Winchcll, Locating Boo\s for In- ture of all countries and periods. The 
terlibrary Loan (1930) and I. G. Mudge, Coolidge and Whittall foundations in the 
Guide to Reference Boo\s (6th ed., 1936, Division have made it a center for the 
and supplements, 1939 and 1941). Some advancement and performance of cham- 
of those most important and useful for ber music, and have also enriched its 
the musical material they contain are: notable collection of holographs, most 
the union catalogue at the Library of Con- recently with those belonging to the late 
gress (contains literature only, not music, Jerome Stonborough of Vienna. The Ar- 
with location of copies in United States chive of American Folk Song is a section 
libraries); S. de Ricci, Census of Medie- of the Music Division. One copy of each 
val and Renaissance Mss, in the United of the Library’s printed catalogue cards is 
States and Canada (1935-40, 3 vols.); contained in the Library of Congress de- 
M. B. Stillwell, Incunabula in American pository catalogues, which are available 
Libraries (1940); Union List of Serials in in the larger public and university libra- 
Libraries of the United States and Canada ries throughout the country. This author 
(1927, and 2 supplements, 1931-33; new catalogue is being lithoprinted and will 
edition in press. Summer, 1942); Union be available in book form, covering hold- 
List of Microfilm (literature and music, ings as of June 30, 1942. Like the deposi- 
with locations of originals and of film tory catalogue it will contain an entry for 
copies). Catalogues of this kind devoted every title for which cards have been 
especially to musical material are the Al- printed, that is, for nearly all of the Li- 
brecht Census mentioned above and a brary’s books about music but almost 
revision (i934)> in the Music Division of none of its music, Special catalogues, all 

[400] 



LIBRARIES 


LIBRARIES 


prepared by or under the direction of Son- probably the strongest in the United 

neck, arc: Dramatic music, full scores. States: English music printed before 1640 

1908; Orchestral music, scores, 1912; Ear- and musical incunabula. Catalogues: 

ly books on music to 1800, 1913; Opera Printed Music, j^6y-i8oo, in the Hunt- 

librettos printed before 1800, 1914, 2 vols. ington library (2500 items), compiled by 

(the world’s largest collection of this ma- Edythe N. Backus (to published); 

terial). Early English Music, 1^40-1640 (90 

Lit.: Reports of the chief of the music items), No. 7 of the Library’s price lists 

division are contained in the annual re- of photostats. Cf. E. N. Backus in Music 

port of the Librarian of Congress, 1903-, Library Association, Notes, no. 7, May, 

and were also separately reprinted from 1940, and no. 14, Aug., 1942. 

1928/29 to 1939/40. These are the best Folger Shakespeare Library, Washing- 
sources of information on the growth of ton. Notable for its substantially com- 

the collection and the expansion of its plete collection of original editions of 

services. English music and musical theory of the 

New Yor\ Public Library. The music period 1588—1623. 
division of the reference department has G. Colleges and Universities. A few of 
a collection of more than 110,000 volumes the larger university collections of music 

and pieces, including valuable early theo- are equal in size and importance to some 

retical works, tablatures, and opera and of the principal reference collections 

orchestral scores. Special collections in- named above. The Sibley Musical Library 

elude United States music, songs, and of the Eastman School of Music, Univer- 

portraits of musicians. The Division has sity of Rochester, contains more than 

published scores and parts of otherwise 40,000 volumes, including an exceedingly 

unavailable early music from its own and well-developed general collection and 

other collections, including Early Psalm- much important source material. Cf. C. 

ody in America, Series I-III. Cf. Cata- Engel, in AM v, no. i (a list of recent 

logue of Music Available in Blac\ Line accessions), and the annual reports of the 

Pr/fj/, 1935, and unpublished supplements. University library. The collections at 

Cf. H. Botstiber, in SIM iv; O. Kinkel- Harvard and Yale are also outstanding 

dey in L/^rary /oMrW 40: 589— 592 (Aug., among university libraries, the former 

1915); and the annual Report of the Li- especially for its Isham Library of organ 

brary, especially Kinkcldey in vol. 36 and early keyboard music, containing 

(1932) on the accessions at the Wolff- photostatic copies of the principal MS 

heim sale. and early printed works in the field. A 

Boston Public Library. An important special collection at Yale is the Loweh 

general collection of more than 43,000 Mason Collection of church music, 

volumes, with several European and In addition to Eastman, Harvard, and 
United States rarities and autographs. Yale, the best developed collections arc at 

A catalogue of the reference collection, Columbia, Princeton, Smith, and Vassar 

the gift of Allen A. Brown, was published and also at California, Cornell, North 

in 1916, 3 vols. and supplement. Carolina, and Wellesley. 

Newberry Library, Chicago. A well- The principal conservatory libraries arc 
developed collection of about 20,000 vol- those of the Curtis Institute of Music 

umes with especially good collections of Philadelphia; New England Conservator) 

periodicals and American hymnology. A of Music, Boston; Oberlin Conservator) 

number of important rarities are described of Music, Oberlin, Ohio; Juilliard School 

in the chapter on the music collection in of Music and Institute of Musical Art 

the Library’s Handboo\, 1938. New York; and Peabody Conservator) 

Henry M, Huntington Library and Art of Music, Baltimore. 

Gallery, San Marino, California. Like the H. Public Circulating Libraries. The 
general collection, the music is chiefly public libraries of a number of the largei 

English and American. In two fields it is cities have well-developed general music 

[401 ] 



LIBRARIES 

collections available for circulation. For 
the most part these libraries emphasize 
music in practical rather than historical 
editions, and musical literature in Eng- 
lish. A collection of phonograph records 
is usually provided, and many of these 
are operated on a circulating basis. The 
largest collection of this kind, also notable 
for its collection of music of the 20th cen- 
tury, is the Music Library of the Circula- 
tion Department of the New York Public 
Library. Other well-developed music col- 
lections are in the public libraries of the 
following cities: Baltimore (Enoch Pratt 
Library); Boston (in addition to the ref- 
erence collection described above); Chi- 
cago; Cleveland (including the White 
collection of folklore); Detroit; Los An- 
geles; Minneapolis; Northampton, Mass. 
(Forbes Library); Philadelphia (which 
also houses the unequaled Fleisher collec- 
tion of orchestral scores and parts, Cata- 
logue, 1933); Portland, Oregon; Provi- 
dence, R. I.; St. Louis; and San Francisco. 

II. Latin America, Although the mu- 
sical contents of some of the archives and 
libraries in Latin America are unques- 
tionably rich, little is known about them. 
For a preliminary survey, cf. C. S. Smith, 
“Music Libraries in South America” (Mu- 
sic Library Association, ^otes^ no. ii, 
Aug., 1941). Further information, when 
available, may be expected to appear in 
the music and libraries sections of the 
Handbook of Latin American Studies 
(1935-), the basic bibliography in this 
field, and in a guide to Latin American 
music being compiled by Gilbert Chase of 
the music division, Library of Congress. 

III. Europe, The subsequent survey 
lists the most important of the European 
music libraries. Numerous others are de- 
scribed in GD, 

Lit.: E. Vogel, “Die Musikbibliotheken 
nach ihrem wesentlichsten Bestande auf- 
gcfvihrt” (JMP i); “Libraries and Collec- 
tions of Music . . . Europe” (GD iii, 150; 
Suppl. Vol., 350); G. Kinsky, in Philo^ 
hihlon vi, 55--67 (1933); L. R. McColvin, 
Music Libraries^ ii (1938), 213-274; C. S. 
Smith, in Thompson’s International Cy- 
clopedia (1939), pp. 1003-09. 

A. Belgium and Holland, Lit.: J. G. 


LIBRARIES 

Prod’homme, **Les Institutions musicales 
. . . en Belgique et en Hollande” (SIM 
xv); C. van den Borren, “Inventaire des 
manuscrits de musiquc polyphonique . . . 
en Belgique” (AM v, nos. 2-4; vi, nos. 

Brussels, Biblioth^que Royale, A prin- 
cipal part of this library consists of the 
F^tis collection. Catalogue: Brussels, 
1877. — Conservatoire Royale de Mu- 
sique. Important 16th-century MSS, 
Italian opera librettos of the lyth-iSth 
centuries, best collection of C. P. E. Bach. 
Catalogue by A. Wotquenne, 1898-1912, 
4 vols. and supplement (librettos), 1901. 

The Hague, The Scheuerleer Museum 
houses the greater part of the library and 
instrument collection of the late D. F. 
Scheuerleer (1855-1927). Catalogues 
1893-1910, 3 vols., and 1923-25, 2 vols. 

B. France, Paris, Bibliotheque Na- 
tional, Unrivaled collection of French 
music, printed and MS, from the earliest 
times. Catalogue by J. Ecorcheville, 1910— 
14, 8 vols. The books on music are con- 
tained in the Library’s Catalogue general 
des livres imprimSsy 1900- (158 vols., A 
to Rukser, to 1939). — Conservatoire Na- 
tional de Musique, Important early and 
general material, with outstanding collec- 
tion of holographs. Catalogues: of part of 
the early material, by J. B. T. Weckerlin, 
1885; of the Fonds Blancheton (impor- 
tant for the early symphony), by L. de La 
Laurencie, 1930-31, 2 vols.; of the ’^'Phili- 
dor MSS, by E. H. Fellowes in ML xii. 
Cf, J. G. Prod’homme, “Two Musical 
Libraries of Paris” (MQ xxiv); articles 
on the manuscripts of special composers 
and in special categories in RdMy 1926- 

32. 

C. Germany and Austria, The Deut- 
scher Gesamt\atalogy a union catalogue 
of printed books in sixteen German and 
Austrian libraries, has been in course of 
publication since 1931 (14 vols., A to 
Beeth, to 1939). contains musical litera- 
ture, including librettos. 

Berlin, Preussische Staatsbibliothe\, 
One of the largest and richest collections 
in the world, especially notable for its 
manuscripts of the German classic mas- 
ters. Cf. W. Altmann in ZMW iii, 426!!, 



LIBRARIES 


LIBRARIES 


on the history and organization of the 
music department; in ii-ix, lists of the 
more important current acquisitions; }. 
Wolf in AM iii, 119 and 171 (acquisitions, 
1928-31). 

Breslau, The Stadtbibliothek contains 
the collection of ibth-iyth-century works 
scored by Emil Bohn. Cf. his Biblio- 
graphic der Musi\-Druc\wer\€ his ijoo 
(1883), ^ catalogue of material in three 
Breslau libraries. 

Dresden. Sdchsische Landeshibliothe\. 
Catalogue by Eitner and Kadc, 1890 
(Beilage to MfM). The original musical 
manuscripts are catalogued by A. Reich- 
erts in vol. 4 of L. Schmidt’s general cata- 
logue of the Library’s MS, 1923. 

Leipzig. Musi\bibliothe 1 { Peters, An 
exceedingly well-developed general col- 
lection, founded and maintained by the 
music publishing house of C. F. Peters. 
Catalogues: R. Schwartz, Katalog I: Bii^ 
cher und Schriften; id., '‘Bach Manu- 
scripte” (1910) (JMP xxvi). Publication 
of a list of the library’s holdings of ma- 
terial of the kind listed in Eitner was 
begun in JMP xlvi. 

Munich. Staatsbibliothe\. One of the 
world’s great collections, particularly rich 
in MS and printed works of the i6th cen- 
tury. Catalogue of the manuscripts to 
1700 by J. J. Maier, 1879. 

Vienna, Nationalbibliothe\. Besides a 
rich collection of early MS and printed 
material, this library houses the von Ho- 
boken collection of photostats of manu- 
scripts of the classic masters. Part of the 
Library’s MSS, catalogued by J. Man- 
tuani, are listed in vols. 9-10, 1897-99, of 
its general catalogue of manuscripts. The 
Este collection, now in the Nationalbib- 
liothek, has been catalogued by R. Haas 
(Regensburg, 1927). Cf. R. Haas, in 
ZMW vi, viii, ix, xi (lists of important 
acquisitions) and in JMP xxxvii (history 
of the collection). — Gesellschaft der Mu- 
sif{ireunde. Exceedingly rich collection, 
including, among others, the libraries of 
Gerber, Kochel, and Brahms. Notable 
MSS of the Viennese classical composers. 
Cf. K. Geiringer in Anbruch xix (history 
of the collection). 

D. Great Britain. Cf. W. H. Frere, 


Biblioteca liturgica: a descriptive handlist 
oj the Latin liturgical mss. of the Middle 
Ages preserved in the libraries of Great 
Britain and Ireland, 2 vols. (1901-32). 

Cambridge, Fitzwilliam Museum. Im- 
portant MSS are the Fitzwilliam Virginal 
Boo\ and a large Handel collection. Cata- 
logue by J. A. Fuller-Maitland (1893). 
— University Library, The musical re- 
sources of the University library have been 
augmented by the deposit on loan, since 
1936, of the great private library of Paul 
Hirsch, formerly of Frankfurt. Catalogue, 
by Hirsch and Kathi Meyer, 3 vols. ( 1928- 
36) and a fourth in preparation. 

London, British Museum. One of the 
world’s great collections, with exceptional 
resources in MS and printed music and 
musical literature of all countries and 
periods. Catalogues: Ms, Music, by A. 
Hughes-Hughes, 3 vols. (1906-^9); 
Printed Music published between 148^ 
and 1800, by W. Barclay Squire, 2 vols. 
(1912), including ist supplement, 2d 
supplement, by Wm. C. Smith (1940). 
An accessions catalogue of modern printed 
music has been published since 1884. 
Printed books on music are contained in 
the Museum’s catalogue of printed books, 
1881-1900 and supplements to 1905; new 
edition, 1931- (32 vols., A to Carr, to 
1941). The King’s Music Library, on per- 
manent deposit in the Museum, is best 
known for its unexcelled collection of 
Handel MSS. Catalogue, by W. Barclay 
Squire and Hilda Andrews, 3 vols. ( 1927- 
29). — Royal College of Music. An 
extensive collection, with much valuable 
printed and MS material. Catalogues, by 
W. Barclay Squire: Printed music (1909); 
MSS (more than 4000), unpublished type- 
script, with copies at British Museum, 
Bodleian (Oxford), and Cambridge Uni- 
versity library. 

Tenbury, St. Michael's College. Im- 
portant MSS, including 350 volumes of 
the Toulouse-Philidor collection of 17th- 
i8th-century French music [sec *Philidor, 
Collection]. Catalogue by E. H. Fellowes 
(Paris, 1935); and, of the Philidor MSS, 
in ML xii, no. 2. 

E. Italy. The Associazione dei must- 
cologi italiani has been publishing since 


[403] 



LIBREMENT 


LIEBESGEIGE 


1909 catalogues of early music and theo- 
retical works, printed and MS, existing in 
Italian libraries and archives, public and 
private. In 1930-31 Albert Smijers began 
preparation of a card catalogue of MS 
compositions by Netherlands composers 
of the 15th and i6th centuries which are 
in Italian libraries. Copies are at the 
Netherlands Historical Institute in Rome 
and at the musicological institute of the 
University of Utrecht. Cf. H. Antcliffe in 
Chesterian xvii, 112-115 (March, 1936). 

Bologna, Liceo Musicale, One of the 
principal collections of the world, com- 
prising, among others, the library of Padre 
Martini. Catalogue, by G. Gaspari and 
others, 4 vols. (1890-1905). 

Florence. Biblioteca Nazionale Cen- 
trale. Cf. Mostra bibliografica di musica 
italiana . . . (1937; catalogue of an ex- 
hibition of the principal musical treasures 
of the city’s libraries). — The Biblioteca 
Mediceo-Laurenziana possesses two of the 
most precious medieval music manu- 
scripts, pint. 29, /, the most extensive 
source of the School of Notre Dame [see 
•Magnus liber organi] and Pal. ^7, the 
Squarcialupi Codex [see •Sources, no. 

13]- 

Rome. Vatican Library. Like the other 
collections of the city, especially notable 
for its liturgical MSS. Catalogue of the 
music archives of the Papal chapel by 
F. X. Haberl, 1888 (Beilage to M/M). 

F. Spain. Barcelona. Biblioteca Mu- 
sical de la Diputacio. Important early 
printed and MS works, especially of Spain 
and Italy. Catalogue by F. Pedrell, 1908- 
09, 2 vols. 

Madrid. Biblioteca Nacional. Valuable 
MS and printed works by composers of 
Spain, Italy, and the Netherlands. 

R.S. A. 

Librement [F.]. Freely. 

Libretto [It., little book] . The text book 
of an opera, oratorio, etc. Famous writers 
of librettos (librettists) were: Rinuccini, 
fl. c. 1600 (for Peri, Caccini, Monteverdi); 
Philippe Quinault, 1635-88 (for Lully); 
Pietro Metastasio, 1698-1782 (for A. 
Scarlatti, Hasse, Handel, Mozart); Ra- 
niero de Calzabigi, 1714-95 (for Gluck); 


Lorenzo da Ponte, 1749-1838 (for Mo- 
zart’s Figaro, Cosi fan tutte, and Don 
Giovanni^', Eugene Scribe, 1791-1861 
(for Auber, Meyerbeer, Halevy, Boil- 
dieu); Arrigo Boito, 1842-1918 (for 
Verdi’s Otello and Falstaff)] Hugo v. 
Hofmannsthal (for R. Strauss); William 
Gilbert, 1836-1911 (for Sullivan). Rich- 
ard Wagner set a new turn in the history 
of the libretto by writing his own texts, 
and by insisting upon a degree of uni- 
fication between text and music thereto- 
fore unknown. His example was fol- 
lowed by Cornelius, Pfitzner, Schreker, 
and others. 

Large collections of librettos of early 
operas (17th and i8th centuries) exist at 
the Library of Congress (Collection A. 
Schatz) and in various European libraries 
[cf. RiML, 1035]. 

Lit.: O. G. T. Sonneck, Catalogue of 
Opera Librettos printed before 1800 (2 
vols., 1914); E. Istel, The Art of Writing 
Opera Librettos (1922); E. de Bricque- 
ville, Le Livret d'opera fran(‘ais de Lully 
d Glucl{ (1888); M. Ehrenstein, Die 
Operndichtung der deutschen Romanti\ 
(1918); F. Vatielli, ‘‘Operisti-librettisti 
des scoli XVII e XVIII” {RMl xliii); H. 
Prunieres, “I Libretti dell’ opera vene- 
ziana nel secolo XVII” {LRM iii); T. M. 
Baroni in RMl xii (Metastasio); M. Calle- 
gori in RMl xxvi, xxviii (Metastasio). 

Licenza, con alcuna [It., with some 
liberty]. Indication of some license of 
performance, or of composition, e.g., 
canone con alcuna licenza. 

Liceo [It.]. Name of various Italian 
conservatories, e.g.: Liceo Padre Martini 
(Bologna, also known simply as Liceo 
Musicale, famous for its library; see •Li- 
braries III, E); Liceo Rossini (Pesaro); 
Liceo B. Marcello (Venice); Liceo Verdi 
(Torino); etc. 

Lichanos [Gr.]. See *Greek music II 
(a). 

Liebesfuss [G.]. The pear-shaped bell 
of the English horn and the -oboe d’amorc. 

Liebesgeige; -oboe [G.]. Viola d’a- 

more; oboe d’amore. 


[404] 



LIED 


LIED 


Lied [G.]. A song in the German ver- 
nacular. The history of the Lied can be 
divided into the following periods: 1. 
Minnesinger and Meistersinger (c* 1250— 
1550); II. The polyphonic Lied (15th/ 
i6th century); III. The accompanied Lied 
(“Generalbass-lied”) of the Baroque 
(1600-1750); IV. The ‘‘volkstiimliches 
Lied” (1775-1825); V. The “German 
Lied” of the 19th century. 

I. See ^Minnesinger, ’•^Meistersinger. 

II . The 15th-century composers Os- 
wald von Wolckenstein (1377-1445) and 
the Miinch von Salzburg (fl. c. 1400) 
were the first to write polyphonic songs, 
rather primitive imitations of 14th-cen- 
tury French models or of still earlier styles 
[cf. O. Ursprung, in AMW iv, v; DTOe 
9]. Important collections of 15th-century 
folk songs, some monophonic, some in 
polyphonic setting, are the Glogauer^ the 
Miinchner, and the Lochamer Liederbuch 
[see ^Liederbuch]. The polyphonic songs 
of Adam v. Fulda and of Heinrich Finck 
(1445-1527) show remarkable progress 
of style (true polyphonic treatment, imi- 
tation), thus leading to the masterly com- 
positions of Heinrich Isaac (1450-1517; 
cf. DTOe i4.i; HAM^ no. 87), Paulus 
Hofhaimer (i459--i537; cf. H. J. Moser, 
Paulus Hofhaimer, 1929; HAM, no. 93), 
Stoltzer (1480-1526; DdT 65; HAM, no. 
108), and Ludwig Senfl (1490-after 1540; 
cf. DdT, no. 34; ^Editions XII A, 10; 
HAM, no. no). Isaac’s “Innsbruck ich 
muss dich lassen” became one of the oldest 
and most beautiful folk songs in the Ger- 
man language. Important sources of real 
German folk song are Senfl’s ^quodlibets 
in which many popular songs of his day 
are cited. Important collections of poly- 
phonic songs are G. Forster’s five books 
Ein Ausszug guter alter und neuer teut- 
scher Liedlein (Nvirnberg, 1539-56; the 
second book, Frische teutsche Liedlein, 
republished by Eitner; see ^Editions 
XXVI, 29), and G. Ott’s 11$ guter neuer 
Liedlein (1544, republished by Eitner; 
see ^Editions 50 CVI, 1-4). In the second 
half of the i6th century Orlando di Lasso 
composed numerous German texts with 
his never-failing imagination and dexter- 
ity [Newe Teutsche Liedlein mit funff 


Stimmen, 3 vols., 1567, ’72, ’76; Newe 
Teutsche Lieder . . . mit vier Stimmen, 
1583, etc.; cf. the complete ed., vol. xxi]. 
In the works of the foreigners, Mattheus 
Le Maistre (d. 1577), Antonio Scandello 
(1517-80), and Jacob Regnart (1540-99), 
the lighter vein of the Italian *canzonette 
and the “Bauernharmonie” (peasant har- 
mony) of the *villanella superseded the 
polyphonic style of the earlier period [cf. 
^Editions XXVI, 19; SchGMB, no. 139]. 
The two great masters from the end of 
the 1 6th century, Leonhard Lechner 
(1553-1606; Neue Teutsche Lieder, 1582, 
new ed. by E. F. Schmid, 1926) and Hans 
Leo Hassler (1564-1612; Canzonette and 
Neue teutsche Gesdng, 1596, new ed. in 
DTB 5.ii; Lustgarten, 1601, new ed. cf. 
’••‘Editions XXVI, 15) combine a fin de 
siecle refinement of technique with a 
typically German depth of feeling and 
expression [see *Madrigal IV]. The de- 
velopment of the polyphonic Lied came 
to an end with Johann Hermann Schein 
(1586-1630; V enus\rdnzlein, 1609; Mu- 
sica boscarcccia, 1621; cf. complete ed. by 
A. Priifer, vols. i, ii; also SchGMB, nos. 
187, 188). 

III. The accompanied solo-Lied of the 
Baroque period (“Generalbass-lied,” i.e., 
song with thorough-bass accompaniment) 
made its first appearance in Johann Nau- 
wach’s {c, 1 595-?) Erster Theil teutscher 
Villanellen mit i, 2 und j Stimmen 
(1627), in Johann Staden’s (1581-1634) 
Hertzenstrosts-Musica (1630) and Geist- 
licher MusiJ^-Klang (1633), in Thomas 
Selle’s (1599-1663) Deliciorum juveni- 
lium decas (1634), and Monophonetica 
( 1 636) [cf. H. J. Moser, \Alte Meister des 
deutschen Liedes, 1931 ] . With H. Albert’s 
(1604-51) Arien (1638/50; DdT 12, 13; 
cf. also HAM, no. 205; SchGMB, no. 193) 
and Andreas Hammerschmidt’s Weltliche 
Oden (1642/49; cf. Moser, Alte Meister; 
SchGMB, no. 194) it freed itself from the 
Italian model and became a truly German 
type of song, combining popular simplic- 
ity with artistic taste. This development 
reached its high-point in the inspired 
songs of Adam Kriegcr (1634-66; cf. 
DdT 19; H. OsthofT, Adam Krieger, 
1929; HAM, no. 228; SchGMB, no. 209) 


[405 J 



LIED 


LIED 


who used the instrumental ritornello to period ot the German Lied stands Franz 

be played at the end of each stanza. This Schubert (1797--1828) who, after a few 

“ritorncllo-Lied” was also cultivated by preliminary songs in traditional style, 

Johann Erasmus Kindermann (1616-55; opened a new era with his Gretchen am 

cf. DTB 21/24), Johannes Theile (1646- Spinnrad (Oct. 19, 1814, “the birthday of 

1724; cf. SchGMB, no. 210), and Philipp the German Lied”), a miracle of musical 

Heinrich Erlebach (1657-1714; cf. DdT art as well as of psychological intuition, 

46/47). Towards the end of the century being the work of a seventeen-year-old. 

the religious song found a master in There followed quickly a flood tide of 

Johann Wolfgang Franck (164 1-<. 1700; immortal masterworks, including the 

Geistliche Lieder, 1681-1700; new cd. Erl^onig, Wanderer s Nachtlied, Der 

DdT 45). The arias of Bach and Handel Tod und das Mddeheuy Der Wanderer 

deserve only passing mention here since (1815/16), later the song cycles Die 

they do not properly fall under the cate- Sc hone Mullerin (1823), Wintetreise 

gory Lied. In fact, during the first half (1827), and Schwanengesang (1828). 

of the 1 8th century the Lied practically Measured by the artistic perfection of 

ceased to exist, giving way to the elaborate these songs, even the most beautiful Lie- 

treatment of the aria. On the other hand, der of Schumann and Brahms seem to be 

a great number of Lieder occur, under the somewhat slight in imagination, and only 

name aria, in the operas of Joh. Sigismund Hugo Wolfs compositions stand the proof 

Cousser [SchGMB, no. 250], Reinhard of comparison. It will suffice to add to the 

Keiscr [SchGMB, nos. 268, 269], Tele- just-mentioned names those of Mendels- 

mann, etc. Sperontes’ Singende Muse an sohn, Liszt, Wagner, Robert Franz (1815- 

der Pleisse, 1742/45 [DdT 35, 36; cf. 92), Peter Cornelius (1824-74), Gustav 

SchGMB, no. 289] gives a good cross Mahler (1860-1911), Richard Strauss (b. 

section of the period of deterioration and 1864), Hans Pfitzner (b. 1869), and Max 

disintegration of the Generalbass-lied. Reger (1873-1916), in order to outline 

Cf. also DdT 57 for songs {Oden) by the development of the Romantic Lied. 

Telemann and Corner. The revolutionary tendencies of the 

IV. Matters took a new turn after 1750 20th century found their first clear ex- 

when Johan Adam Hiller (1728-1804), pression in Schonberg’s George-Lieder 

the founder of the *Singspiel, replaced (op. 15, 1907 and later) which, in addition 

the worn-out pathos of the late Baroque to their novel harmonic style, show a new 

by an affected expression of naivete in type of vocal (or, rather, un-vocal) line, a 

songs which he frequently addressed to sort of speech-like declamation in which 

children [Lieder jiir Kinder (1769); the rise and fall of the speaking voice is 

Geistliche Lieder fiir Kinder Der reflected in wide “atonal” steps of aug- 

Kinderjreund (1782); cf. Moser, Alte mented fifths, octaves, etc. Hindemith’s 

Meister]. J. A. P. Schulz (1747-1800) masterly Marienleben (op. 27, 1924), in- 

found a more genuine expression of folk- spired by the constructive ideals and the 

like simplicity {Vol 1 {ston\ see *Volks- polyphonic style of Bach, is a landmark 

tiimliches Lied), while other members which may well indicate the road to a new 

of the second ^Berlin School, such as J. F. future of the Lied. 

Reichardt (1753-1814) and K. F. Zelter Lit.: O.Bic, Das deutsc he Lied (1926); 
(1758-1832), introduced a new lyricism, H. Bischoff, Das deutsche Lied (1905); 
particularly in their settings of Goethe’s M. Friedlander, Das deutsche Lied im 
poems. In the songs of Haydn, Mozart (3 vols., 1902); H. Kretz- 

(“Das Veilchen”), and the early Bee- schmar, Geschichte des neuen deutschen 

thoven this movement found its conclu- Liedes i: Von Albert bis Zelter (1911); 

sion and artistic climax. Cf. DTOe zy.ii W. K. von Jolizza, Das Lied . . . bis zum 

and 42.ii for a survey of the Viennese Lied Ende des 18, Jahrhunderts (1910); H. 

from 1778 to 1815. Moser, ^Alte Meister des deutschen Lie- 

V. At the beginning of the greatest des (2d ed. 1931); id., \Corydort (1933); 

[406] 



LIEDERBUCH 


LIGATURES 


M. Brcslauer, Das deutsche Lied bis zum 
i 8 , Jahrhundert (1908; bibl.); A. Priifcr, 
/. H, Schein und das weltliche Lied; R. 
Velten, Das dltere deutsche Lied unter 
dem Einfluss der italienischen Musi\ 
(1915); H. Rosenberg, Untersuchungen 
iiber die deutschen Liedweisen im 75. 
Jahrhundert (Diss. Berlin 1931); H. H. 
Rosenwald, Das deutsche Lied zwischen 
Schubert und Schumann (Diss. Heidel- 
berg 1931). 

Periodicals: 15th cent.: O. Ursprung, 
in AMW iv, v, vi (bibl.); R. Eitner, in 
MfM viii, ix, xii (Beilagen); H. Riemann, 
in SIM vii; W. Krabbe, in AMW iv; J. 
Miiller-Blattau, in ZMW xvii; id., in 
AMF iii; R. Molitor, in SIM xii. — i6th 
cent.: R. Eitner, in MfM xxvi, xxxvii; F. 
Spitta, in Riemann Festschrift (1909); 
A. Becker, in ZMW i; H. J. Moser, in 
]MP XXXV. — 17th cent.: F. Noack, in 
ZMW i; P. Epstein, in ZMW x; W. Vet- 
ter, in ZMW X. — 1 8th cent.: M. Seiflert, 
in Liliencron Festschrift (1910); B. Sey- 
fcrt, in VMW x; H. J. Moser, in JMP 
xxxix; G. Frotscher, in ZMW vi. — 19th 
cent.: E. Hughes, in MQ iii (Liszt); R. 
Gerber, in ]MP xxxix (Brahms). — 20th 
cent.: H. Nathan, in MM xiv, no. 3. See 
also under ^Minnesinger; ’•''Meistersinger. 


voice composition). The two other col- 
lections contain, in addition to vocal 
pieces, interesting instrumental dances 
[see *Dance music II] and canons. For 
literature see under *Licd (15th century); 
also BeMMR, 229. 

Important 16th-century publications 
are Oeglins Liederbuch of 1512 and Ott*s 
Liederbuch of 1544, containing 4- 
part arrangements of songs [new ed. see 
♦Editions XXVI, 9 and 1-4]. 

Liedercyclus, Liederkreis [G.]. 

♦Song cycle. 

Lieder ohne Worte [G.j. Songs 
without Words, the title of several of F. 
Mendelssohn’s collections of piano pieces, 
written in the style of a Lied, that is, with 
a singable melody and a pianistic accom- 
paniment, frequently in broken-chord 
patterns. 

Liedertafel [G., song table]. A male 
singing society, founded by Zelter in 
1809, the members of which at first sat 
around a table with refreshments. Vari- 
ous similar societies sprang up during the 
19th century. More recently the name has 
been superseded by Mdnnergesangverein. 

Liedform [G.]. ♦Song-form. 


Liederbuch [G.]. A term commonly 
applied to 15th/ 16th-century collections 
of German songs, mainly: (a) Lochamer 
Liederbuch, c. 1450 [facsimile ed. by K. 
Ameln, 1925; description with transcrip- 
tions in JMW ii (1867); improved tran- 
scription by K. Ameln and by Escher- 
Lott (1926); cf. C. Ursprung, in AMW 
iv, V, vi; H. Rosenberg, in ZMW xiv; 
F. Miiller-Blattau in AMF iii; see also 
♦Fundamentum organisandi] . — (b) 
Glogauer [formerly: Berliner] Lieder- 
buch, c. 1460 (new ed., see ♦Editions XII 
A, 4 and 8; also in MfM vi, no. 5 and viii, 
Beilage). — (c) Miinchner (also Wal- 
thers or SchedeVs) Liederbuch, c. 1460 
[MfM vi, no. 10, and xii, Beilage; selec- 
tion by H. Rosenberg in Barenreiter 
Verlag]. 

The Lochamer Liederbuch is the most 
important source of early German folk 
song (some monophonic, some in thrce- 


Lieto [It.]. Joyous. 

Lievemente [It.]. Lightly. 

Ligatura [It.], (i) ♦Ligature. — (2) 
In the 17th century, a tied note; see under 
♦Durezza. 

Ligatures. I. Notational signs of the 
13th to the 1 6th centuries which combine 
two or more notes in a single graph. 
They developed in the late 12th century 
as square-shaped modifications of the 
neumes [see illustration; see also ♦Nota- 
tion]. From these they inherited certain 
graphic peculiarities which can only be 

r J fK jy 

I' a fv A 

understood as the result of this evolution, 
e.g., the initial stroke of the “descending” 
forms (i and 3) which is lacking in the 


[407] 



LIGATURES 

“ascending” forms (2 and 4). Although 
in plainsong and in the related bodies of 
monophonic music these signs are but 
graphic modifications of the neumes [see 
*Plainsong notation], they adopted defi- 
nite rhythmic meanings in polyphonic 
music. The first step in this direction oc- 
curred in the modal notation of the School 
of Notre Dame, in the early 13th century. 
Here, ligatures are the ordinary notation- 
al signs for all the parts, single notes being 
used only for special reasons (long notes 
of the tenor). Their rhythmic evaluation 
depends entirely upon their grouping, 
according to the different rhythmic 
*modes [see ^Square notation] . The rise 
of the ’•‘'motet (c. 1225) greatly dimin- 
ished the use of ligatures in the upper 
parts, owing to the presence of a full text 
in these parts. (The notes of a ligature 
must always be sung to one syllable; the 
inference, frequently found in modern 
writings, that parts written entirely in 
ligatures — e.g., the tenors of motets — 
indicate instrumental performance is 
wholly unfounded; in practically all cases 
such parts were sung as ^vocalizations.) 
The final step in the development of the 
ligatures was made around 1250 by 
Franco of Cologne who succeeded in as- 
signing an unambiguous metrical signifi- 
cance (independent of the modes) to each 
of the various shapes. His rules remained 
unaltered throughout the ensuing period 
of mensural notation. The subsequent 
explanations refer mainly to the period of 
white mensural notation (after 1450). 

II. According to the number of notes 
contained in a ligature a distinction is 
made between ligatura binaria (two), 
ternaria (three), quaternaria (four), etc. 
In each of these categories there exists a 
variety of shapes which are designated by 
the terms proprietas and perfectio. The 
former of these refers to the modifications 
concerning the initial notes, the latter to 
those of the final note. The various types 
of the ligatura binaria are illustrated in 
the accompanying table in which r.c. 
means: cum (with) proprietate et cum 
perfectione; sine (without) proprie- 
tate et cum perfectione^ etc., while c,o,p. 
designates a special type, known as cum 


LIGATURES 

opposita proprietate (B == hrevis\ L 


longa', S 

= semi brevis) 
Dcsc. 

Asc. 

Value 

Cjc, 

ffa 


B L 

s.c. 

% 


L L 

CJ, 


cP 

B B 

s^. 


f 

L B 

c.o.p. 


tp 1:3 

S S 


These principles cover also the various 
types of ternaria, quaternaria, since the 
middle notes occurring in these ligatures 
are (normally) always B. 

For practical purposes the following set 
of rules may be used [cf. ApNPM, pif j : 

A. Notes with stems. 

1. A note with a downward stem at 
the right is L. 

2. An ascending stem to the left of the 
initial note makes it and the follow- 
ing note S each. 

3. An initial with a downward stem 
at its left is B. 

B. Other notes. 

4. All middle notes are B. 

5. An initial note in descending posi- 
tion (i.e., followed by a lower note) 
and a final note in descending po- 
sition (i.e., preceded by a higher 
note) are L. 

6. An initial in ascending position and 
a final in ascending position are B. 

7. A final note in oblique form is B. 

As a further illustration an instructive 

example of ligatures together with a ren- 



dering in single notes is given. It should 
be noticed that oblique writing has no 
rhythmical significance unless it occurs 
at the end of a ligature and that, even 
here, it affects only the last of the two 
notes comprised in its graph (rule 7). 

Lit.: ApNPM, 87!!, 23 iff, 3i2ff; O. 
Ursprung, in AM xi; H. Rietsch, in ZMW 
viii; sec also under ^Mensural notation. 


[408] 




LILLIBURLERO 

Lilliburlero. A 17th-century political 
tune the melody of which appeared first 
under the name “Quickstep” in The De- 
lightful Companion (1686). This melody 
[cf. GD iii, 198] was, in the following 
year, used to a political text, satirically 
directed against the Papists and the Irish 
Roman Catholics, which began as follows: 

Ho, brodcr Teague, dost hear de decree, 
Lilliburlero, bullcn a la. 

The melody has been used for various oth- 
er texts of the same type. It also appears 
under the name “A New Irish Tune” in 
MusicJ(s Hand Maid for the Virginal and 
Spinet (1689) with H. Purcell given as 
the composer, either of the tune or of the 
keyboard version. Purcell also used it as 
a ground bass in his play The Gordian 
Knot Untyd (1691). 

Limma[Gr.]. See ^Pythagorean scale. 

Linear counterpoint. A term intro- 
duced by E. Kurth (Grundlagen des line- 
ar en Kontrapun\ts^ 19 1 7) order to 
emphasize the “linear,” i.e., horizontal 
aspect of counterpoint, as opposed to the 
harmonic (or vertical) point of view 
which prevailed at the time the book was 
published. Today the “linear” character 
of counterpoint is generally recognized. 
The term is also used as a designation for 
what the Germans call ruc\sichtsloser 
(reckless) Kontrapun}{t, i.e., the modern 
type of counterpoint which pays little 
attention to harmonic combination and 
euphony (Hindemith, Stravinsky). 

Lining. In American and English psalm 
and hymn singing, the practice of having 
each line read by the minister or some 
other person before it is sung by the con- 
gregation. This custom, which sprang up 
from the insufficient familiarity of the 
people with the texts, prevailed through 
the end of the 19th century. In England 
it was known as “deaconing.” See *Psal- 
ter. 

Linke Hand [G.]. Left hand. 

Linz Symphony. Mozart’s Symphony 
in C, no. 36, K.V. 425, believed to have 
been written at Linz in 1783. 


LITURGICAL BOOKS 

Lip. See ^Embouchure. 

Lippenpfeife [G.]. Labial pipe. 

Liquescent neumes. See *Neumes. 
Cf. H. Freisted, Die liquescierenden No- 
ten des Gregorianischen Chorals (1928). 

Lira. A 15th/ 16th-century type of violin, 
characterized by a heart-shaped neck 
with front pegs and by the presence of 
drone strings. The lira da braccio was 
held in the arm, the larger lira da gamha 
{lirone) between the knees. See illustra- 
tion on p. 800. See also ^Violin II. — 
For Haydn’s lira organizzata see *Hurdy- 
gurdy. 

L’istesso tempo [It.]. Same tempo. 

Litany. In the Roman Catholic Church, 
solemn supplications addressed to God, 
to the Virgin {Litaniae Lauretanae^ AR, 
1 17*), or to the Saints (ARy 74*), etc. 
They open with the Kyrie eleison, con- 
tinue with numerous exclamations such 
as “Mater Christi, ora pro nobis,” sung 
responsively to a short inflected mono- 
tone, and close with the Agnus Dei. The 
most famous of these litanies, the Litaniae 
Lauretanae (named after Loreto in Italy), 
are frequently used at processions, at the 
exposition of the Blessed Sacrament at 
Benediction, and at many popular serv- 
ices where they are sung by the whole 
congregation (particularly in Italy). They 
have been frequently composed in a sim- 
ple chordal style (falso bordone), for in- 
stance, by Palestrina [complete ed., vol. 
26], by Lasso [see ^Editions XX, 4], and 
others. Cf. GD iii, 217. 

The Anglican Litany is a very extended 
prayer consisting of recitations by the min- 
ister, interspersed with short choral an- 
swers, such as “Spare us, good Lord,” 
“Good Lord, deliver us,” etc. 

Liturgical books. I. Under this head- 
ing the most important books of the Ro- 
man Catholic service are briefly described, 
(a) The Missale (missal) contains the full 
service of the Mass; the smaller current 
editions contain the texts only; the larger 
editions as well as the early MSS include 
also the chant (chiefly recitation) for the 


[409] 



LITURGICAL BOOKS 


LITURGICAL DRAMA 

celebrating priest, but not that f^r the was revived [see *Cecilian movement] 

choir (^schola), — (b) The Brevtarium F. X. Haberl unfortunately reintroduced 

(breviary) contains the service for the the Mediccan versions in his Editio Ratis- 

Office, in similar arrangements. — (c) bonensis (Regensburg, 1871-81). Owing 

The Graduale Romanum (GR) contains to the initiative of the monks of Solesmes 

that part of the Mass which is sung by the this edition was replaced in 1908 by the 

choir, i.e., the Graduals, Introits, etc. [see Editio Vaticana which is based on the 

•Mass], — (d) The Antiphonale Ro- earliest available sources, from the loth 

manum (AR) contains the choir-chants to the 12th century. See * Gregorian 

for the Office, i.e., the entire musical serv- chant VII; *Solesmes; *Motu proprio. 

ice other than the Mass. — (e) The Liber 

Usualis (LU) is a modern combination Liturgical drama or play. Medieval 
of the Graduale and the Antiphonale in plays (chiefly 12th and 13th centuries) 
which the items of the Office and of the representing Biblical stories with action 
Mass arc given in their proper order of and music. They never formed a part of 
the day, together with the (changeable) the official liturgy, and therefore would 
lections, etc., from the Missale. It is more be more properly called religious drama, 
handy for the layman, and clearer par- They developed, during the loth and nth 
ticularly in the rendition of the psalm centuries, from ^tropes to the Introits for 
singing [see *Psalm tones]. It also in- Christmas and Easter which were written 
eludes the service of *Matins (for the in the form of a ^dialogue (so-called dia- 
great feasts) which, unfortunately, is logue tropes), i.e., of question and an- 
omitted in the other two books because it swer. One of the earliest examples is the 
is rarely held in ordinary Churches [see trope Hodie cantandus est (possibly by 
♦Gregorian Chant I]. — (f) The Kyriale Tuotilo, d. 915) to the Christmas Introit 
is a reprint of the last section of the Grad- Puer natus est [Schubiger, p. 39; abridged 
uale, and contains only the Ordinary of in SchGMB, no. 3; cf. GRy 33]. A more 
the Mass (beginning with Kyrie). — (g) fully developed type, in fact a real play, is 
*Tonarium or Tonale is a medieval book the 10th-century trope Quern queritis for 
in which the chants are arranged accord- the Mass of Easter [SchGMBy no. 8; cf. 
ing to the eight modes. — (h) Sacra- ReMMAy 194 for an account of how it 
mentary is an earlier form of the Missal, was performed at Winchester, in the mid- 
with the Epistles and Gospels omitted, as die of the loth century]. Later plays, 
these were sung or read from other books mostly of French origin, deal with the 
{Epistolariuiriy Evangelistarium) by the story of Daniel, the Plaint of Rachel, the 
assistant ministers. — (i) The Pontificale Massacre of the Innocents, the Foolish and 
contains the services used in functions the Wise Virgins (Sponsus Play), etc. [cf. 
where a bishop or prelate officiates, e.g,, AdHM iy lyo], A favored subject of later 
the consecration of a church, or ordina- plays (14th century) was the miracles of 
tions. — (j) The Processionale contains Saints, particularly of St. Nicholas (mir- 
the chants for use in processions. — (k) acle play). 

Troparium (Troper) is a medieval book In the 14th to the i6th century the 
containing *tropes. — ( 1 ) Vesperale (Vts- “mysteries” [perversion of L. ministeri- 
pcral) is a book containing the service of wm, service] were extremely popular. 
♦Vespers, usually also that of ♦Compline These were dramatic representations based 

and parts of the Lesser Hours. on Biblical subjects, such as the Life of 

II. The first printed edition of plain- Christ, the Acts of the Apostles, the Cre- 
song was the so-called Editio Medicea of ation, etc., elaborately staged and, in some 
1614 (prepared by Anerio and Soriano, instances, continued over a period of 20 
not by Palestrina) which, however, con- or more days. They used music only in- 
tains the chants in a state of utter detcrio- cidentally, for processions, fanfares, some 
ration. When, in the middle of the 19th plainsong, popular songs, etc. In Italy 
century, the interest in Gregorian chant they were known as sacre rappresenta- 

[410] 



LITURGICAL HOURS 

zione^ in Spain and Portugal as ^auto. 
It is chiefly from these plays that the 
European drama developed. See also 
'"'Opera 11 . 

Lit.: A. Schubiger, Die Sanger schule St. 
Gallens (1858); id.^ in ^Editions XXVI, 
5; C. Coussemaker, '\Les Dratnes litur- 
giques du moyen dge (i860); A. Gastou 4 
Le Drame liturgique (1906); J. Comba- 
rieu, Histoire de la musique (1913-20) i, 
282-328; GeHM, 232!!; ReMMA, i93ff; 
J. Handschin, “Das Weihnachts-Mysteri- 
um von Rouen . . {AM vii); O. Ur- 
sprung, “Das Sponsus-Spiel” {AMF hi); 
J, B. Trend, “The Mystery of Elche” 
(ML i). For additional bibliography cf. 
ReMMAy 444f. 

Liturgical hours. See ^Office hours. 

Liturgy. The officially authorized serv- 
ice of the Christian Churches, particularly 
of the Roman Catholic, as distinguished 
from extraliturgical services, such as pro- 
cessions, or the '"‘benediction. See '"‘Gre- 
gorian chant; *Mass; "‘Office hours; "‘Li- 
turgical books; also ^Liturgical drama. 

Lituus. (i) A Roman trumpet; see 
"“Brass instruments V (a). — (2) Seven- 
teenth-century Latin name for the *cor- 
netto, or for the "‘cromorne. The two litui 
in Bach’s Cantata ne. 119 are obviously 
tenor-trumpets in B-flat [cf. SaRM, 244]. 

Liuto [It.]. Lute. 

Livret [F.j. Libretto. 

Lo. Abbreviation for loco [It., place], 
used to indicate return to the normal oc- 
tave, after ^all' ottava or similar designa- 
tions. 

Lochamer Liederbuch. See "“Lieder- 
buch. 

Locrian, lokrian. See ^Church modes; 
"“Greek music II (c). 

Lohengrin. Opera in three acts by Rich- 
ard Wagner, to his own libretto, com- 
posed 1846-48. The scene is the court of 
King Henry I (loth century) where Elsa 
(Soprano) is accused by Count Friedrich 
von Telramund (Baritone) of having 


LONDON SYMPHONIES 

murdered her brother Gottfried, but is 
victorifeusly defended in an ordeal of 
combat by a strange knight arriving on a 
boat drawn by a swan — Lohengrin 
(Tenor) — who makes the condition that 
she shall never ask his name (Act I). 
Telramund and his wife, the heathen 
magician Ortrud (Mezzo-soprano), are 
deprived of their former status and plan 
revenge. The latter accuses Lohengrin, 
when about to enter the church with Elsa, 
of being a magician who conceals his 
identity for evil reasons. Elsa, however, 
assures Lohengrin of her confidence and 
the marriage takes place (Act II). Lohen- 
grin and Elsa express their love for each 
other, but Elsa, influenced by Ortrud’s 
accusations, cannot resist asking the fate- 
ful question. Lohengrin reveals his name 
and sorrowfully announces that he now 
must return to the Holy Grail, the castle 
of his father Parsifal: The swan reappears 
and, upon Lohengrin’s prayer, takes on 
the form of Elsa’s brother who had been 
transformed by Ortrud. A dove descends 
and leads Lohengrin away. 

Lohengrin marks the transition from 
Wagner’s early operas {Rienziy The Fly- 
ing Dutchman y Tannhduser) to the late 
master works (Ring, Tristan, Meister- 
singer, Parsifal). Here Wagner for the 
first time made consistent use of his “con- 
tinuous melody,” as against the “number” 
style [see ^Number opera] which still 
occurs in the Tannhduser. There is also 
a modest use of "leitmotifs, to charac- 
terize the most important personages and 
emotions. On the whole, the style is lyri- 
cal and soft, a notable exception being the 
ominous scene between Friedrich and 
Ortrud which foreshadows the atmos- 
phere of the Ring. 

Lombardic style. Sec *Dotted notes III. 

London Symphonies, (i) Haydn’s 
last twelve symphonies, nos. 93-104, 
written in 1790-95 for the Salomon Con- 
certs in London [see ^Concerts I], are 
known as the London (or Salomon) Sym- 
phonies. Particularly, the seventh of these 
(no. 104), in D, is known as “The London 
Symphony.” — (2) “A London Sym- 
phony” is the tide of a composition by 


[411 ] 



LONGA 

Ralph Vaughan Williams, composed in 
1914 which, although written largely in 
the form of a classical symphony, incor- 
porates programmatic elements (West- 
minster chimes, London street cries). 

Longa, long. Sec ^Mensural notation. 

Longeur [F.]. See *Vibrato (i). 

Loop. See ^Acoustics V. 

Lourd [F.]. Heavy. 

Loure [F.]. (i) French 16th-century 
name for the bagpipe [cf. SaRM, 245]. 
— (2) A French 17th-century dance 
(originally accompanied by the instru- 
ment loure?) in moderate % time and 
with dotted rhythms leaning heavily on 
the strong beats [see ’“‘Dance music III]. 
Early examples occur in Lully’s opera 
Alceste of 1677; the loure in Bach’s French 
Suite no. 5 is easily the most beautiful 
example of this dance type. 

Loure [F.]. See *Bowing (f). 

Lur [pi. lurer]. A prehistoric Nordic 
trumpet of bronze, preserved in numer- 
ous examples dating from the 12th to the 
6th century B.C. They are in the shape 
of a long contorted S, with a flat orna- 
mented disk attached to the end of the 
tube, and are usually found in pairs 
turned in opposite directions, suggestive 
of a pair of mammoth’s tusks. These in- 
struments, being almost the sole evidence 
of musical activity of the Nordic people 
of the pre-Christian era, have been the 
subject of much speculation and exag- 
gerated claims (“three-voiced harmony, 
3000 years ago” in K. Grunsky, Kampf 
um die deutsche Musi\^ ^933) which are 
generally considered untenable today. 
The tone of the lurer is variously described 
as “rough and blatant” {GD iii, 251] and 
as “sanft posaunenartig” [H. J. Moser, 
Geschichte der Deutschen Musi\ i, 32]. 
Illustration on p. 98. 

Lit.: A. Hammerich, in VMW, x; H. 
Schmidt, in Prdhistorische Zeitschrijt 
vii (1915); O. Schrader, in Reallexi\on 
der Indogermanischen Alter turn s\unde 

(1923)- 


LUTE 

Lustig. [G.]. Cheerful. 

Lute [F. luth\ G. haute'. It. lauto, liuto, 
leuto\ L. testudo or chelys^ i.e., “turtle,” a 
humanistic misnomer referring to the 
tortoise-shell of the ancient Greek *lyra]. 

I . GeneraL A plucked stringed instru- 
ment with a round body in the shape of 
a halved pear, a flat neck with 7 or more 
frets and a separate pegbox, bent back at 
an angle. The instruments of the i6th 
century had ii strings in 6 ’“‘courses, 
tuned: G— c— f— a-d'-g', with the two 
lowest courses doubled in the higher oc- 
tave, and the three following ones dou- 
bled in unison. In the 17th century an 
increasing number of bass-courses (up to 
six) were added which ran alongside the 
fingerboard and, therefore, were unalter- 
able in pitch. They were normally tuned: 
F E D C, etc. Around 1640 another sys- 
tem of tuning, introduced by the great 
lutenist and lute-composer Denis Gaul- 
tier (c. 1600-72), was generally adopted, 
under the name nouveau ton: A-d-f- 
a'-d'-f', which persisted as long as the 
lute was used (end of the i8th century). 

II. History, The history of the lute is 
unusually long and interesting. One must 
distinguish between two types of lute, the 
long lute with a neck much longer than 
the body, and the short lute, with a neck 
slightly shorter than the body. The long 
lute is by far the more ancient instrument. 
It appears in Mesopotamian figurines as 
early as about 2000 B.C. From Babylon 
it spread to Egypt {c. 1000 B.C.) and 
Greece, where it was called pandura. 
This lute had a small body covered with 
parchment through which the long handle 
was pierced [cf. SaHMI, 102]. The later 
development of the long lute took place 
in Persia where it was called setdr (“two- 
strings”), cartdr (“four-strings”)^ or panc- 
tdr (“five-strings”), according to the num- 
ber of strings — and in Arabia where it 
was named *tanhur. For the peculiar tun- 
ing of the early Arabian long lutes (prior 
to Al-Farabi, c, A.D. 900), see * Arabian 
music. A European offshot of the Arabian 
long lute was the colascione of the i6th 
and 17th centuries [cf. WoHN ii, 125], 
and the Russian * domra (^dombra). 


Lusingando [It.]. Flattering, intimate. 

[412] 




LUTE 


LUTE MUSIC 


The short lute appears first on Persian 
clay figures from about 800 B.C. and on 
Indian reliefs from the first centuries A.D. 
At about the latter time we find it in 
China, under the name *p*ip*a [Japa- 
nese: biwa]. In these early instruments 
the neck is formed by the tapering body, 
a form which still occurred with the 
Arabic short lute of the medieval periods, 
called ’ud (or aVud^ Spanish laud^ hence 
lute). The transformation into an instru- 
ment with a distinct neck and a central 
soundhole, the European lute (the 'ud 
had two crescent-shaped soundholes, like 
the early viols), probably took place in 
Spain, not very long before the 15th cen- 
tury. From Spain, the instruments spread 
to the other European countries. 

III. Other Types, Numerous varieties 
of the lute were used during the i6th and 
17th centuries. The mandola or mandore 
had a long pegbox slightly curved and 
with a head-scroll reminiscent of that of 
the violin [cf. SaHMl^ 245; GD iii, 252]. 
A diminutive form of this instrument is 
the * mandolin. The angelica was a 17th- 
century variety with 17 different strings 
for the tones of the diatonic scale, so that 
stopping wac largely avoided. During the 
17th century the increasing demand for 
bass instruments led to the construction 
of archlutes [G. Erzlaute\ It. arciliuto]^ 
i.e., of double-neck lutes with a second 
pegbox which carried the bass-courses. 
There existed a “short” archlute, the 
theorboe, and a “long” archlute, the 
chitarrone. For a third type, the liuto 
tiorbatOy cf. SaHMl, 372. 

All the above instruments have the 
round back characteristic of the lute. The 
instruments with a flat back are treated 
under the heading *Guitar family. Only 
one of them, the Spanish ^vihuela, may 
be mentioned here because its musical 
repertory is closely allied to that of the 
lute [see *Lute music; *Lute tablatures]. 

The term lute is also used as a scientific 
denomination for a large class of stringed 
instruments. See ♦Instruments IV, B. 

Lit.: F. Zuth, Handbuch der Laute und 
Guitarre (1926); N. Bessaraboff, Ancient 
European Musical Instruments (1941), 
pp. 22ofI; K. Geiringcr, “Vorgeschichtc 


und Geschichte der europaischen Laute” 
(ZMW x); M. Brenct, “Notes sur I’his- 
toire du luth en France” (RMI v, vi); F. 
Behn, “Die Laute im Altertum und 
friihen Mittelalter” (ZMW i); M. 
Brondi, “11 Liuto e la chitarra” {RMI 
xxxii, xxxiii); G. Kinsky, “Alessandro 
Piccinnini und sein Arciliuto” {AM x). 

Lute harpsichord. See ♦Lautenclavi- 
cymbel. 

Lute music. Lute music, as preserved 
in the numerous lute books (♦lute tabla- 
tures) of the 1 6th and 17th centuries, 
forms an important repertory of early in- 
strumental music, second only to that of 
the organ and harpsichord. Particularly 
during the i6th century, the lute occu- 
pied a prominent place in musical cul- 
ture, as the chief instrument of domestic 
music, comparable to the piano of the 
present day. 

The preserved literature for the lute ex- 
tends from 1507 {Intabolatura de lautOy 
printed by Petrucci) to about 1770. It 
includes a vast number of printed books 
and manuscripts of Italian, French, Ger- 
man, Spanish, and English origin [cf. the 
practically complete lists in WoHN ii, 
27, 66, 95]. The sources of the i6th cen- 
tury contain dances (♦bassadanzas, ♦pa- 
vanes, ♦gaillards, ♦passamezzos, ♦salta- 
rellos, etc.), pseudo-contrapuntal ♦ricer- 
cares and ♦fantasias, ♦variations (mostly 
in the Spanish books), and free *preludes 
(called ricercares in the earliest Italian 
books), in addition to a disproportion- 
ately large quantity of *lntabulierungen 
of vocal music (motets and chansons). 
The most outstanding composers are (the 
figures indicate dates of publications): 
the Spanish Luis Milan (1536), Luis de 
Narvaez (1538), Enriquez de Valder- 
rabano (1547), Diego Pisador (1552), 
Miguel de Fuenllana (1554); the Italian 
Dalza and Spinaccino (1507, ’08), Fran- 
cesco da Milano (1536, ’46, *48, ’63), An- 
tonio Rotta (1546), Paolo Borrono (1546, 
’48, ’49, *63), Giacomo Gorzanis (1561, 
’63, *64, *65, ’79), Vincenzo Galilei ( 1563), 
Fabritio Caroso (1581), and Giov. Ant, 
Terzi (1593, *99); the French Attain- 
gnant (publisher, 1529, *30), Adrian le 


[414! 



LUTE MUSIC 


LYDIAN 


Roy (1551, ’52, *62), Guillaume Morlaye 
(1552, ’ 54 )> Albert de Rippc (1553, ’54, 
’58), to whom the Hungarian Valentin 
GrefI (pseud. Bacfarc, 1552, ’64, ’65, *68) 
may be added; the German Amok 
Schlick (1512), Hans Judenkunig 
( 1523), Hans Gerlc ( 1532, ’33, *52), Hans 
Neusiedler (1536, *40, *44), Wolff Heckel 
(1556), Melchior Neusiedler (1574), 
Matthaeus Waisselius (1573, ’91, *92), 
and Sixtus Kargel (1586); the English 
John Dowland (1597, 1600) and Thomas 
Morley (1597, 1600), who, in the early 
17th century were followed by Francis 
Pilkington (1605), Thomas Campion 
(1606), and Robert Dowland (1610). 

In the 17th century, lute music per- 
sisted chiefly in France and in Germany 
while Italy and Spain turned to the more 
popular guitar. The repertory consisted 
chiefly of preludes and of idealized dances 
(allemandes, courantes, sarabandes, etc.). 
While in the books of the early 17th cen- 
tury these dances are compiled separately 
(cf. Jean-Baptiste Besard, Thesaurus har- 
monious ^ 1603, which falls into ten 
“books,’* one each for preludes, alle- 
mandes, courantes, etc.), they were later 
arranged according to keys in groups 
which resemble the ^suites (e.g., Denis 
Gaultier’s La Rhetorique des dieux, c, 
1650; new ed. by A, Tessier). After 1650 
the center of artistic activity shifted to 
Germany. The suites by Esaias Reusner 
(1636-79) and the sonatas of Sivius Leo- 
pold Weiss (1686-1750) — the latter as- 
tonishingly Bach-like in style — repre- 
sent the culmination-point of the entire 
literature. J. S. Bach wrote a number of 
pieces for the lute (ed. by Bruger). 

Lit.; A. Collections of Music. O. Chile- 
sotti, \Lautenspieler des i6ten Jahrhun- 
derts (1891); G. Morphy, ^Les Luthistes 
espagnoles du xvie silcle (1902; many 
errors in the transcriptions); H. D. 
Bruger, ^Pierre Attaingnant (1927); /W., 
\Alte Lautenhunst aus drei Jahrhunder- 
ten\ id,y "fjoh. Seb. Bach^ Kompositionen 
fur die Laute (1921); H. Quittard, '\A. 
Francisque, Tresor d'Orphie, 1600 
(1907); DTOe i8.ii and 25.ii (German 
lute music); ^Editions XI (English); 
XII A, 12 (German); XXIV A, 6/7 


(French); XXV, 2 (Spanish); III, i, 7, 
8, 9 (Italian). 

B. Bibliography. O. Korte, Laute und 
Lautenmusi\ bis zur Mitte des 16. Jahr- 
hunderts (1901); E. Engel, Die Instru- 
mentalformen in der Lautenmusi\ des 
16, fahrhunderts (1915); L. de la Laur- 
encie, Les Luthistes (Les Musiciens celh- 
breSy 1928); J. Zuth, Handbuch der Laute 
und Guitarre (1926/28); F. Dodge, 
“Lute Music of the XVIth and XVIIth 
Centuries’* {PM A xxxiv); H. M. Fitz- 
gibbons, “The Lute Books of Ballet and 
Dallis** (ML xi); J. Bal, “Fuenllana and 
the Transcriptions of Spanish Lute 
Music” (AM xi); R. Newton, “English 
Lute Music . . .*’ (PM A Ixv); A. Koczirz, 
“Verschollene neudeutsche Lautenisten” 
(AMW iii); H. Neemann, “Die Lauten- 
handschriften von Silvius L. Weiss’* 
(AMW x); F. Ecorcheville, “Le Luth et 
sa musique” (BSIMy 1908); F. Dodge, 
“Ornamentations as Indicated by Signs 
in Lute Tablature” (SIM ix); O. Chile- 
sotti, “Note circa alcuni liutisti italiani 
. . .** (RMI ix); E. Haraszti, “. . . V, 
Bakfark** (RdM x); W. Apel, “Early 
Spanish Music for Lute and Keyboard” 
(MQ xx). 

Lute tablature. (i) The notational 
systems used for the writing down of lute 
music during the i6th, 17th, and i8th 
centuries; see *Tablatures III, IV, V. — 
(2) The manuscripts and books in which 
this notation is employed; hence, practi- 
cally all the lute books of the same period 
[see *Lute music]. 

Lutherie [F,]. The art of making lutes 
or stringed instruments in general. 
Luthier is the maker of such instruments, 
nowadays of violins, etc. 

Luttuoso [It.]. Mournful. 

Lydian, (i) See *Greek music II (c). 
— (2) The fifth ^church mode, repre- 
sented by the segment f-f' of the diatonic 
scale, with f as the tonic. From the mod- 
ern point of view it assumes the character 
of a major mode (F major) with the aug- 
mented fourth (B-natural, Lydian fourth, 
i.e., tritone) instead of the perfect fourth 


[415] 



M 


MACHICOTAGE 


(B-flat). Owing to the presence of the 
iritone f-b in prominent position, ex- 
amples of pure Lydian are rare, in mono- 
phonic music (Gregorian chant) as well 
as in polyphonic music. The Alleluia 
Exaltabo {GRy 50) is one of them [Ex. i] . 


Lj 

Ul 

j-L-L-i 

1 

-li 



■ '1 31 f 1 1 






8 

Usually, Lydian occurs in Gregorian 
chant as a “mixed’* tonality, using the 
B-natural (preferably for descending mo- 
tion) as well as the B-flat (for ascending 
motion). A similar situation exists in 
polyphonic music from c, 1200 to 1550. 
Ex. 2 shows a purely Lydian passage 
from a 13th-century motet [cf. SchGMBy 
no. 19], while Ex. 3 [c. 1470; cf. ApMZ 
i, 4] illustrates the more frequent occur- 
rence of a tonality mixed of F major and 
Lydian idioms, melodic as well as har- 
monic. This mixed tonality, which is 
very characteristic of polyphonic music 
prior to 1550, should not be destroyed by 
editorial accidentals [see *Musica ficta 
(Ex. 8); ^Partial signature]. A particu- 
lar Lydian formation is the raised fourth 
of the Burgundian cadence [see ^Landini 
cadence]. Beethoven revived the Lydian 
in the “Dankgesang” (slow movement) 
of his String Quartet op. 132. As a char- 
acteristic of Slavic folk song it appeared 


in Chopin’s Mazurkas [see ^Modality]. 

Lyra. ( i ) An ancient Greek instrument, 
similar to the *kithara but of much lighter 
construction, smaller in size, and usually 
with the soundbox made from the shell 
of a turtle. It was played with a plectrum 
[ill. under Zithers; the drawing in GD 
iii, 259 is a kithara]. The lyra persisted 
in the early Middle Ages, probably under 
the name *rotta, while the term lyre was 
adopted for several instruments which 
have only a remote relationship to the 
Greek lyra, namely: — (2) a medieval 
fiddle, similar to the *rebec (hence the 
name *lira for a 16th-century violin; see 
•Violin II); — (3) the •hurdy-gurdy, 
particularly in the connection lyra rustica 
(peasant’s lyra) and lyra mendicorum 
(beggar’s lyra). — (4) In modern Ger- 
man usage, the military •Glockenspiel, 
on account of the shape of the frame 
which is similar to that of the Greek lyra. 
The “Lyra” used in several compositions 
by Haydn is not the lira da braccio [cf. 
GD ii, 584], but the •hurdy-gurdy. See 
also *Lyre. Cf. H. Panum, “Lyra und 
Harfe im alten Nordeuropa” {SIM vii). 

Lyrafliigel. An early 19th-century va- 
riety of the upright piano, with a case 
shaped in the form of the Greek lyre. 

Lyra viol. See •Viol IV, 3. 

Lyra way. See under •Viol IV (3) 
(Lyra viol). 

Lyre. As a specific instrument, see 
•Lyra. As a scientific term for a class of 
instruments, see •Instruments IV, C. Il- 
lustrations under Zithers. 


M 


M. In organ music, manual or manu- 
aliter. See also •Metronome. 

Maatschappij. See •Societies II, 5. 

Machete. Sec *Guitar family; •Uku- 
lele, 


Machicotage [F.; L. macicotaticum], 
A French practice of ornamenting plain- 
song by the insertion of improvised grace 
notes or coloraturas between the authentic 
notes of Gregorian chant. The term 
comes from machicoty a designation for 
church oflScials of a rank superior to that 


[416] 




MADRASHE 


MADRIGAL 


of the ordinary singers. The practice of 
machicotage is documented as far back 
as 1391 [cf. Godefroy, Dictionnaire de 
la langue fran^aise] and continued 
throughout the i8th and early 19th cen- 
turies. Usually machicotage was used 
with the solo songs while the chants of 
the schola (choir) remained unadorned. 
The adoption of the Solesmes versions 
has made an end to this corruptive prac- 
tice. See also *Plain-chant musical. 

Madrashe. See ^Syrian chant. 

Madrigal. Name for two different 
types of Italian vocal music, one of the 
14th, the other of the i6th century. Two 
derivations of the name are given, namely, 
^‘matricale,” i.e., poem in the mother 
tongue, or “mandriale,” from mandra, 
flock — hence, pastoral song. The latter 
interpretation would seem to be prefer- 
able since early writers connect the mad- 
rigal with the *pastourelle of the trouba- 
dours. 

I. The 14th-Century Madrigal, As a 
poetic form, the madrigal consists of two 
or three strophes of three lines each 
which are followed by a final strophe of 
two lines, called ^ritornello. In each 
strophe, two lines rhyme with one an- 
other. The lines are always iambic pen- 
tameters. Following is the beginning of 
a famous ii-line (3 + 3 + 3 + 2) mad- 
rigal as well as its complete scheme of 
rhymes [cf. //^M, no. 49]. 

Ncl mezzo a sci paon ne vidi un biinco 
Con crista d’oro e edn morbida penna 
Si bel che dolccmentc il cor mi spenna 

I II 

, . . bianco . . . bcllczza 

, . . penna . . . colore 

, . . spenna . . . amore 

III Ritornello 

. . . guardando . . . canto 

. . . parte . . . manto 

. . . arte 

The contents of the madrigal is usually 
contemplative, idyllic, as in the a^bovc ex- 
ample: “In the midst of six peacocks I 
saw a white one; with a golden crown and 
languid feathers; so beautiful that my 
heart softly trembled.” 


These lyrical texts were composed usu- 
ally in two, sometimes in three voice parts, 
and in a form which follows closely that 
of the poetry, the same music (a) being 
provided for the three strophes and differ- 
ent music (b) for the ritornello, so that 
the form a a a b for the ii-line madrigal, 
or a a b for the eight-line madrigal, results. 

The latter form is similar to — but 
probably not directly derived from — 
that of the French ^ballade [see also 
*Barform]. Madrigals were composed 
chiefly by the members of the early 
Italian School, e.g., Jacopo da Bologna 
and Giov. da Cascia, while in the second 
half of the 14th century the madrigal was 
largely abandoned in favor of the *bal- 
lata. Landini, for instance, has only 12 
madrigals as compared to 140 ballatas. 

The style of the trecento madrigal may 
be best described as an “ornamented *con- 
ductus style,” contrasting sharply with 
the genuinely polyrhythmic style of con- 
temporary French music (G. de Ma- 
chaut). Its impressively designed orna- 
menting lines foreshadow the Italian 
coloraturas of the 17th century. Nonethe- 
less, A. Schering’s interpretation of the 
madrigal as “coloriertes Orgelmadrigal” 
[SIM xiii] is historically untenable, both 
as to the implied method of “added 
coloraturas” and as to the organ as the 
proper idiom. It is interesting to note 
that Landini, in his nine two-voiced mad- 
rigals, rather strictly adheres to the just 
described type, but arrives at a freer 
treatment in his three-voiced examples. 
These are all through-composed, and 
show French influence in their polyrhyth- 
mic texture as well as — in one instance, 
the wonderful Musica son — simultane- 
ous use of the different texts after the 
fashion of the motet, the three stanzas of 
the poem being sung at the same time, a 
unique experiment in the history of vocal 
music. Examples in: WoGM ii, iii, nos. 
38-44, 47, 49, 50, 54, 55; L. Ellin wood, 
IfThe Wor\s of Francesco Landini 
(i 939 )> 1-12; HAMy nos. 49, 50, 54; 

SchGMBy no. 22; ReMMAy 362; AdHM 
i, 278; BeMMRy 156. The “Madrigale” 
in J, Wolf, ^Sing‘ und Spielmusi\ aus 
alter er Zeit (1931), no. 6, is a ballata. 


[417] 



MADRIGAL 

C£. J. Wolf, in JMP xlv; A. Schering, in 
SIM xiii. 

II. T he 16th-Century Italian Madrigal, 
As a literary type, the madrigal of the 
1 6th century is a free imitation, without 
any strict form, of the 14th-century mad- 
rigal which Italian humanists (Cardinal 
Bembo and his followers) used as a point 
of departure in their endeavors to arrive 
at a poetry of a more refined quality than 
that of the previous period (*frottola, 
*strambotto). Although these antiqua- 
rian attempts were not very profitable 
from the point of view of poetry, the 
movement proved to be a great stimulus 
to musical activity. The musicians of the 
early i6th century, at first Netherlands 
composers working in Italy (Verdelot, 
Willaert, Arcadelt), cooperated with the 
poets in order to arrive at a new style of 
courtly refinement and of artistic expres- 
sion. Naturally, they did not take their 
cue from 14th-century music which was 
entirely forgotten. In fact, it was only the 
literary bond which justified the use of 
the old name for the new compositions. 
As a musical composition the madrigal 
of the 1 6th century is an outgrowth of 
the *frottola. In fact, the style of the 
earliest madrigals, published in 1533 (in- 
cluding 8 pieces by Verdelot, 3 by Carlo, 
2 by Festa, etc.), differs little from that 
of the late frottolas (1531; cf. SchGMB, 
nos. 72 and 98). 

The development of the madrigal in 
Italy is usually divided into three phases: 
(a) The Early Madrigal: Philipp Verde- 
lot {c, 1500-65), Costanzo Festa (d. 1545; 
the first Italian composer of madrigals), 
Jacob Arcadelt {c, 1505-^', 1557). The 
style is, in spite of considerable imitation, 
prevailingly homophonic; the writing is 
in three or four parts; the expression is 
quiet and restrained. — (b) The Classic 
Madrigal: Adriaen Willaert (properly 
intermediate between a and b), Cypriano 
de Rore, Andrea Gabrieli, Orl. Lasso, 
Philipp dc Monte, Palestrina (publica- 
tions between 1550 and 1580). Here the 
writing is in four to six (usually five) 
parts, the style is more genuinely poly- 
phonic and imitative, approaching that 
of the contemporary motet, the expres- 


MADRIGAL 

sion is deepened and closely allied to the 
text regarding meaning as well as pro- 
nunciation. A collateral type of this pe- 
riod is the madrigale spirituale^ designed 
for devotional use [e.g., by Palestrina; 
complete ed., vol. 29]. — (c) The Late 
Madrigal: Luca Marenzio, Gesualdo, 
Monteverdi (publications between 1580 
and 1620). Here, the development leads 
to a highly elaborate type of music, even 
exaggerated and mannered, in which all 
the experimental tendencies of the fin de 
siecle found refuge: chromaticism, word- 
painting, coloristic effects, declamatory 
monody, virtuosity of the solo-singer, dra- 
matic effects — all treated with the great- 
est superiority and ease. Particular im- 
portance attaches to the fact that, at this 
late date, the madrigal was malleable 
enough to drop its traditional polyphonic 
texture and to adapt itself to the novel 
methods of stile concertante and stile rap- 
presentativo [see ^Stile]. The transition 
is particularly apparent in the madrigals 
of Monteverdi whose libro i, ii, Hi, and iv 
(1587, *90, ’92, 1603) are purely poly- 
phonic and a cappella, whereas in the 
following books (p, 1605; vi, 1614) the 
style becomes increasingly soloistic; book 
vit, called Concerto (1619), is entirely in 
stile concertante with basso continue. 
Caccini’s Nuove musiche of 1602 contains 
“madrigals” for solo voice which form 
the point of departure for the 17th-cen- 
tury *aria. 

III. The English Madrigal, Outside of 
Italy, the madrigal was cultivated chiefly 
in England. A few isolated pieces such 
as Edwards* “In going to my naked bed** 
(composed not later than 1564) make it 
probable that the influence of the Italian 
madrigal was felt in England shortly after 
1550. William Byrd (1543-1623) would 
appear to have been the first English 
composer to fully grasp the importance 
of the madrigal [see ^Editions X, 14 and 
15]. He, together with Th. Morley 
(i557-<. 1603), represents the earlier 
period of the English madrigal, the style 
of which corresponds to a certain extent 
to that of the second Italian school. None- 
theless, from its very outset the English 
madrigal became “naturalized,** owing to 



MADRIGAL 

the peculiarities of the English language 
as well as to the instillation of an unmis- 
takable touch of English merriment or 
melancholy. The publication of the Mu- 
sica Transalpina (a collection of Italian 
madrigals provided with English text, 
published by N. Yonge, 1588, a few 
months after the appearance of Byrd’s 
first book) gave the movement new im- 
petus and a different direction. The 
younger Englishmen, notably Thomas 
Weelkes and John Wilbye, tended more 
clearly towards Italy, and exploited the 
innovations of Marenzio and Gcsualdo, 
though in a somewhat more conservative 
manner. The English madrigals ap- 
peared under a variety of names, such as 
Songs, Sonets, Canzonets, Ayres. See 
^Editions X. 

IV. Other Countries. In Germany, the 
influence of the madrigal appears to some 
extent in the works of Le Maistre, Scan- 
dello, Regnart, Lassus [see *Lied II], all 
of whom were foreigners, a fact which 
may account for the failure of the move- 
ment to gain artistic significance com- 
parable to that of Italy or England. Hans 
Leo Hassler [DTB ii.i] may be men- 
tioned as the outstanding German repre- 
sentative, although many of his madri- 
gals have Italian texts. Spanish madrigals 
were published by Pedro Vila (1561), 
Juan Brudieu (1585), and Pedro Rui- 
monte (1614) [cf. LavE i.4, 20151!]. 

Lit. (other than that given in GD iii, 
279, 282, 283; GD, Suppl. Vol., 413; and 
AdHM i, 373): E. B. Helm, The Begin- 
nings of the Madrigal and the Works of 
Arcadelt (unpubl. Diss. Harvard 1939); 
H. Heinrich, John Wilbye in seinen 
Madrigalen (1931); E. Dent, “The Mu- 
sical Form of the Madrigal” (ML xi, no. 
3); id.y “William Byrd and the Madrigal” 
{Festschrift fiir /. Wolf, 1929); A. Ein- 
stein, “Das Madrigal zum Doppelge- 
brauch” {AM vi, no. 3); id., “Dante im 
Madrigal” {AMW iii); id., “Narrative 
Rhythm in the Madrigal” {MQ xxix, 4); 
H. Engel, “Marenzios Madrigale . . 
{ZMW xvii; also in AM viii); id., “Con- 
tributo alia storia del madrigale” {LRM 
iv); Ch. van den Borren, “Les Madrigaux 
de Jean Brudieu” (^RM vi) ; J. Racek, “Les 


MADRIGAL COMEDY 

Madrigaux a voix scule de Luzzascho 
Luzzaschi” {RM xiii); H. J. Moser, “Ves- 
tiva i Colli” {AMF iv). 

Madrigal comedy. Modern designa- 
tion for an alleged “pre-operatic” type of 
the late i6th century in which an entire 
play [It. commedia] was set to music in 
the form of madrigals and other types of 
contemporary polyphonic vocal music. 
Among the first and most famous exam- 
ples is the Amfiparnasso by Orazio Vecchi 
(performed in Modena, 1594, printed 
1597). According to current opinion the 
inner contradiction between the ensemble 
character of the music (which is in five 
parts throughout, without instruments) 
and the solistic demand of a theatrical 
performance was solved by a queer com- 
promise: when the plot called for single 
characters, the singers of the other parts 
were made to sing behind a curtain. This 
surmise, however, is utterly unlikely, not 
only for practical considerations, but 
mainly because Vecchi states expressly in 
the preface that “this spectacle {spetta- 
colo) appeals to the imagination {mente) 
through the ear {orecchie), not the eye 
{occhi).*^ The Amfiparnasso, therefore, 
is not a pre-operatic type, but an idealized 
presentation of a loosely knit dramatic 
plot, comparable in a way to the presenta- 
tion of an oratorio. This plot is more 
clearly designed here than in other, sim- 
ilar works by Vecchi, the Selva di varia 
ricreazione (1590), the Convito musicale 
(1597), ^he Yeglie di Siena (1604), 
each of which, however, includes a num- 
ber of dramatic “scenes.” The Amfipar- 
nasso is a mixture of comical and senti- 
mental portions. Alessandro Striggio’s 
II Cicalamento delle donne al bucato (The 
Babbling of the Women on a Wash-day, 
1567) may be considered as a predecessor 
of the former; Simone Balsamino’s Novel- 
lette (after Tasso’s Aminta, printed i594)» 
of the latter. Other models exist in the 
♦Greghesche of Andrea Gabrieli and 
other Venetian composers. An imitator 
of Vecchi was, among others, Adriano 
Banchieri [cf. RiML i, 104; example in 
HAM, no. 186]. 

Lit.: E. J. Dent, in SIM xii; A. Heuss, 


f 4iq 1 



MACHTIG 


MAGNUS LIBER ORGANI 


in SIM iv, 175, 404. Re-publication of the 
Amfiparnasso in ^Editions II, 4 and 
XXVI, 26. A. E. 

Machtig [G.]. Mighty, powerful. 

Mannergesangverein [G.]. Male 
choral societies, similar to the American 
*Apollo-clubs and the French *Orpheon. 

Massig [G.]. Moderate. 

Maestro [It., master]. Honorary title 
for distinguished teachers, composers, 
conductors. 

Magadis. An ancient Greek harp with 
twenty strings on which playing in oc- 
taves was possible. The strings were ap- 
parently arranged in ten courses, each of 
which gave the fundamental and its oc- 
tave (as was customary with the lutes of 
the 1 6th century). The term “magadiz- 
ing” is sometimes used to describe play- 
ing in octaves which is considered by some 
writers the “beginning of polyphony.” 

Maggiolata [It.]. Popular songs for 
the month of May. For 16th-century ex- 
amples composed in the style of the *vil- 
lanclla, cf. A. Bonaventura, in RMl xxiv. 

Maggiore [It.]. Major key. 

Magic Flute, The. See ^Zauberflote, 
Die. 

Magnificat. The *canticle of the Virgin, 
text (“Magnificat anima mea dominum,” 
My soul doth magnify the Lord) from 
St. Luke i: 46-55. It consists of twelve 
verses. In the Catholic rites it is sung at 
the Office of Vespers by alternating cho- 
ruses to one of eight “toni,” recitation 
chants similar to the psalm-tones [cf. AR, 
S’*"; LU, 207!!]. In the polyphonic music 
of the 15th through the i8th century the 
composition of the Magnificat in eight 
different modes (corresponding to the 
eight tones of plainsong) has played a 
prominent role. Among the earliest com- 
posers of the Magnificat are Dunstable, 
Dufay, Binchois [cf. SchGMB, no. 43], 
and Obrecht. While Binchois’ composi- 
tion (other settings in }. Marix, Les Mu- 
siciens de la cour de Bourgogne, 1937) 


based on the entire text, Obrecht com- 
posed the even-numbered verses only, the 
odd-numbered being sung in plainsong 
— a practice which was widely adopted 
by the later composers. Numerous 16th- 
century composers (Senfl, Lasso, Pales- 
trina, de Kerle, Le Maistre, Mahu, Mo- 
rales) have provided compositions of the 
famous text. Later composers of the Mag- 
nificat are Schiitz, Steffano Bernardi 
(DTOe 36.i), Rudolf Able (DdT 5), 
and, above all, J. S. Bach, who composed 
it as a cantata. 

The alternatim-method of composition 
was also adopted by organ composers who 
provided organ settings for the even- 
numbered verses. Such Magnificat-Over- 
sets for the organ occur in Attaingnant’s 
Magnificat sur les huit tons . . . (1531; 
new ed. by Y. Rokseth); in Cavazzoni’s 
Intavolatura . . . (1543); in Cabezon’s 
Obras de Musica (1578); in Titelouze’s 
organ works [cf. E. Kaller, Liber Organi 
(1931)]; in E. Kindermann’s Hartnonia 
otganica (1645; DTB 21, 23); in Joh. 
Caspar Kerll’s Modulatio organica ( 1686) ; 
and in Pachelbel’s 9^ Magnificat Fugues 
{DTOe 8.ii) the subjects of which occa- 
sionally still show a remote relationship 
to the plainsong melodies. See oVerset. 

The Magnificat, in the English transla- 
tion, was taken over into the Anglican 
♦Service where it forms a part of the 
Evening Prayer. 

Lit.: C. H. Illing, Zur TechniJ{ der 
Magnificat-kpmpositionen des 16. ]ahr- 
hunderts (Diss. Kiel 1934); Th. W. 
Werner, “Die Magnificat-compositionen 
Adam Rener’s” (AMW ii); G. Frotscher, 
Geschichte des Orgelspiels ( 1935), passim, 

Magnus Liber Organi [L., The Great 
Book of Organa] . According to Anon. IV 
{CS i, 342), the title of the collection of 
two-voice Oorgana for the entire ecclesias- 
tical year which was composed by Leoni- 
nus and partly re-written by his successor 
Perotinus (around 1200; see ^Ars An- 
tiqua). The collection includes 34 pieces 
for the Office (“de antiphonario”) and 
59 pieces for the Mass (“de gradali”; see 
♦Mass B, I) [for a 16th-century collection 
of similar scope see oChoralis Constan- 


[420] 



MAGNUS OPUS MUSICUM 

tinus]. Three 13th-century MSS, from 
Florence (FI) and Wolfenbiittel (Wi, 
W2) contain the Magnus liber organi in 
a more or less complete form, together 
with numerous other pieces (clausulae, 
conductus, motets). A list of the collec- 
tion in the Florentine Codex (Florence, 
Bibl. Laur. pint. 29, /, also erroneously 
called Antiphonarium Mediceum; pint. 
stands for L. pluteuSy book shelf, not Plu- 
tarch^ as is suggested in OHM ii, p. xiii) 
is given in F. Ludwig, Repcrtorium orga- 
norum , . . et motetorum . . . (1910), pp. 
65-75, where the letters O and M refer to 
the pieces for the Office and the Mass re- 
spectively [cf. ApNPM^ 201, 238 (foot- 
note)]. See *Ars antiqua; *Mass B, 
I; *Organum IV; ^Square notation; 
^Sources, no. 3. 

Magnus Opus Musicum. Title of a 
publication containing 516 compositions 
(motets) of O. di Lasso (1530-94), pub- 
lished in 1604 by his brothers, in six vol- 
umes. 

Magrepha. The Hebrew name of the 
Greek water organ (*hydraulis). Various 
Talmudic treatises describe it and its use 
in the Temple. Cf. SaHMly 124. See 
’^Organ XII. 

Magyar music. See ^Hungarian music. 

Main [F.] . Hand. Main droite (gauche)^ 
right (left) hand. A deux (trois, quatre) 
mainsj for two (three, four) hands. 

Maitres Musicians de la Renais- 
sance Frangaise. See ^Editions, His- 
torical, XVI. 

Maitrise [F.]. The choir school and 
the choir of a French church. These in- 
stitutions, which go back to the 15th cen- 
tury, if not earlier, were under the direc- 
tion of a “maitre de chapelle,” and pro- 
vided board as well as education, general 
and musical. They resembled in organi- 
zation and purpose the conservatorii of 
Italy. In the French Revolution (1791) 
they were suppressed and replaced by the 
conservatoires. Today the name denotes 
church-choirs, without any educational 
implication. Cf. GD iii, 296. 


MAJOR, MINOR 

Majeur [F.]. Major. 

Major, minor [F. majeur^ mineur; G. 
Dur, Moll; It. maggiore, minore]. Op- 
posed terms used (i) for the distinction 
of intervals, e.g., major second (c-d), and 
minor second (c-db) [see ^Intervals]. — 
(2) For two ty{:)es of scales, triads, or keys, 
which are distinguished mainly by their 
third, this being a major third (c-e) in 
the major scale (key, etc.), a minor third 
(c-eb) in the minor scale (key, etc.). The 
major scale is the same ascending and de- 
scending [Ex. i]. The minor scale, how- 
ever, has descending a flatted seventh 


(bb) and sixth (ab) in addition to the 
flatted third [Ex. 2] . The aesthetic justifi- 
cation for this lies in the fact that, without 
the flatted seventh and sixth, the descend- 
ing minor scale would sound like a major 
scale until its sixth tone is reached. Since 
the minor scale just described is evolved 
from melodic considerations (upward 
and downward movement), it is called 
“melodic minor scale.” There exists an- 
other minor scale which, ascending as 
well as descending, combines the flatted 
sixth with the unaltered seventh [Ex. 3]. 
This scale is termed “harmonic minor 
scale,” because it is built out of the tones 
contained in the three main harmonies of 
the minor key [Ex. 5]. 

A key is called major or minor accord- 
ing to whether it is based upon the major 
or minor scale. In the major key, the three 
main triads, tonic (T), dominant (D), 
and subdominant (S; see *Scale degrees), 
are all major triads [Ex. 4]. In a minor 
key, T and S are minor, D is major [Ex. 
5]. See also *Mode. 

The establishment of major and minor 
as the tonal basis of music took place dur- 
ing the 17th century [see ^Harmony II, 




[ 421 ] 





MALAGUE 55 rA 

B (6) ] . Prior to this, music was based on 
".he church modes most of which have the 
minor third of the minor scale, but differ 
from this in some of the other degrees 
[see *Church modes]. Compositions 
approximating the major key are much 
more scarce in early music and, for this 
reason, have attracted the special atten- 
tion of historians [see, e.g., ^Sumer is 
icumen in]. The major mode has been 
claimed to be of “popular” origin or to 
be a characteristic attribute of the north- 
ern races. For an unbiased study of these 
claims cf. the article by C. Sachs. 

Lit.: C. Sachs, “The Road to Major” 
{MQ xxix, no. 3); A. H. Fox-Strangways, 
“The Minor Chord” (ML iv, no. i); Dom 
Jeannin, “Etude sur le mineur et le ma- 
jeur” (RMl xxii); H. }. Moser, “Der 
Durgedanke als Rassenproblem” ( 5 /M 
xv). 

Malaguena [Sp.]. According to avail- 
able information the term denotes three 
different types of southern Spanish folk 
music, all localized in the provinces of 
Malaga and Murcia: (i) Usually a 
local variety of the ^fandango. — (2) A 
type of highly emotional song, in free style 
and rhythm [cf. LavE, 1.4, 2390]. — (3) 
An older type of dance music, based upon 
the ostinato-like repetition of the harmo- 
nies VIII-VII-VI-V (in minor), played 
in parallel triads, and with an improvised 
melody on top [cf. RiML] ; thus, a passa- 
caglia on the descending tetrachord, as 
were written frequently during the 17th 
century [see *Chaconne and passacaglia. 
Ex. 2]. 

Malinconia [It., melancholy]. Acorn- 
position in a melancholic mood. Beetho- 
ven thus called a short introductory move- 
ment before the finale of his Quartet op. 
18, no. 6. 

Malinconico [It.]. Melancholic. 

Man. Short for ♦manual. 

Mancante [It.]. Dying away. 
Manche [F.j. Neck of the violin, etc. 
Mandola, mandora. See ♦Lute III. 


MANIERA 

Mandolin. The most recent instrument 
of the lute family and the only one found 
in general use today, particularly in south- 
ern Italy. The Neapolitan mandolin has 
five double-courses (ten strings) tuned in 
fifths. It is played with a plectrum of 
tortoise shell or other flexible material. 
The tones are rendered as a sustained 
tremolo which is produced by a quick 
vibrating movement of the plectrum. An 
older type, the Milanese mandolin, forms 
the transition from the ♦mandola to the 
modern Neapolitan type. The mandolin 
has been occasionally used in art-music, 
e.g., in Handel’s Oratorio Alexander Ba- 
lus (1748), in Gretry’s LAmant jaloux 
(1778), in Paesiello’s 11 Bar bier o de Se- 
villa (1780), in Mozart’s Don Giovanni 
(1787), in Verdi’s Otello (1887), and in 
Mahler’s Seventh Symphony (1908). Five 
pieces by Beethoven for mandolin and 
piano are contained in the supplementary 
volume of the B.-H. edition [cf. also 
BSIM viii, no. 12, p. 24]. Illustration on 
p. 413. 

Lit.: J. Zuth, “Die Mandolinhand- 
schriften in der Bibliothek der Gesell- 
schaft der Musikfreunde in Wien” 
(ZMW xiv); G. de Saint-Foix, “Un fonds 
inconnu de compositions pour mando- 
line” (RdMy no. 47). 

Maneria [L.]. A term used by some 
early writers on plainsong to denote the 
♦church modes in their authentic as well 
as plagal variety. Thus there are four 
maneriae: protus, deuterus, tritus, and 
tetrardus. Cf. ReMMA, 153. 

Maneries [L.]. A thirteenth-century 
term for modus, i.e., rhythmic ♦mode, 
mentioned by Garlandia (CS i, 175), 
Pseudo-Aristotle (CS i, 279), and Anon. 
IV (C 5 i, 327). 

Manica [It.]. Shift of position in violin 
playing. 

Manico [It.]. Finger board of the vio- 
lin, etc. 

Manicordion, manichord. Sixteenth- 
century name for *clavichord. 

Maniera [It., manner (of composi- 
tion)]. A 16th-century term explained 

[ 4 “ ] 



MANIERA 

by numerous theorists and used to denote 
the aesthetic basis of contemporary mu- 
sical composition. It was established 
shortly after the death of Josquin des 
Pres, probably in Italy where it was main- 
tained throughout the i6th century. The 
maniera constitutes an idealistic type of 
composition, in so far as the composer 
was guided by an imaginative ideal con- 
cerning musical style and culture, thus 
fixing a classical standard for his work. 
There was also a distinct perception of 
the evolutionary process in the history of 
human culture (Glarean, Zarlino, Vasari, 
Vincenzo Galilei, and others). 

The theory of the maniera centered 
around the “concetto” (concept). This 
regulated the relationship between the 
work of musical art and the world of na- 
ture. Since, according to this theory, the 
work of art originated by way of imitat- 
ing nature, imitation was the creative and 
formative quality that made it an “opus 
supranaturale.” The imitation of nature 
worked two ways: either as deviation 
from nature — musically this produced 
an asymmetrical, “anti-natural,” struc- 
ture; or as exact copy — literal realism 
was then the result by which the musical 
work was supposed to compete with na- 
ture (Zuccari, Zarlino, Danti, Galilei, 
Lomazzo; in part also Zacconi). 

Since music has no given objects in 
nature to imitate, except for the “numero 
sonoro” (sounding number, i.e., the nu- 
merical relationships between the inter- 
vals), it was the first task of the com- 
poser to establish such “objects.” This he 
did in the “soggetto” (musical subject, 
theme) whose “modi” (modes, manifes- 
tations) were said to be infinite, from the 
“numero in musica” (sounding number) 
down to the “soggetto delle parole” (sub- 
ject based on the text) and the “soggetto 
della cantilena” (cantus firmus, borrowed 
or invented, in full or in part). After 
having fixed the soggetto, the composer 
had to reveal its inner capacities, that is, 
the “verita del soggetto” (truth of the 
subject). This could only be done by way 
of imitation which always gave rise to 
the work of art. 

The basic idea of the maniera, i.e., imi- 


MANNHEIM SCHOOL 

tation, was also applied to certain styles 
of the musical past. Thus, musicians of 
the 1 6th century grew fully aware of sty- 
listic nuances in the works of earlier com- 
posers. On this ground, the striking turn 
made by Palestrina in the late 50’s toward 
the old school of Ockeghem acquires a 
new significance. Cf. L. Schrade, in 
ZMW xvi, 3-20, 98-117, 1 52-1 70. L. S. 

Manieren [G.]. An eighteenth-century 
German name for ornaments of restricted 
melodic range, approximately equivalent 
to *agrement. In modern German usage, 
the term Manier (manieriert) means 
“mannerism” (“mannered”). 

Mannheim School. An important Ger- 
man school of the mid-i8th century, lo- 
cated at Mannheim and connected with 
the orchestra of Karl Theodor (1743-99), 
Elector of Pfalzbayern (hence also the 
name Pfalzbayrische Schule). Johann 
Stamitz (1717-57), who joined the or- 
chestra in 1745 and soon became its con- 
ductor, inaugurated here an entirely novel 
style of orchestral music and of orchestral 
performance, thus laying the foundation 
for the symphonic style of the Viennese 
classics at the time when the tradition of 
Baroque music reached its culmination 
point in the late works of Bach and Han- 
del. Conspicuous features of the new 
style are: melodic prominence of the vio- 
lins in an essentially homophonic, non- 
contrapuntal texture; abandonment of 
imitation and fugal style; presto-character 
of the quick movements; use of dynamic 
devices such as extended crescendos, un- 
expected fortes and fortissimos; general 
rests General pause); a novel type of 
subjects and figures which quickly rise 
over a wide range, usually in broken 
chords, the so-called “Raketen” (rockets, 
Roman candles); orchestral effects such 
as the tremolo and broken chords in quick 
notes; replacement of the thorough-bass 
accompaniment by written-out orchestral 
parts. Johann Stamitz’ activity was con- 
tinued by Ignaz Holzbauer (1711-83; 
came to Mannheim in 1753), F. X. Richter 
{1709-89; came to Mannheim in 1747), 
and by a younger generation including 
Anton Filtz (c*. 1730-60), Franz Beck 


[ 423 ] 



Mannheim school 

( 1730-1 809), Christian Cannabich (1731-- 
98), and Johann Stamitz* sons Karl Sta- 
mitz (1746-1801) and Anton Stamitz 
(1754-1809). 

The importance of the Mannheim com- 
posers lies in their historical position as 
forerunners of the classical period rather 
than in the intrinsic value of their works. 
Contrary to the opinion voiced by H. Rie- 
mann, the symphonies of Johann Stamitz, 
typical products of a one-sided and fa- 
natic innovator, are even less satisfactory 
from the artistic point of view than those 
of the later Mannheimers who turned 
from Stamitz’ fragmentary and incoher- 
ent mosaique style (somewhat similar to 
that of Domenico Scarlatti; see *Sonata- 
form II) to a more continuous and me- 
lodic manner of writing which, however, 
is not free from the sentimentalities of the 
gallant style and which, needless to say, is 
inferior to that of their contemporaries 
Haydn and Mozart. Mozart’s father re- 
ferred to the extravagant novelties of this 
School as the “vermanirierte Mannheimer 
gofit” (the mannered taste of the Mann- 
heimer). 

The importance of the Mannheim 
School as the founders of the modern 
symphony and chamber music was 
strongly emphasized by their discoverer, 
H. Riemann. More recently his claims to 
precedence and superiority have been 
challenged by other historians who have 
been pointing to similar tendencies in 
Vienna (Georg Monn, 1717-50; Georg 
Wagenseil, 1715—77; cf. G. Adler in pref- 
ace to DTOe i5.ii), Italy [cf. F. Torre- 
franca, Le Origini italiane del romanti- 
cismo musicale, 1930], and Bohemia [cf. 
W. Helfert, in AMW vii] . No doubt, the 
novel ideas of style and form were “in the 
air” around 1740 and a great number of 
musicians, among whom Sammartini 
(1701-75) must be mentioned particu- 
larly, worked in the same direction, lay- 
ing the foundation for the work of Haydn, 
Mozart, and Beethoven. Perhaps some of 
the contradictory claims can be settled if 
a clearer distinction is made between the 
various features which enter into the 
complex picture of the classical sonata or 
symphony. As is explained under *So- 


MARACAS 

nata-form, the Viennese composers were 
definitely much more advanced than the 
Mannheimers in the establishment of the 
formal principles of the sonata. On the 
other hand, the importance and the true 
meaning of the new principles of sym- 
phonic style [see the description above] 
were more clearly understood in Mann- 
heim than elsewhere, probably owing to 
the favorable conditions existing at the 
Electoral orchestra. Examples in HAM, 
nos. 294, 310, 31 1, 320. See also *Sonata 
III; *Sonata-form; ^Symphony II. 

Lit.: F. Waldkirch, Die kpnzertante 
Sinfonie der Mannheimer (Diss. Heidel- 
berg 1931); RiHM ii.3, ii9ff; P. Graden- 
witz, “The Symphonies of Johann Sta- 
mitz” (MR i); id., “Mid- 18th-century 
Transformations of Style” (ML xviii, no. 
3); W. Fischer, “Zur Entwicklungsge- 
schichte des Wiener klassischen Stils” 
(StM iii); A. Heuss, “Ueber die Dynamik 
der Mannheimer Schule” (Riemann Fesu 
schrift, 1909); id., in ZMW ii; id., “Zum 
Thcma ‘Mannheimer Vorhalt’ ” ( 7 AM 
ix); R. Sondheimer, “Die Sinfonien von 
Franz Beck” (ZIM iv); L. Kamienski, 
“Mannheim und Italien” (SIM x). Re- 
editions in DTB 3.i; y.ii; 8.ii; 15/ 16; DdT 
39; DTOe i5.ii; i9.ii [see ^Editions 
VIII, IX]. 

Manual. On the organ, the keyboards 
provided for the hands, in contradistinc- 
tion to the *pedal [see *Organ III]. In 
German organ pieces Man. I, II, III, and 
IV designate the Great manual, the Swell 
organ, the Choir organ, and the Solo or- 
gan respectively. The two keyboards of 
the harpsichord are also distinguished as 
first and second manual. Manualiter 
means playing with the hands only. 

Manualkoppel [G.]. Manual coupler; 
sec *Organ IV. 

Manubrio. The knobs and handles of 
the organ stops. 

Maqam. See * Arabian music II; *Mel- 
ody-types. 

Maracas. See *Percussion instruments 
B, 8. 


[424] 



MARCATO 

Marcato [It.]. Marked, emphasized. 

March. Music designed to promote or- 
derly marching of a large group, espe- 
cially soldiers. Marches are, of course, 
always in simple rhythm and regular 
phrases. The standard form, derived from 
the minuet-with-trio, is that of a march 
repeated after one or several trios of a 
more melodious character and frequently 
in softer orchestration: M T M, or M T 
MTM. 

The earliest traces of the march as an 
art form are found in the numerous *bat- 
taglias of the i6th century. More definite 
examples are various virginal pieces con- 
tained in My Lady Nevells Boo\ [see 
Virginal books] : “The March before 
the Battle,” “The March of the Horse- 
men,” “The March of the Footemen,” etc., 
pieces which would seem to indicate that 
the English musicians of the i6th century 
were more military-minded than their 
colleagues of other nationalities. Many 
examples of march music, usually digni- 
fied and ceremonial rather than military 
in character, are contained in the operas 
of Lully, Handel, etc. (Handel’s Scipio 
contains a march which is to the present 
day the parade march of the British Gren- 
adier Guards.) There are two charming 
little marches — probably not by Bach — 
in the Notenbuchlein der Anna Magda- 
lena Bach, Similar pieces occur in the 
suites of J. Ph. Krieger, of J. K. F. Fischer, 
etc. Mozart exemplifies two different 
types of march music in his Figaro (Non 
piu andrai) and in his Magic Flute 
(March of the Priests). The movement 
“Lebhaft, Marschmassig” in Beethoven’s 
Sonata op. loi represents the highest 
artistic transfiguration of the march. 
Schubert’s Marches Militaires deserve 
mention for their admirable variety and 
ingenuity. The processional march of 
Wagner’s Die Meister singer may be men- 
tioned (with distinction, to be sure) as 
one of the numerous marches in the 19th- 
century operas. A special type is the fu- 
neral march (marcia funebre), of which 
well-known examples exist in Beethoven’s 
Eroica and in Wagner’s Goiter damme- 
rung. Among modern composers, Pro- 


MARSEILLAISE 

kofiev has frequently been noted for his 
propensity for march-like rhythm and 
structure. 

Lit.: K. Strom, Beitr'dge zur Entwic\- 
lungsgeschichte dcs Marsches (Diss. Mu- 
nich 1926). 

Marche [F.]. *March. Marche harmo- 
niquCy ^sequence (i). 

Marcia [It.]. ♦March. Marcia funebre^ 
funeral march. Alla marcia^ in the man- 
ner of a march. 

Marien-antiphon [G.]. Name for the 
Antiphons B.M.V.; see ♦Antiphon (2). 

Marimba. An African and South Amer- 
ican ♦xylophone, consisting of a number 
of wooden plates of different size and 
thickness fixed in a frame and played with 
two drumsticks, sometimes by two play- 
ers simultaneously. Underneath each 
plate there is a tuned resonator, made of 
gourds, of cedar boxes, or, more recently, 
of metal tubes. See ♦Percussion instru- 
ments A, 4. 

Marimbaphone. An improved ma- 
rimba, invented by the American Deagan. 
Percy Grainger used it in his suite In a 
Nutshell, 

Marine trumpet. See ♦Tromba Ma- 
rina. 

Markiert [G.]. Marked, accented, em- 
phasized. 

Markig [G.]. Vigorous. 

Marriage of Figaro, The. See ♦Nozze 
di Figaro, Le. 

Marsch [G.]. Marche. Marschmassig, 
in the character of a march. 

Marseillaise [F.]. The famous song 
of the French Revolution, “Allons enfants 
de la patrie,” written and composed by 
Rouget de Lisle during the night of April 
24, 1792. It acquired its present name 
when it was sung in Paris by Marseilles 
troops. Cf. the detailed article in GD iii, 
329; additional bibliography in RiML, 
1120, and in MoML, 710 (Rouget de 
Lisle); L. Fiaux, La Marseillaise, 1918 
(bibl). 


[425] 



MARTELfi 

Martele [F., from marteauy hammer]. 
A special method of violin bowing; see 
^Bowing (c). Martellandoy martellato 
[It.] designates either the martele of the 
violin, or a somewhat similar technique 
of piano playing in which the hands act 
like hammers, usually in rapidly alternat- 
ing octaves. 

Martellement [F.]. In the 17th cen- 
tury a ’•''mordent performed on stringed 
instruments. In the i8th century a mor- 
dent or a short trill preceded by a long 
appoggiatura. 

Martyrion. See ^Byzantine Chant III. 
Marziale [It.]. Marchlike. 
Mascherata. See under *Villanella. 

Masculine, feminine cadence. A 

cadence or ending is called masculine if 
the final chord occurs on the strong beat 
[Ex. I ] , feminine, if it is postponed to fall 
on a weak beat [Ex. 2, 3] . The masculine 



ending must be considered the normal 
one, with the feminine preferred in more 
“Romantic” styles. It is interesting to note 
that feminine endings appear for the first 
time around 1600, thus forming one of 
the various novel features of the Baroque 
era. One of the earliest examples known 
to this writer is a “Sarabrande” by Gib- 
bons [see the above Ex. 2; cf. M. H. Glyn, 
Orlando Gibbons^ Complete Keyboard 
Workj^ vol. ii]. It may well be this novel 
feature to which Shakespeare alludes in 
his famous line: “That strain again, it 
had a dying fall.” Feminine endings are 
frequent in Frescobaldi. Beethoven shows 
a strongly marked preference for femi- 
nine endings in his late style. The femi- 
nine cadence is a typical feature of the 
•polonaise. 

Masque, mask. Sixteenth- and 17th- 
century stage productions, designed for 
the entertainment of the nobility and con- 


MASQUE 

sisting of a combination of poetry, vocal, 
and instrumental music, dancing, acting, 
etc., applied in the most lavish way to the 
representation of mythological and alle- 
gorical subjects. The masques originated 
in Italy and France where the members 
of the court played an active part in their 
preparation as well as performance. B. 
de Beaujoyeulx* famous “Ballet comique 
de la Royne” [see •Ballet I], performed 
in the Louvre in 1581, was one of the first 
plays in which there was a unified plot 
going through all the scenes. 

The masque was introduced into Eng- 
land during the i6th century and re- 
mained in great favor here during the 
17th century. A famous writer of masques 
was Ben lonson who, from 1605 till 1631, 
exercised a privilege to provide the court 
with masques. A specialty of his plays 
was the antimasquCy i.e., intermediate 
scenes of a grotesque character (similar 
to the operatic •intermezzo). The earliest 
known composers of music for masques 
are Thomas Campion (1567-1620), Al- 
fonso Ferrabosco II (1575-1628), Robert 
Johnson (d. about 1634), and John Co- 
prario {c. 1570-1627). While the music 
of these masques consists of •ayres and 
•ballettos, later composers, such as Nico- 
las Lani^re (1588-1666), Henry Lawes 
(1595-1662), and William Lawes (d. 
1645), introduced the “stile recitativo.” 
Henry Lawes wrote the music to Milton’s 
masque Comus, produced in 1634 [rcpubl. 
by the Mermaid Society, 1904; example 
in HAM, 203]. After the Civil War 
(around 1660) the opera gradually super- 
seded the earlier plays which deteriorated 
into mere fancy dress balls. One of the 
latest masques was Freyas Gift, text by 
J. Oxenford, music by G. A. Macfarren, 
which was produced on the marriage of 
Edward VII, in 1863. Sec •Opera VI. 

Lit.: J. Mark, “The Jonsonian Masque” 
(ML iii, no. 4); W. J. Lawrence, “Notes 
on a Collection of Masque Music” (ML 
iii, no. i); Campion, Masque in Honour 
of the Marriage of Lord Hayes (see •Edi- 
tions XXII, i); P. Reyher, Les Masques 
Anglais (1909); W. W. Greg, A List of 
Masques . . . (1902); A. H. D. Prender- 
gast, in PM A xxiii. 


[426] 



MASS 


MASS 


Mass [L. missa\ F. inesse\ G. Messe\ It. 
messa^. The most solemn service of the 
Roman Catholic rites, representing the 
commemoration and mystical repetition 
of the sacrifice of Christ on the Cross. 
The name is derived from the words “Ite, 
missa est (congregatio),” i.e., “Depart, 
the congregation is dismissed,’’ sung at 
the end of the service [cf., e.g., GR, 28*]. 
The subsequent explanations refer to its 
full form known as High Mass [see 
^Missa solemnis]. 

A. T he Mass in Gregorian Chant, The 
Mass has a complex structure, consisting 
of a number of items some of which vary 
from day to day (this is the Proper of the 
Mass, proprium missae), while others 
remain the same in every Mass (Ordinary 
of the Mass, ordinarium missae). An- 
other classification can be made according 
to whether the item is (a) recited to a 
^monotone or in an elevated speech, or 
(b) sung to a distinct melody. The for- 
mer category falls to the celebrant priest 
and his assistants, the latter to the choir 
{schola). The following table shows the 
normal structure of the Mass, with the 
items classified under four categories, la: 
Proper sung; Ib: Ordinary sung; Ila: 
Proper recited (or spoken); lib: Ordinary 
spoken. 

Sung Recited or Spoken 

la Proprium Ib Ordinarium Ila Proprium lib Ordinarium 

I. Introitus 


2. Kyric 

3. Gloria 


6. Graduale 

7. Alleluia or 
Tractus 

(with Sequence) 


’0. Offertorium 


4. Oratio (prayers, 
collect) 

5. Lectio (Epistle) 


8, Evangelium 
(Gospel) 


16. Communio 


11. Secreta 

12. Praefatio 
(Preface) 


15. Agnus Dei 

17. Post-communio 
18. Ite missa est 
or Benedicamus 
Domino 


Regarding the texts of the items Ib and Vi 
Ilb (and other texts not included above) 12 
the student is referred to the Ordo Missaey thi 
given on pp. 1-7 of LU. The variable tb 

[427] 


texts (Oratio, Evangelium, etc.) are giv- 
en with the different Masses, e.g., pp. 
3i8ff of LUy while the recitation tones of 
the items 4, 5, 8 are found in LU, 98-111 
or in GR, 109*-! 21*. The items la with 
their melodies are given with the different 
Masses, e.g., LU, 3i8ff {GR, iff), while 
those for Ib are found in LU, 11-94 

i*-94*). 

Naturally, the items of the classes la, 
Ib are those interesting to the musician, 
and it is to these exclusively that reference 
is made in the studies of Gregorian chant, 
as well as in the following explanations. 
What is usually known to the music stu- 
dent as “Mass” are the items of the rubric 
Ib, the (sung) Ordinary of the Mass. The 
reason for this narrow and actually mis- 
leading conception is the fact that these 
alone (with the exception of the lie missa 
est, however) were composed polyphoni- 
cally after 1300 [see under B]. From the 
point of view of the plainsong, the Proper 
of the Mass (la) is much more important 
and musically interesting. These chants 
and their texts are also much older than 
those of the Ordinary as appears from the 
fact that they are all derived from the 
psalms [see *Psalmody]. Thus, the In- 
troit originally was a psalmus ad in- 
troitum, the Communio a psalmus ad 
communionem, etc. Around 500, the 
Mass consisted only of the chants of the 
Proper, alternating with lections from 
the Epistles, etc. Gradually, the chants of 
the Ordinary were introduced, probably 
in the following chronological order: 
Sanctus, Kyric, Gloria, Agnus Dei, Credo. 

B. The Polyphonic Mass, I. 1200- 
1400. The earliest polyphonic settings of 
the Mass chants are those of the Proper. 
During the 12th and 13th centuries a 
great number of the chants of the Proper 
of the Mass were composed, as ^organa. 
The “de gradali”-section of the “'^Magnus 
liber organi, e.g., contains 59 such com- 
positions, all Graduals or Alleluias. (For 
details regarding the composition, see 
*Organum, particularly the scheme for 
Viderunt.) Under Perotinus {c. 1160- 
1225), the repertory of compositions for 
the Proper was considerably enlarged by 
the numerous *clausulae, many of which 



MASS 


MASS 


were later (after 1225) transformed into 
liturgical motets (e.g., all the motets with 
the tenor Omnes form a part of the Christ- 
mas Gradual Viderunt). Around 1300, 
the composition of the Proper practically 
died out [see, however, *Choralis Constan- 
tinus and Byrd’s Gradualia of 1605/07], 
and the composition of the Ordinary be- 
gan to attract exclusive interest. The rea- 
son for this change lies in the fact that, 
while the composition of, e.g., a Gradual 
could be heard only once a year, composi- 
tions of a Kyrie, Sanctus, etc., could be 
performed on many different occasions. 
The earliest examples of this category are 
two-part compositions (organa) of the 
*Benedicamus and of Kyrie-tropes [Ex. 
in HAM^ nos. 26b and 37; SchGMB, no. 
9]. Two-voice settings of Sanctus and 
Agnus tropes, probably of English origin, 
are contained in fasc. ii of the Wolfen- 
biittel codex Wj [cf. ReMMAy 394]. 
Two-part compositions of troped and 
plain Kyries as well as a three-voiced Et 
in terra occur in the Codex Huelgas from 
c. 1275 [cf. H. Angles, El Codex Musical 
de las HuelgaSy 3 vols., 1931]. The first 
example of a complete Mass (Ordinary) 
is the Messe de Tournai of c, 1300 which, 
however, is probably a compilation of in- 
dividual compositions written at differ- 
ent periods [new ed. in E. Coussemaker, 
Messe du Xllle siMe, 1861]. Machaut’s 
Mass (said to have been composed for the 
coronation of Charles V in 1364, but prob- 
ably of a considerably earlier date, judg- 
ing from its Ars antiqua style) is the first 
example of a complete Mass by a single 
composer [cf. WoGM iii, nos. 17, 18]. 
Curiously enough, his example was not 
followed until nearly 100 years later. The 
MSS of the late 14th century (e.g., Lon- 
don, Brit. Mus. Add. 2^g8y [cf. WoGM 
i, 268] and Codex Apt [cf. H. Besseler, 
in AMW vii, 203f; also ♦Editions XXIV, 
A, 10] ) contain a number of Kyries, Glo- 
rias, etc., but no complete Mass. In Eng- 
land the practice of writing single Mass 
movements prevailed throughout the 15th 
century (Dunstable; numerous composers 
of the ♦Old Hall MS). 


1400-74) and comes to an end with Pa- 
lestrina (1525-94). The writing of com- 
plete Masses in five movements (Kyrie, 
Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, Agnus Dei) or 
frequently in six (with a separate move- 
ment for the Benedictus) now becomes 
one of the main concerns of composers. 
The majority of these Masses show the 
following two peculiarities: (a) the use 
of borrowed material, monodic or poly- 
phonic in nature, sacred or secular as to 
source; (b) cyclical treatment, i.e., the 
use of the same material in all the move- 
ments. The following main categories of 
Mass composition can be distinguished: 

a. Plainsong Mass {missa choralis). 
This is a non-cyclical type of Mass, in 
which each movement draws its musical 
material from the corresponding item of 
a monophonic (Gregorian) Mass. This 
genre is found throughout the period, but 
to a far lesser degree than the cyclical 
Mass type. Examples are the Mass of 
Reginald Liebert [Trent Codices; cf. 
DTOe 2y.i]y Morales’ Missa de heata 
Virginey and Palestrina’s Missa pro de- 
functis. 

b. Cantus-firmus Mass. This term is 
commonly used to denote Masses in which 
all the movements are based on one and 
the same melody, usually in the tenor [see 
♦Tenor Mass]. (It will be noticed that 
the terms “plainsong Mass” and “cantus- 
firmus Mass” are far from being correct 
and proper designations: the “plainsong” 
of the former category is usually a can- 
tus firmus, and the “cantus firmus” of 
the latter category is frequently taken 
from plainsong.) This cyclical type is 
perhaps the most frequent of all. Accord- 
ing to the source of the cantus firmus 
three species can be distinguished, i.e., 
Masses based on (a) a liturgical, (b) a 
secular, and (c) an invented cantus fir- 
mus. Among the liturgical cantus firmi 
the antiphons B.M.V. [see ♦Antiphon 
(2)] and hymns are most often used. 
Examples are Josquin’s Missa Pange lin- 
gua and Palestrina’s Missa Salve regina. 
This genre, although found throughout 
the period, is more characteristic of the 
1 6th century than of the 15th, at which 
time secular cantus firmi were preferred. 


II. 1400-1600. The main period 0 
Mass composition begins with Dufay (c 

r 



MASS 

Particularly popular were French chan- 
sons (chanson Mass), above all, the fa- 
mous *Lhomme arme. Other examples 
arc Ockeghem’s Missa De plus en plus 
and Obrecht’s Missa V or tuna desperata. 

In England the tune Western Wynde was 
popular (Shepherd, Taverner, Tye). 
Isaac’s Missa carminum is an example of 
the *quodlibet Mass in which several sec- 
ular melodies are combined. Around 1500 
the use of “invented” cantus firmi became 
popular, either of a ^soggetto cavato, e.g., 
Josquin’s Missa Hercules Dux Ferrarie^ 
or of the *hexachord, e.g., Palestrina’s 
Missa Ut re mi fa sol la {Missa super voces 
mu sic ales). 

c. Parody Mass. See separate entry. 

d. The freely invented Mass. For freely 
invented Masses, which form a relatively 
small group, general designations such as 
Missa quarti toni (Vittoria), Missa cuius- 
vis toni (Ockeghem), Missa sine nomine 
(Obrecht; cf. HAM, no. 77), Missa brevis 
(Palestrina) were used. It must be noted, 
however, that the complete originality of 
any Mass written during the period is pos- 
sibly open to question, and that a cantus 
firmus is often used where none is indi- 
cated in the title. This is especially true 
for Masses composed after the ^Council 
of Trent at which the use of secular cantus 
firmi was forbidden. For instance, Pales- 
trina’s Missa quarta (1582) is based on 
Hhomme arme. 

Naturally, within each of these cate- 
gories the treatment varies considerably 
according to the period of composition. 

The earliest type (though by no means 
restricted to the early period) is the use of 
the cantus firmus, without alterations, in 
long notes [*Pfundnoten] in the tenor. 
Later we find the cantus firmus shared 
among the other voices and also omitted 
altogether in certain sections, e.g., in the 
Christe eleison and in the Credo. An- 
other modification is the use of a melodi- 
cally and rhythmically altered cantus 
firmus, a sort of free variation of the bor- 
rowed melody which was used not only 
as a tenor but also as a soprano melody 
[see ^Discant Mass]. By the end of the 
15th century the techniques of variation 
upon a borrowed tune are extremely 

[429] 


MASS 

highly developed; the cantus firmus may 
be completely absorbed throughout the 
polyphonic texture, so that a derivative 
Mass is indistinguishable in style from a 
freely composed one. A frequent device 
of cyclical treatment is the use of the same 
motive at the beginning of all the move- 
ments [cf. HAMy no. 77]. See also ♦Or- 
gan Mass. 

III. 1600-present. After 1600 the com- 
position of the Mass lost its former im- 
portance. In Italy [see ♦Roman School] 
the a-cappella tradition of Palestrina 
(stile antico) was continued by composers 
such as Steflano Bernardi (d. 1628; cf. 
DTOe 36.i), Antonio Draghi (1635- 
1700; cf. DTOe 23.i), and Antonio Lotti 
(1667-1740; cf. DdT 60), while others 
enlarged the vocal resources to gigantic 
choirs of 32 and 48 voice-parts (Orazio 
Benevoli, 1605-72; cf. DTOe lo.i). In 
Germany the development followed more 
progressive trends, by the inclusion of 
the orchestra and of the 17th-century 
styles of the concerto, aria, etc. (stile mo- 
derno). The Masses by Biber, Schmelt- 
zer, and Kerll [cf. DTOe 23.i] may be 
mentioned as landmarks on the road 
leading to Bach’s B minor Mass (1733- 
38). Concomitant with*the tendency to a 
greater variety of styles was the division 
of the Mass into a greater number of 
movements, particularly within the Glo- 
ria and the Credo. Following is the 
structure of Bach’s Mass: 

Kyrie 

Kyrie eleison (Lord, have mercy) 

Christi eleison (Christ, have mercy) 

Kyrie eleison (Lord, have mercy) 

Gloria 

Gloria in excclsis Deo (Glory be to God on 
high) 

Laudamus te (We praise Thee) 

Gratias agimiis tihi (We give Thee thanks) 
Domine Detts (Lord God) 

Qui tollis pcccata mundi (Who takest away 
the sins of the world) 

Qui sedes ad dexteram patris (Who sittest 
at the right hand of the Father) 

Quoniam tii solus sanctus (For Thou only 
art holy) 

Cum sancto spiritu (With the Holy Spirit) 
Credo 

Credo in unttm Deum (I believe in one God) 
Patrem omnipotentem (Father almighty) 

£■/ in unutn Dominum (And in one Lord) 

Et incarnatus est (And was incarnate) 



MASS 


MAZURKA 


Crucifixus (Crucified) 

Et resurrexit (And rose again) 

Et in Spirttum Sanctum (And [I believe] in 
the Holy Spirit) 

Confiteor unum baptisma (I confess one 
baptism) 

Sanctus 

Sanctus (Holy) 

Hosanna in excelsis (Hosanna in the high- 
est) 

Benedictus qui venit (Blessed is He that 
Cometh) 

Agnus 

Agnus Dei (Lamb of God) 

Dona nobis pacem (Give us peace) 

The Masses by Francesco Durante 
(1684-1755), Johann Hasse (1699-1755), 
Haydn (1732-1809; see *Paukenmesse), 
and Mozart (1756-91) are indicative of 
the trend towards secularization of the 
music for the Mass, and it was not until 
Beethoven’s Missa solemnis (op. 123, 
1819-23) that a work was created which 
stands the proof of comparison with 
Bach’s Mass. Beethoven treats the text in 
a more continuous manner than Bach but 
has, in the Credo, a separate movement 
for Et homo (after Et incarnatus) and Et 
vitam (after Confiteor) y this being treated 
as an extended closing fugue. 

Cherubini (1760-1842) wrote several 
Masses between 1809 (Mass in F for three 
voices and orchestra) and 1825 (Corona- 
tion Mass) which deserve more attention 
than is given them, as do also the six 
Masses by Schubert. Mass composition 
was continued by Carl-Maria von Weber 
(2), Franz Liszt (4, including the Graner 
Mass, 1855), Cesar Franck (2), Charles 
Gounod (9), and culminated in the three 
Masses of Anton Bruckner, particularly 
his F minor Mass (1867), the only great 
Mass composition after Bach and Bee- 
thoven. 

Lit. Liturgical: A. Cabrol, The Mass, 
Its Doctrine and History ( 1931) ; O’Brien, 
History of the Mass (1893); P. Parsch, 
The Liturgy of the Mass (1936); cf. 
MoML, 502. — To A and B: P. Wagner, 
Geschichte der Messe i (till 1600; 1913); 
O. Ursprung, Die \atholische Kirchen- 
musi\ (BiiHM, 1932). — To B, I: F. 
Ludwig, “Die mehrstimmige Messe des 
14. Jahrhunderts” (AMW vii). — To B, 
II: R. Ficker, “Die friihen Messenkompo- 
sitionen der Tricnter Codices” (StM xi); 


id,, “Zur Kolorierungstechnik der Trien- 
tcr Messen” (StM vii); H. B. Collins, 
“John Taverner’s Masses” (ML v); F. X. 
Haberl, “Die Messen Adriaen Willaerts” 
(MfM iii); J. Schmidt, “Die Messen des 
Clemens non Papa” (ZMW ix); see also 
*Organ mass: *Parody mass. — To B, 
III: G. Adler, “Zur Geschichte der 
Wiener Messkomposition . . .” (StM 
iv); H. A. Sander, Italienische Messkpm- 
positionen des ly, Jahrhunderts (Diss. 
Breslau 1932). — To B, IV: A. Schner- 
ich, Messe und Requiem seit Haydn und 
Mozart (1909); B. A. Wallner, “C. M. 
von Weber’s Messen” (ZMW viii). 

Mastersingers, The. See *Meister- 
singer. Die. 

Matasin, matassin, mattachin. A 
16th-century dance performed by cos- 
tumed dancers, representing men in 
armor or in other disguises [see *Bouf- 
fons; *Dance of death; *Morisca] . An ex- 
ample called “Mattasin oder Toden 
Tantz” occurs in Normiger’s tablature of 
1593 [cf. W. Merian, Der Tanz in den 
deutschen T ahulaturhiichern (1927), 
256]. A similar melody called “Mata- 
china” is found in a French guitern tabla- 
ture of 1570 [cf. W. Tappert, Sang und 
Klang aus alter Zeit, p. 39] . 

Matins [L. Matutinum\. See ^Office 
hours. 

Maultrommel [G.]. ’^Jew’s harp. 

Ma Vlast (My Fatherland). See *Sym- 
phonic poem II. 

Maxima. See ^Mensural notation 1 . 

Maxixe. The oldest urban dance of 
Brazil. It originated in the late 19th cen- 
tury, and appeared in Europe around 
1890, virtually opening the vogue of ex- 
otic dance music. It is in moderate duple 
meter, with simple syncopated rhythms. 
Sec *Samba. 

Mazeppa. (i) A ^symphonic poem by 
F. Liszt. — (2) An opera by Tchaikovsky 
(1883). 

Mazurka, mazur. A Polish national 
dance, in triple meter and in moderate 


[430] 



M.D. 

speed, frequcndy with strong accents on 
the second or, particularly, the third beat 
[see Ex.] . It is performed by four or eight 



couples, with a great variety of steps, often 
improvised. 

The mazurka appeared in Germany in 
the mid- 1 8th century, spreading to France 
around 1800 and to England around 
1830. Chopin was the first to introduce 
the dance into the realm of art music. 
His mazurkas are particularly interesting 
because of the occasional use of modal 
idioms, the earliest indication of the 19th- 
century use of ^modality as a folkloristic 
device. Later composers of mazurkas are 
Glinka, Tchaikovsky, and Szymanowski. 
See Kujawiak; *Dance music IV. 

M.d. Abbreviation of main droite [F.] 
or mano destra [It.], i.e., right hand. 

Meane, mene. In 15th- to 17th-century 
English music, a middle part of a poly- 
phonic composition. See, e.g., the follow- 
ing passage from a 15th-century MS [cf. 
G. Schad, Musi\ und MusikjiusdrucXe 
in der Mittelenglischen Literatur (19-?), 
p. 13] : “Primus pastor: ‘Let me syng the 
tenory.’ Secundus pastor: ‘And I the 
tryble so hye.’ Tertius pastor: ‘The meync 
fallys to me.’ ” Organ compositions of the 
pre-Virginalistic period frequently show 
inscriptions such as “Salvator with a 
meane,” possibly denoting a hidden can- 
tus firmus. A long poem by Redford on 
the mene^ which unfortunately contrib- 
utes little towards a further clarification 
of the term, is reprinted in C. Pfatteicher, 
]ohn Redford (1934), p. 64. Sometimes, 
but not always, such a middle part is writ- 
ten in black notes, as contrasted with 
white notes in the other parts [cf. 
ApNPMy lofi]. 

Originally the term was used for the 
middle voice in the three-part fauxbour- 
don of the 14th century [see *Fauxbour- 
don (2); also under ^Treble] . It was also 
applied to instruments (viols) playing 
the middle part as well as to the two mid- 
dle strings (small meane, great meane) 
of the viol. 


MECHANICAL COMPOSITION 

Mean-tone system. See •Tempera- 
ment II. 

Measure [F. mesure\ G. Ta\t\ It. mi- 
sura] . A measure is a group of beats (units 
of musical time) the first of which bears 
an accent. Such groups, in numbers of 
two, three, four, or, occasionally, five 
each, recur consistently throughout the 
composition and are marked off from one 
another by bar-lines. The basic scheme of 
note-values within a measure is called 
•meter or time (duple, triple, 6/ 8-meter, 
etc.). Occasional deviations from the 
regularity of accent, e.g., ^syncopation, 
emphasize rather than destroy the general 
scheme of measure and time. 

As appears from these explanations, the 
concept of measure stands or falls with 
the principle of regular accent, a principle 
which is of primary importance in almost 
all music generally known today. By no 
means, however, has music always em- 
bodied this principle. Disregarding dance 
music which, for obvious reasons, is 
nearly always “measure-music,” one may 
divide the history of European music into 
four periods alternating from “measure- 
free music” to “measure-music,” namely: 
(a) 500-1200: no measure (plainsong, 
organum purum); (b) 1200-1450: meas- 
ure based upon the rhythmic •modes, the 
•mensurations, or, in Italy, on the *divi- 
siones; (c) 1450—1600: prevalence of 

measure-free (Flemish) polyphony; (d) 
1600—1920: measure based upon the prin- 
ciples of harmony and regular melodic 
phrase. With respect to period (c), the 
reader must be warned not to confuse 
“measure-music” (as defined above) with 
“measured music” in the sense of •men- 
sural music. The difference is that men- 
sural music (which prevailed throughout 
the period in question), although em- 
bodying the principle of regular groups 
of beats (tempus perfectumy imperfec- 
turn, etc.), frequently lacks the most im- 
portant characteristic of “measure-mu- 
sic,” that is, the accent on the first beat of 
such a group. Sec also •Rhythm II (a). 

Mechanical composition. Cf. H. 
Gerigk, “Wiirfelmusik” (ZMW xvi). 


[43x1 



MECHANICAL INSTRUMENTS 


MECHANICAL INSTRUMENTS 


Mechanical instruments. L Appli- up to recently. Mason, in his Essays^ His- 

ances designed to produce musical per- torical and Critical^ on English Church 

formance mechanically, i.e., without an Music (i 795 )> says that he prefers “the 

actual performer. Prior to the end of the mechanical assistance of a Cylindrical or 

19th century such apparatus were always Barrel Organ to the fingers of the best 
based upon the principle of the barrel- parochial organists” — a statement which 

and-pin mechanism. The hand, or a me- reflects on the skill of the parochial organ- 

chanical clockwork, turns a wooden cyl- ists rather than on the barrel-organ. See 
inder bearing pins acting against levers also *Serinette; ^Orgue de barbaric, 
or similar gadgets, which in turn operate III. Towards the end of the i8th cen- 
upon the hammers of a keyboard instru- tury various small instruments called 
ment, the clappers of a set of bells, the Flotenuhr (flute-clock) were made (by 
mouthpieces of organ pipes, etc. As early P. Niemecz, librarian to Prince Ester- 
as the 14th century, carillons were oper- hazy), which combined an ordinary clock 
ated by such a mechanism. In the i6th with a set of small pipes and bellows op- 

century the same principle was applied to crated by the clockwork. For these instru- 

harpsichords and organs. In the collec- ments (also called Laujwerk) Haydn 
tion of instruments left by Henry VIII at wrote a number of charming pieces [cf. 
his death in 1547 was a “virginal that E. F. Schmidt, fWerJ^c fiir Laufwerl(^ 
goethc with a whele without playing (1931), and in ZMPF xiv]. 
uppon.” As a curiosity an instrument Passing reference may be made to the 
may be mentioned which was sent by well-known “musical boxes” {boUe h 
Queen Elizabeth to the Sultan of Turkey musique\ tabatihe de musique; Spiel- 
in 1593, and which included an organ, a dose) whose whimsically high and thin 
carillon, “trumpeters,” “singing byrds,” tones have frequently been imitated in 
etc., and which had the particular distinc- piano pieces, e.g., by Liadov, Leschet- 
tion of going into action automatically itzky, and, ironically, by Stravinsky in his 
every six hours. About the same time Eetrouch\a (Valse). A truly remarkable 
Hans Leo Hassler took an active interest specimen was a “musical bustle” which 
in the fabrication and sale of musical was presented to Queen Victoria in 1887 
clockworks. Of particular interest is a and which was “so designed as to provide 
mechanical spinet which is preserved a performance of the National Anthem 
with six pieces from the early i8th cen- (God Save the Queen) whenever the 
tury, probably the earliest examples of wearer sat down.” 

“phonographic” music [cf. P. Nettl, in In the early 19th century a number of 
ZMW ii, 523] . Mozart wrote three com- instruments were built for the mechanical 
positions for the mechanical organ (Or- reproduction of entire orchestras, e.g., 
gelwalze)y an Adagio and Allegro in F MaelzePs Fanhar monicon (1804), for 
minor (K.V. 594), a Fantasia in F minor which Beethoven originally wrote the 
(K.V. 608), and an Andante in F major “Sieges-Symphonie” of his Battle of Vit- 
(K.V. 616). toria (1813), the Apollonicon built by 

II. The only instrument of the barrel- Flight and Robson (1817), the Orches- 
and-pin type which attained considerable trion (Kaufmann, 1851), and numerous 
practical importance was the English bar- others the descendants of which are still 
rel-organ. This was a small organ con- found in taverns throughout Europe, 
nected with an arrangement of inter- taking the place of the American “juke 
changeable barrels, each containing a box.” 

number of the most popular psalm and IV. An important advance over the 
hymn tunes. The great popularity which barrel-and-pin mechanism was the per- 
these automatons enjoyed in English forated paper-roll of the late 19th cen- 
churches during the i8th and 19th cen- tury. A roll of cardboard is pierced with 
turies was a principal cause of the de- small openings corresponding in position 
plorable state of organ music in England and length to the pitch and duration of 

14P] 



MECHANIK 


MEISTERSINGER 


the tones of the composition to be repro- 
duced. This passes over a cylinder fur- 
nished with numerous small apertures 
(similar to those of the mouth harmon- 
ica) which arc connected by pipes with 
the action of a pianoforte. As often as an 
opening in the cardboard passes over the 
cylinder, a stream of air is pushed (or 
drawn) through the corresponding pipe, 
thus setting the hammer in motion. This 
principle has been applied with a consid- 
erable degree of perfection in instruments 
such as the Player-pianOy the Welte-Mi- 
gnoriy the PianolUy the PhonolUy etc. The 
player-rolls are usually reproductions of 
performances by famous virtuosos. In 
most of the instruments the rendition can 
be modified according to the taste of the 
player who can regulate to a certain de- 
gree the speed and the dynamic details. 
Needless to say, the possibility of beating 
the speed-record of world-famous pianists 
has added considerably to the commer- 
cial value of these instruments. Some 
modern composers (Hindemith, Toch) 
have written original compositions for 
such mechanical pianofortes, availing 
themselves of the possibility of producing 
sound effects which are not obtainable by 
a pianist, e.g., chords consisting of thirty 
and more notes, or the simultaneous use 
of the lowest, the middle, and the highest 
registers. 

The extraordinary success of the ♦pho- 
nograph and the radio has put all these 
attempts into eclipse. 

Lit.: H. Leichtentritt, in MQ xx; LavE 
ii.3, 2117; G. C. A. Jonson, in PM A xlii; 
G. L. Jaccard, in Hobbies 43, nos. 8, 9. 

Mechanik [G.]. The action of a piano- 
forte, etc. 

Medesimo tempo [It.]. The same 
tempo. 

Medial cadence. See ♦Cadence I. 

Mediant. See ♦Scale degrees. 

Mediation [L. mediatio]. See ♦Psalm 
tones. 

Medicean edition [L. Edith Medi- 
cea ] . See ♦Liturgical books II. 


Medicinale. See ♦Psaltery. 

Medieval music. See ♦Middle Ages. 

Medium [L., half] . Cantus per medium 
is, in 16th-century theory, singing in 
“halved” values, i.e., in proportio dupla 
[see ♦Proportions] or, in modern par- 
lance, alia breve. 

Medley. Same as ♦potpourri. The term 
was already used by the virginalists. 

Mehr- [G., more, several]. Mehrehorigy 
polychoral. Mehrstimmigy in more than 
one part, i.e., polyphonic. Mehrstimmig- 
\eity polyphony. 

Meistersinger [G., mastersingers]. 
I. A literary and musical movement of 
the 15th and i6th centuries which was 
cultivated by the guilds of the German 
craftsmen, and which represents the mid- 
dle-class continuation of the activity of 
the aristocratic ♦Minnesinger of the 12th 
to the 14th century. The desire of the 
Meistersinger to emphasize the aura of 
such a lineage led to a store of naive leg- 
ends concerning the origin of their move- 
ment. A. Puschmann, e.g., in his Griind- 
licher Bericht des deutschen Meisterge^ 
sanges und der Tabulatur (1574; new ed. 
by R. Jonas, 1888), relates that the Meis- 
tergesang was founded, upon the initia- 
tive of the Roman Emperor, Otto I, at 
Paris in 962 by twelve “first masters” 
among whom were Walther v. d. Vogel- 
weide and Heinrich Frauenlob — men 
who actually flourished around 1200 and 
1300 respectively! The statement that 
Heinrich Frauenlob was the first Meister- 
singer is still frequently found in modern 
writings, although the accuracy of this 
tradition was already questioned by the 
German professor J. Chr. Wagenseil, 
in his De civitate Norimbergi commen- 
tatiOy 1697, the source book of Richard 
Wagner’s Meistersinger libretto. Actu- 
ally it is not until the early 15th century 
that names such as Muskatblut, Harder, 
Der Zwinger, suggest a greater participa- 
tion of commoners. Even Michael Be- 
haim (1416-74), who might be more 
properly regarded as the first Meister- 
singer, falls outside the category proper, 


[433] 



MEISTERSINGER 

since he conducted a traveling life — like 
the bards — whereas the Mcistersinger 
were resident members of reputable city 
guilds, united in local schools. Real 
Mcistersinger arc: Conrad Nachtigall\ 
Hans Sachs (1494-1576); Hans Folz (all 
in Nuremberg); Sebastian Wilde (in 
Augsburg); Adam Puschmann (1532- 
1600, in Breslau). In the i6th century 
the movement spread over almost all of 
Germany, but declined rapidly during 
the 17th century. Certain schools existed 
throughout the i8th century; that of Ulm 
was dissolved in 1839. 

II. Characteristic features of the Meis- 
tergesang are the rigid and pedantic rules 
which regulated the procedure at their 
weekly meetings (Sunday, after church), 
the establishment of competitions and of 
prizes, the promotion of the members into 
various classes {Schuler^ Schuljreund, 
Singer^ Dichter^ Meiser^ i.e., pupil, 
friend, singer, poet, master), etc. The 
rules were set down in the so-called 
Tabulatur (tablature). The title Dichter 
was given for the invention of a new 
poem (called Lied^ Gesang)y the title 
Meister for a new melody (called Tony 
Weise), Most of the numerous poems 
were sung to standard melodies the 
names of which referred to their com- 
posers (e.g., Brant’Weise; Der Wilde 
Ton) or to other characteristics of a more 
or less obscure nature (e.g., Rosentony 
Grasmuc\enweise — “warbler-melody”), 
while names such as Schwartz-Dinten- 
weis (“black ink melody”), Kurtze- 
Affenweis (“short monkey melody”), 
show that the Meistersinger did not lack 
a sense of humor. The whole setup has 
been most vividly (and accurately!) de- 
scribed by Wagner in his Die Meister- 
singer von N timber g [particularly Act I, 
David and Kothner] . 

III. The musical repertory of the 
Meistersinger, as it is preserved, consists 
of a great number of monophonic mel- 
odies, written in *plainsong notation in a 
more or less free rhythm. Practically all of 
them are in the *Barform, the traditional 
form of the Minnesinger. Among the 
songs of Hans Sachs there are several at- 
tractive melodies [cf. HAM, no. 24; 


MEISTERSINGER VON NORNBERG 

EiBMy no. 9; BeMMRy 271; SchGMBy no. 
78] . On the whole, however, the Meister- 
singer melodies are clumsy and barren, 
often overcrowded with meaningless col- 
oraturas {Blumen), 

Recent investigations have shown that 
the Meistersinger probably derived ele- 
ments of their ceremonial not only from 
the Minnesinger, but also from the 
scholastic procedure of medieval doctor 
examinations, from pious fraternities, 
similar to the Italian *laudesi [cf. the 
prevailingly Biblical repertory of the 
Meistersinger], and possibly from the 
French *puys. 

Lit.: H. J. Moser, Geschichte der deuU 
schen Musi\ i (1930), 303-318; P. 
Runge, tD/> Kolmarer Liederhandschrift 
(1896); G. Miinzer, '\Das Liederbuch 
des Adolf Puschmann (igoy); R. Staiger, 
fDie Liederhandschrift des fBenediJ{t von 
Watt (BIM II, 13); H. Thompson, Wag- 
ner and Wagenseil (1927); G. Miinzer, 
“Hans Sachs als Musiker” (DM v.19); 
P. Runge (also G. Miinzer, E. Bernoui- 
lli), “Ueber die Notation der Meister- 
singer” (KIMy 1906, p. 17; 1909, p. 84). 

Meistersinger von Niirnberg, Die 
(“The Mastersingers of Nuremberg”). 
Opera in three acts by Richard Wagner 
(1813-83), to his own libretto, first per- 
formance, Munich, 1868. The plot, which 
is based on careful studies of original 
sources (Wagenseil, 1697), reveals a true 
and lively picture of the life and customs 
in the Mastersinger guilds of the i6th 
century [see ^Meistersinger], with the 
cobbler-poet Hans Sachs (Baritone) as 
the central figure. The dramatic action 
is carried chiefly by the young knight 
Walt her von Stolzing (Tenor) who, in 
the first scene (Church), falls in love 
with Eva (Soprano) and enters the guild 
in order to compete (victoriously, of 
course) at the contest where he wins the 
hand of Eva through his prize-song 
“Morgenlieh leuchtend im rosigen 
Schein,” in spite of the intrigues of his 
rival Bec\messer (Bass buffo). 

The Meistersinger represents an artis- 
tic peak in Wagner’s work comparable 
to that represented by the Waldstein 


[434] 



MELISMA 


MELODY 


Sonata and the Emperor Concerto of 
Beethoven: the sovereign and assured 
maturity of his middle period. In its 
perfect balance of means, in its “C-major 
atmosphere,” in its happy variety of 
scenes and expressions, the opera offers a 
striking contrast to the earlier Tristan 
(1865) with its exuberant chromaticism 
and over-passionate expression of tragic 
love-madness. The overture to the Mei- 
stersingevy frequently performed in con- 
certs, is one of the greatest examples of 
19th-century instrumental music and one 
which makes us regret that Wagner con- 
centrated his interest exclusively on the 
opera. See *Opera X. Cf. H. Thompson, 
Wagner und Wagenseil (1927). 

Melisma. (i) An expressive vocal pas- 
sage sung to one syllable, in contradistinc- 
tion to the virtuoso-like and frequently 
stereotyped ^coloratura. The term is used 
particularly with reference to Gregorian 
chant, but may also be applied to expres- 
sive or characteristic passages in other 
vocal styles. The distinction between 
melismatic style and syllabic style is of 
fundamental importance in Gregorian 
chant [see ^Gregorian chant III] as well 
as in 13th-century polyphonic music [cf. 
ApNPMy 2i2ff]. — (2) The term has oc- 
casionally been used (F. Ludwig) for the 
more common term *clausula, because 
the clausulae are polyphonic elaborations 
of plainsong melismas (vocalizing sec- 
tions in the graduals and alleluias). 

Melodrama. Music designed as an in- 
strumental accompaniment to a spoken 
text [see, however, ^Melodramma], Ex- 
periments in melodramatic style have not 
been rare, but have scarcely met with 
lasting success, on account of the acoustic 
incongruity of the spoken word and of 
music. In the Greek drama, which made 
ample use of melodramatic performance, 
this contrast was considerably less notice- 
able, because of the more “musical” char- 
acter of the Greek language, and the more 
“speech-like” nature of Greek music. 
Modern speech, with its monotonic pitch, 
and modern music, with its richness of 
harmonies, do not combine very well. 


However, melodramatic accompaniment 
has been effectively used as an occasional 
contrast to song, e.g., in the grave-digging 
scene of Beethoven’s Fidelioy in the in- 
cantation scene of Weber’s Der Frei- 
schutZy in the final scene of Busoni’s Doc- 
tor Fausty etc. 

More specifically, the term melodrama 
(also monodrama, duodrama) applies to 
complete plays written in this style, as 
was repeatedly done in the i8th century: 
J. E. Eberlin (1706-^2), Sigismundus 
[cf. DTOe 28.1]; J. J. Rousseau, Pyg- 
malion (1762); Georg Benda, Ariadne 
auf Naxos (1775; new ed. by A. Einstein, 
1920; cf. AdHMy 752) and Medea (1778). 
The latter’s plays, especially, made quite 
a sensation, and caused Mozart to intro- 
duce two long melodramatic monologues 
in his Zdide (1780). Around 1800, bal- 
lads were frequently recited to a piano- 
forte accompaniment; an interesting ex- 
ample, by F. Ries, Beethoven’s pupil, is 
reproduced in TaAM xiv. Goethe wrote 
various plays for melodramatic perform- 
ance, e.g., Proserpina (1776). Modern 
examples of melodrama are Enoch Arden 
by R. Strauss (op. 38, 1898), The Dream 
of fubal by A. C. Mackenzie (1889), A. 
Schonberg’s Pierrot Lunaire (uses a semi- 
melodramatic “Sprcchstimme” on defi- 
nite pitches indicated in the score), pas- 
sages in Honegger’s King Davidy etc. 

Lit.: J. F. Mason, The Melodrama in 
France (1912); LaMWCy 1056; E. Istel, 
Die Entstehung des deutschen Melo- 
dramas (1906); id.y in DMy v. 9-12; E. C. 
van Bellen, Les Origines du melodrame 
(1927); R. Augsten, Les premiers melo- 
drame s frangaisy composes aux modeles 
allemandes (1912); M. Steinitzer, Zur 
Entwic\lungsgeschichte des Melodrams 
und Mimodrams (1918); H. Martens, 
"^Das Melodrama (1932). 

Melodramma [It.]. Common Italian 
term for opera (not ^melodrama). 

Melody. I. In the most general sense, 
a succession of musical tones, as con- 
trasted with *harmony, i.e., musical tones 
sounded simultaneously. Thus, melody 
and harmony represent the horizontal 


[435] 



MELODY 


MELODY 


and the vertical elements of the musical 
^texture. By its very nature melody can- 
not be separated from rhythm. Each 
musical sound has two fundamental qual- 
ities, pitch and duration, and both of 
these enter into those successions of pitch- 
plus-duration values which we call melo- 
dies. To consider melody and rhythm as 
separate, or even as mutually exclusive 
phenomena — as is usually done — is 
misleading. If a distinction between the 
pitch quality (“high-low”) and the time 
quality (“long-short”) is needed, the 
proper terms are *motion and rhythm. 
Melody may thus be said to consist of 
motion plus rhythm, and every melody 
can be separated into a motion skeleton 
and a rhythm skeleton, as the accompany- 
ing example illustrates. 



tT|J J J J|l/=f=3 Jl|J J J J|J./T5J1 


In musical composition, melody may 
occur either without any additional ele- 
ment of texture (^monophonic music), 
or in combination with one or more other 
melodies (^polyphonic music), or sup- 
ported by harmonies (*homophonic mu- 
sic). These three categories roughly de- 
scribe the entire development of music: 
the first embraces the period from its be- 
ginnings through the first millennium of 
the Christian era (Greek music, Grego- 
rian chant; up to the present in *primi- 
tive and ^Oriental music and in *folk 
song); the second, that from looo to 
about 1750 (Middle Ages, Renaissance, 
Baroque; see ^History of music); the 
third, that from 1750 to the present day. 
In the last period, particularly during the 
19th century, there has been an increas- 
ing tendency to make melody subservient 
to harmony or, at least, to consider it as 
the mere result of harmonic progressions. 
The current explanation of melody as the 
“surface of harmony” clearly illustrates 
this point of view. Writers have gone so 
far as to maintain that a melody which 
cannot be interpreted harmonically is 
simply incomprehensible. It should suffice 
to point to the great treasure of purely 


melodic music in Gregorian chant in or- 
der to refute so utterly false a conception. 

II. Although the present interest in 
polyphonic music has resulted in a revi- 
sion of the greatest misconceptions, the 
real importance of melody is still far 
from being fully and generally recog- 
nized. It must be observed that among 
the various components of the musical 
composition, such as melody, harmony, 
rhythm, orchestration, the first-men- 
tioned is, from the historical as well as 
from the creative point of view, far 
superior to all the others, so superior in- 
deed that the others can hardly be con- 
sidered as being on the same plane of im- 
portance. The 19th-century development 
of music, with its growing emphasis on 
the exploitation of novel harmonies, of 
orchestral colors, and of rhythm as an in- 
dependent element, has temporarily ob- 
scured the fact that melody is the only 
element in common to music of all times 
and all races and that, moreover, it is the 
cornerstone and touchstone of artistic 
quality. Harmony, orchestration, and 
rhythm are subject to certain rational 
premises which make them capable of 
being learned systematically; many com- 
posers of mediocre artistic rank have 
been extremely adept at such studies 
and their practical application. Only the 
great artists, however, possess that power 
of imagination and creation which goes 
into the making of a great melody. It is 
significant, as well as deplorable, that in 
the past fifty years hundreds of books on 
harmony and on orchestration have been 
written and that courses on these subjects 
form an indispensable part of the curricu- 
lum of all the teaching institutions, while 
the study of melody is almost completely 
neglected. 

III. It is encouraging, however, to see 
that in the past twenty years several writ- 
ers have turned their attention to the 
study of melody, not as a mere ornamen- 
tation of a harmonic structure, but as an 
elementary principle in its own right. 
General characterizations such as “tune- 
ful,” “simple,” “touching,” “expressive,” 
“dramatic,” etc., are not entirely without 
significance, but are too vague to provide 


[436] 



MELODY 


MELODY 


a basis for a thorough study. A more 
promising aspect — indeed the one most 
likely to prove successful — is that de- 
rived from what one might call the face 
value of a melody, i.e., from the fact that 
it consists of successive notes of varying 
pitch. This point of view leads to a con- 
sideration of a melody as a “geometrical’' 
design including upward and downward 
steps, and, still more important, as a 
“physical” phenomenon reminiscent of a 
moving body which is subject to forces 
causing and regulating its motion. A 
very important concept of such a theory 
is that of “musical gravity,” a term which 
describes the fact that the “natural” 
movement of a musical line is downward 
[see the scales of *Greek music] and that 
an ascending motion has always a char- 
acter of tension and energy. Of course, a 
melody will practically always combine 
ascending and descending movements; 
but the greater emphasis on, or the pre- 
cedence of, one or the other is a point of 
prime importance, as may readily be seen 
from a comparison of melodies by Bach 
and Beethoven with those of Mendels- 
sohn, for example. The accompanying 
illustration (a: Bach; b: Mendelssohn) 
shows two opposite graphs of musical 
gravity, melodies which, the student will 
not fail to notice, differ markedly in their 
physical as well as artistic “weight.” 



IV. Another consideration of basic im- 
portance is that of the steps in which a 
melody moves, i.e., whether narrow (con- 
junct) or wide (disjunct). This distinc- 
tion is of prime interest in the study of 
primitive and Oriental music. For in- 
stance, Japanese music is prevailingly con- 
junct — hence, emotional, expressive — 
while ancient Chinese music is disjunct 
— hence, static, reserved [see also the 
two scales, slendro and pelog, of ♦Java- 
nese music, and remark under ♦Primitive 
music III] . In European folk song it has 


frequently been noticed that the French 
and Italians prefer narrow steps and 
ranges, as distinguished from the north- 
ern races, English, German, etc. 

In art music the above dichotomy be- 
comes one between scalar and chordal 
progressions, i.e., progressions through 
the tones of the scale or of a chord (triad, 
seventh-chord). Influenced by the current 
preoccupation with the harmonic point 
of view, writers usually consider the lat- 
ter the more important one and frequent- 
ly consider scalar progressions as mere 
passing-notes between main notes form- 
ing a chordal progression. In order to re- 
fute this point of view, it suffices to point 
to the theme of Beethoven’s first Piano 
Sonata [Ex. i, a] which, with the “orna- 
mental” notes suppressed [Ex. i, b], loses 
its character entirely, while it is not fun- 
damentally affected by a substitution of 
scalar, instead of chordal, motion for the 
initial notes [Ex. i, c]. In fact, scalar 



motion is not only much earlier and more 
frequent than chordal motion, but also 
more important from the musical and 
artistic point of view. Only the scale 
possesses that character of “logical con- 
tinuation,” of “variety and unity,” which 
is the lifeblood of melody. In fact, in a 
progression such as c-b-a-g-a-b-c' each 
tone has its own significance and func- 
tion, leading from one level to another, 
while a similar chordal progression, such 
as c'-g-c-c-e-g-c', is, in spite of its greater 
range, a mere reiteration of one element. 
Many melodies of the great composers 
begin with a chordal motion and con- 
tinue with scalar motion, thus showing a 
progression from a “static” beginning to 
a “dynamic” continuation [see the ac- 
companying examples 2-4, by Mozart 
(Piano Sonata, K.V. 309), Beethoven 
(Eroica), and Bruckner (Symphony no. 

7)]. 

Although modern composers have fre- 


U37] 



MELODY-TYPES 


MfiNESTRANDISE 


qucntly been indifferent to (or incapable 
of?) melodic creation, interesting them- 
selves chiefly in tone color, harmony, or 
rhythm, a distinct emphasis on the me- 



Iodic point of view is noticeable in the 
works of at least one outstanding con- 
temporary composer, Paul Hindemith. 

Lit.: E. Toch, Melodielehre (1923); P. 
Goetschius, Exercises in Melody Writ- 
ing; W. Danckert, Ursymbole und me- 
lodische Gestaltung (1932); A. Louri^ 
“An Inquiry into Melody” (MM vi); 
A. H. Fox-Strangways, “Tune” (ML iii, 
no. i); H. J. Watt, “Melody” (ML v, no. 
3); O. Bie, “Melody” {MQ II). 

Melody-types. A term used in mod- 
ern writings on exotic and on early Euro- 
pean music to denote a practice of funda- 
mental importance in the more primitive 
stages of music, that is, the existence of a 
traditional repertory of melodies, melodic 
formulae, stereotyped figures, tonal pro- 
gressions, ornamentations, rhythmic pat- 
terns, etc., which serve as a model for the 
creation of new melodies. Evidently such 
a procedure forms the strongest possible 
contrast to the modern ideal of “free in- 
vention” and “originality.” An imagi- 
nary school of musicians writing deliber- 
ately in “Beethoven-style” would be an 
approximately analogous case to what 
still is the normal procedure among Ara- 
bian and Indian musicians — a proced- 
ure which largely accounts for the ab- 
sence of the evolutionary element in 
Oriental music. To the category of mel- 
ody-types belong the ancient Greek 
nomosy the echos of Byzantine and Ar- 
menian church music, the Syrian risqoloy 
the Javanese patety the Hindu raga, the 
Arabian maqam [see also *Psalms], and, 
in Europe, the Russian popievl^i and the 


Weisen or Tone of the Meistersinger [see 
the entries ’"‘Greek music, etc.]. 

Former writers have usually consid- 
ered the ragas, maqams, cchoi, etc., as 
the “modes” of Hindu, Arabian, Byzan- 
tine, etc., music. Actually, they represent 
an earlier stage of development in which 
the “model” prescribes not only a scale 
with a given ambitus and center-tone — 
as does a mode — but also typical motives 
and tone-progressions. (For an example, 
see under *Hindu music; a Syrian exam- 
ple is given in GD, SuppL Vol.y 175.) 
The medieval system of the eight church- 
modes probably developed through a 
process of rationalization from an earlier 
system of melody-types, possibly from 
the Byzantine *echoi. The traces of this 
descent are still distinctly noticeable in 
Gregorian chant, as has been shown by 
Gevaert {La Melopee antique dans le 
chant de Veglise Latin, 1895) who re- 
duced the numerous (more than 1200) 
antiphons to 47 types. Another example 
is the frequent recurrence of a figure such 
as c'-c'-a in' many graduals [cf., e.g., GR, 
15, 25, 28, 34, 331, etc.]. An exhaustive 
study of melody-types {timbres) in the 
late sequences is contained in E. Misvet 
and P. Aubry, Les Proses d^ Adam de 
Saint-Victor (1900). Cf. AdHM I9f. 

Melophone. See ^Harmonium. 

Melopiano. See *Sostenente piano- 
forte. 

Mendelssohn Scholarship, See un- 
der ^Scholarships, Fellowships, and 
Prizes II. 

Mene. See *Meanc; also *Fauxbourdon 
(2). 

Menestrandise. Early French term for 
the guilds of professional musicians 
{minestrely i.e., minstrel). Francois 
Couperin pictured a procession of min- 
strels, jongleurs, beggars, and acrobats 
with their bears and monkeys in a piece 
called “Les Pastes de la grande et anci- 
enne Mxnxstrxndxsx” [cf. his Pieces de 
clavecin y cd. by J. Brahms and F. Chrys- 
ander, ii, 208]. 


[ 438 ] 




MENO 

Meno [It.]. Less. Meno mosso^ less 
quickly. 

Mensur [G.]. (i) Measure, meter, 
mensuration. — (2) In organ building, 
same as *scalc, scaling (2). 

Mensural music (also mensurable, 
mensurate). Translation of L. musica 
mensurata {cantus mensurabilis) which, 
in early theory (i3th--i6th centuries), is 
used in contrast to musica plana, i.e., 
plainsong. It denotes polyphonic music 
in which every note has a strictly deter- 
mined value, as distinct from Gregorian 
chant with its free rhythm. Sec *Mcn- 
sural notation; also under ^Measure. 

Mensural notation. The system of 
musical notation which was established, 
around 1250, by Franco of Cologne and 
which remained in use until 1600. Actu- 
ally, this period embraces a variety of sys- 
tems differing from each other in many 
particulars [see under ^Notation]. The 
following explanation refers to the final 
stage of the development (c. 1450-1600) 
which is called white mensural notation, 
with reference to the white shapes of the 
larger note-values used instead of the 
former black shapes. See remark under 
^Proportional notation. 

I. Notational Signs. These fall into 
two classes: single notes and ligatures. 
The single notes arc: maxima (Mx), 
longa (L), brevis (B), semi brevis ( 5 ), 
minima (M), semiminima ( 5 w), jusa 
(F), and semifusa (Sf). On the next 
column is a table of the single notes and 
the corresponding rests, together with the 
modern forms derived from them. 

For the transcription into modern no- 

Tempus Prolatio Sign 


I. Imperfect Imperfect C 

II. Perfect Imperfect O 

III. Imperfect Perfect C 

IV. Perfect Perfect O 


MENSURAL NOTATION 

tation It is advisable not to use the 
exact equivalents (5 = whole-note, etc.), 

Mx L B S M Sm F Sf 

Notes: ^ W « i t 

Rests: S ^ 3 = 3 = 3 : 3 r jc 

M « J 

Modern: 

zn :=zz^ i 7 f 

but smaller values which more properly 
conform with the actual temporal dura- 
tion of the old signs. In the subsequent 
explanations a reduction 1:4 is used so 
that the S is rendered as a quarter-note. 
For the ligatures, see the special article. 

II. Mensuration. Mensuration is the 
general term for the temporal relation- 
ships between the note-values, comparable 
to the different meters of the modern 
system. Special terms are: * modus (rela- 
tionship between L and B), tempus (B 
and 5 ), and prolatio (S and M). While 
in modern notation a note (unless dotted) 
is invariably equal to two notes of the 
next-smaller value, in mensural notation 
the chief notes, namely L, B, and S, may 
equal cither two or three. This dichotomy 
is indicated by the terms imperfect and 
perfect. Omitting the modus which is 
usually imperfect, there result four com- 
binations of tempus and prolatio (e.g., 
tempus perfectum cum prolatione imper- 
fecta) which constitute the four main 
mensurations of mensural notations and 
which are indicated by special signs. 
They are the exact equivalent of four 
basic meters of modern notation, as indi- 
cated below; 

Value of Example 

B S 

ii -SlJ |jJ]l 

OW 


[439] 



MENSURAL NOTATION 


MENSURAL NOTATION 


The subsequent explanations refer 
chiefly to the mensuration II. As a mat- 
ter of fact, in I the metrical relationships 
between the various notes are the same as 
in modern notation; this mensuration, 
therefore, presents no problems, aside 
from the use of ligatures and of colo- 
ration [see V.]. The principles for the 
mensuration III can easily be derived 
from those for II, by replacing each note 
by the next-smaller note, e.g., the B by 
the S, the tempus by the prolatio, etc. 
The mensuration IV practically never oc- 
curs in the sources of white notation and 
is rare even in the 14th century. 

III. Imperfection and Alteration. The 
normal values of the B and *S, i.e., three 
and one S respectively, are frequently 
modified according to principles known 
as imperfection and alteration. By im- 
perfection the B is reduced from three 
5 to two S, and by alteration the value 
of the S is doubled. The following 
rules comprise the most frequent cases: 
If a B is followed by one or by more than 
three 5 , it is “imperfected.” If a B is fol- 
lowed by two Sy the second of these S is 
altered [Ex. i]. The last of these exam- 


groups of three S (perfection). Other 
specifications, such as punctus perfec- 
tionisy imperfectionisy alter ationisy arc 
both superfluous and confusing. The dot 
is also used, however, in an entirely dif- 
ferent meaning, that is, as a punctus addi- 
tionis which is identical with the dot of 
modern notation. The distinction be- 
tween the two meanings of the dot is fa- 
cilitated by the observation that a dot 
which follows upon a perfect note is nec- 
essarily a punctus divisionis, and that, 
on the other hand, a punctus additionis 
must always be complemented — sooner 
or later — by a single note equal to the 
value of the dot, i.e., half of the value of 
the dotted note. In the accompanying ex- 
ample the first and fifth dots are puncti 
divisionis, the others are puncti addi- 
tionis. 


o a-oo* A' iA' i i io w ❖•o W 

j j j 


V. Coloration. Coloration is the use 
of blackened notes {By Sy M) instead of 
the normal white forms (originally, red 
ink was used for this purpose); 


Ott»i H 000 « 

JIJ-IJ-I IJJW WJJ\A W-UJJIJJ 


ox 00 

pies shows that a B may also be “imper- 
fected” by a preceding Sy a process which 
is called imperfectio a parte antCy as con- 
trasted with the more frequent imper- 
fectio a parte post. Rests cannot be im- 
perfected or altered, but may cause imper- 
fection or alteration of a note [Ex. 2]. 

IV. Punctus divisionis, punctus addi- 
tionis. In order to indicate deviating 
groupings and also in cases of ambiguity 
a dot, called punctus divisionis, is used. 
This is equivalent to the modern bar-line 
in 3/4 meter, as it always marks off 


H 4 1 

The general principle of coloration is 
that three blackened notes arc equal to 
two white notes. The result is different 
according to whether the blackened notes 
replace two imperfect or two perfect 
notes. In the former case [Ex., a and b] 
triplets result while in the latter case [c 
and d] the effect is a change of rhythm 
similar to that encountered frequently in 
the courantes of the 17th century [see 
♦Hcmiola] : 


CH » » M N 


o H H M M M 

T> 

A special case of coloration is the so- 
called minor color, that is, the combina- 


1 440] 



MENSURAL NOTATION 

tion S~M in blackened notes. Originally, 
this indicated triplet rhythm, as above 
under (c). Owing to the shortness of the 
notes, however, its meaning changed into 
a dotted rhythm, as illustrated under (e). 
It is frequently followed by a series of 
Sm, as under (f). In a combination like 
this it should be observed that, notwith- 
standing their identity in shape as well as 
rhythmic value, the first of the stemmed 
notes is a blackened M, while the others 
are “white” (i.e., normal) Sm. 

The accompanying example serves to 



MESSEL 

“Die Probleme dcr spatmittelalterlichen 
Mensuralnotation . . (ZMW xi); A. 
M. Michalitschke, “Zur Frage der longa 
in der Mensuraltheorie dcs 13. Jahrhun- 
derts” {ZMW vii); id., in ZMW xii. Sec 
also under Notation, Ligatures, etc. 

Mensuration. See Mensural notation 
II. 

Mensuration canon. Sec ^Canon II. 

Mensurstrich [G.]. See under *Bar- 
linc. 

Mente, Alla [It.]. Improvised. 

Menuett [G.], menuetto [It.]. See 
^Minuet. 

Mer, La. See ^Symphonic poem IV. 


Mescolanza [It.]. ^Medley. 

Mese. See *Greek music II (a). 

Mesotonic. Same as *mean-tone (sys- 
tem). 

Messa di voce [It., placing of the 
voice]. A special vocal technique of the 
18th-century *bel canto, consisting of a 
gradual crescendo and decrescendo over 
a sustained tone; see ^Expression III. 
Modern singers use it extensively for 
training, but sparingly in performance. 
The term should not be confused with 
^mezza voce. See also ’•''Filar il tuono. 

Messanza [It.]. ^Quodlibet. 

Messe [F., G.]. Mass. Messe des morts, 
requiem mass. 

Messel [corrupted from Arab. mithal\. 
The unit of measurement in the Arabian 
illustrate the principles explained above, theory of intervals. Intervals were indi- 
It also includes passages in *proportion. caled by lengths of strings, in such a man- 
For all other details of mensural notation ner that the shorter string (the one giving 
reference must be made to special books the higher tone) was considered the unit, 
on the subject. See also ’••‘Notation; For instance, with the fifth c-g, the string 
*Score II. for g would be the messel, and the string 

Lit.: W. Apel, The Notation of Poly- 1 8 1 • 1 

phonic Music (1942; 2d ed., 1944); A. c would measure ij(‘^) messel; with 

Bellermann, Mensuralnoten und Ta\u the fourth c-f, the string for f would be the 
zeichen (1858; 3d ed., 1930); E. Prac- messel, and the string for C would meas- 
torius, Die Mensuraltheorie des Fran- 1 1 • t.* i. 

chinus Gafurius . . . (1906); H. Birtncr, i-(-) messel. Thus, m this theory. 

[441 ] 






MESSIAH 

the figures for the various intervals arc 
exactly the same as the modern figures, 
which indicate quotients of frequencies. 
The messel has nothing to do with an 
early recognition of the third and the 
sixth as consonances, as has been errone- 
ously supposed [cf. RiMLy 1165 and 
2102; also ’•‘‘Arabian music I], 

Messiah. See under ^Oratorio III. 

Messine (Messenian) neumes. See 
^Neumes I. 

Mesto [It.]. Mournful. 

Mesure [F.]. Measure or meter. 

Metamorphosis. The modification of 
a musical subject or motive made with a 
view to “changing its personality.” This is 
a 19th-century device which differs mark- 
edly from earlier, more “technical,” 
methods of modification as, e.g., the aug- 
mentation and diminution of a fugal sub- 
ject, or the ornamentation of a theme. 
A characteristic example of metamorpho- 
sis is found in the various appearances of 
the “idee fixe” in Berlioz’ Symphonic 



Fantastique. F. Liszt exploited the prin- 
ciples of “transformation des themes” in 
his symphonic poems, and Wagner ap- 
licd it to the ^Leitmotiv of his operas 
see Ex. i, from *Siegfried]. In Sibelius’ 
symphonies the metamorphosis is of a 
more abstract character, as the examples 
under 2 (Symphony no. 5, first move- 
ment) show. It will be noticed that the 
versions b-e retain the characteristic 
rhythm of the main theme (i), while f 


METRONOME 

preserves its melodic contour with a dif- 
ferent rhythm. 

Meter [F. mesure^ G. Tal{t\ It. misura\. 
The basic scheme of note values and ac- 
cents which remains unaltered through- 
out a composition or a section thereof and 
which serves as a skeleton for the rhythm 
[sec *Rhythm II (a)]. For instance, %- 
meter (or %-time) means that the basic 
values are quarter-notes and that each 
third of these receives a strong accent. 
This grouping is indicated by bar-lines 
which mark off ^measures. 

According to whether there are two, 
three, or four units to the measure, one 
speaks of duple (%, %, %), triple (%, 
%, %), and quadruple (%, %) me- 

ter, % being also called common meter. 
All these are called simple meters. Com- 
pound meters are derived from the above 
by multiplication with three: compound 
duple (%,%,%), compound triple (%, 
%), and compound quadruple 
^%6)* Fc>r %y % the signs c, (f are used 
[see ’“‘Allabreve] . ^Quintuple meter (%) 
is cither % + %> or % + according to 
where the secondary accent lies. An ex- 
ample of septuple meter, written % + 
occurs in Brahms’s Variations op. 21, no. 
2. See also ’“‘Poetic meter; *Time signa- 
ture. 

Metrical psalms. See ^Psalter. 

Metronome. An apparatus to indicate 
the exact tempo of a piece. The instru- 
ment in general use today was con- 
structed by Malzel in 1816, hence the 
name Malzel Metronome (abbr. M.M., or 
simply, M.). It had been preceded by 
numerous earlier attempts which go back 
as far as the late 17th century [cf. the 
article in GD], Malzel’s metronome is 
constructed upon the principle' of the 
double pendulum, that is, of an oscillat- 
ing rod which has a weight at both ends, 
the one at the upper end being movable 
along a scale. By adjusting this weight 
away from or towards the pivot, the os- 
cillations can be made slower or quicker 
respectively. An indication such as M.M. 
80 means that the pendulum makes 80 
oscillations per minute. Hence in a piece 


[442] 



METTE 

marked M.M. J = 8o the duration of the 

half note will be second. 

Metronomic indications can be used to 
estimate the approximate duration of a 
nXt 

piece. The formula is —77-, where M is 
M 

the metronome figure, t the number of 
measures of the piece, and n the num- 
ber of notes — those to which the metro- 
nome figure refers — in a measure. For 
instance, a piece of 160 measures in %- 
time with the metronome mark M.M. 

J = 90 will last = 5% minutes, or 

5 minutes and 20 seconds. 

The first composer to use the metro- 
nome was Beethoven. In 1817 he pub- 
lished metronomic indications for all the 
movements of his (then) eight sympho- 
nies {Allgemeine Musi\alische Zeitungy 
1817, no. 51). Unfortunately, the tempi 
indicated in his Hammerklavier-sonata 
and Ninth Symphony are almost impos- 
sibly fast, as are those indicated in the 
works of Schumann. See ^Tempo. 

Lit.: R. E. M. Harding, Origins of 
Musical Time and Expression (1938); 
R. Kirkpatrick, “Eighteenth-century Met- 
ronomic Indications” (PAMSy 1938); 
E. Borrel, “Les indications metrono- 
miques . . . du xiiie siecle” (RdMy no. 
27); R. Kolisch, “Tempo and Character 
in Beethoven’s Music” {MQ xxix, nos. 2 
and 3). 

Mette [G.]. *Matins. 

Mettez [F.]. Draw (an organ stop). 

Metzer Neumen [G.]. Messine (Mes- 
senian) neumes; see *Neumes I. 

Mexico. Mexico in pre-Hispanic times 
was dominated by the Aztecs, a tribe 
which is said tc have come from a legend- 
ary region in the north called Azdan. 
They settled in the fertile valley of Ana- 
huac toward the beginning of the 12th 
century and in A.D. 1325 founded the 
city of Tenochtitlan (Mexico), which 
became the capital of their powerful em- 
pire. The social, political, and religious 


MEXICO 

life of the Aztecs was full of elaborate 
ritual and ceremony, in which music 
played an indispensable role. On public 
occasions many thousands participated in 
the ceremonial dances and chants, accom- 
panied by numerous percussion and wind 
instruments. The former consisted of 
drums, rattles, and bells; the latter, of 
various kinds of flutes, whistles, shell- 
trumpets. and tubular trumpets made of 
wood, cane, or clay. The Aztecs had 
flutes with three, four, or five holes, made 
of bone or baked clay. Notched bones 
which were scraped with a stick were 
widely used as musical instruments, pro- 
ducing, in the words of a Spanish chron- 
icler, “musica muy triste” (very sad mu- 
sic). The ancient Mexicans had two 
principal types of drum. One of these 
was the huehuetly a cylindrical drum 
about two feet in diameter and about five 
or six feet high, generally made out of a 
single piece of hollowed-out wood. It 
was placed vertically; authorities differ as 
to whether it was played with a stick or 
with the bare hands. The teponaztliy or 
slit-drum, was shorter, and was placed 
horizontally. It was beaten at the center 
instead of the end. It had a narrow slit 
on the top, in the form of a letter H, 
which formed two tongues facing each 
other. As they were of different thick- 
nesses, each of these tongues produced a 
different tone when struck. The tepo- 
naztli, therefore, was really a sort of xylo- 
phone. As to the actual form and struc- 
ture of ancient Aztec music, we can only 
rely on conjecture, supported by such evi- 
dence as may be supplied by musical in- 
struments that have been preserved. Az- 
tec music was monophonic and its melo- 
dic possibilities were very limited. It ap- 
pears to have been based on a pentatonic 
scale without semitones, and Carlos 
Chavez affirms that it “was regulated in 
conformity with a well-established sys- 
tem.” No actual vestiges of this music 
have remained. 

With the coming of the Spaniards, mu- 
sic in Mexico inevitably underwent a pro- 
found transformation. The missionary 
zeal of the Spaniards entailed an inculca- 
tion of European musical methods, espc- 


[443I 



MEXICO 


MEXICO 


cially as related to the ritual of Christian much greater technical competency than 
worship. Only three years after the cap- had any of the Mexican composers of the 
ture of Mexico City by Cortes (1521), the previous generation. Two of his operas, 
first European school of music was Atzimha and La Leyenda de Rudely were 
founded in Texcoco by Pedro de Gantc, produced in Mexico City, 
a Franciscan missionary. The Indians It was not until after the turn of the 
were taught the elements of plain-chant, century that musical nationalism began 
and they not only learned to play various to emerge in Mexico. The initiator of 
European instruments, but were also this movement was Manuel M. Ponce (b. 
taught to construct them. While the 1886), whose Canciones Mexicanas for 
friars were teaching the Indians to form piano were written in 1905. Ponce made 
choirs for the churches that were spring- his reputation abroad with his styliza- 
ing up throughout the land, secular tions of Mexican popular songs, of which 
forms of music also were cultivated, and Estrellita is the best-known example. He 
as early as 1526 we hear of a certain Ortiz has also published many pieces for piano 
who played the guitar and taught danc- based on Mexican traditional themes and 
ing. In 1539 a printing press was estab- rhythms, such as his Danzas Mexicanas, 
lished in Mexico City, and in 1556 there His larger works include the symphonic 
appeared the first book with music poem Chapultepec (1929), a Concerto 
printed in America, an Ordinary of the for piano and orchestra, and a Concerto 
Mass. The first choirmaster of the Ca- for guitar and orchestra. He has been 
thedral of Mexico City was Juan Juarez, widely active as teacher, editor, conduc- 
appointed in 1538. tor, and pianist. Contemporary with 

Notable among composers of the Co- Ponce are Jose Rolon (b. 1883) and Can- 
lonial period was Antonio de Salazar, delario Huizar (b. 1888), who fluctuate 
choirmaster of the Cathedral from about between nationalistic and universal tend- 
1685 to 1715. He was succeeded by encies. Occupying a unique position is 
Manuel de Sumaya, who wrote the first Julian Carrillo (b. 1875), champion and 
opera composed in Mexico. Other Co- practitioner of a new system of musical 
lonial composers were Jose de Torres, composition which he calls ‘‘Sonido 13,” 
Jose Marfa Aldana, and Antonio Juanas, based on fractional tones (1/4, 1/8, and 
During the 19th century Mexican mu- 1/16). 
sir was largely dominated by Italian opera Two composers born in the same year 
and by pseudo-romantic salon patterns. (1899) but differing widely in tempera- 
Among composers born during the first ment and technique are Silvestre Revuel- 
half of the century the most prominent tas and Carlos Chavez. The former, who 
were Aniceto Ortega, Cenobio Paniagua, died prematurely in 1940, identified him- 
Melesio Morales, and Julio Ituarte. self spontaneously with the spirit of Mex- 

Toward the close of the 19th century ico’s popular music, producing works that 
the two most prominent composers were are highly original and at the same time 
Gustavo E. Campa (1863-1934) and Ri- entirely unaffected. He became interna- 
cardo Castro (1864-1907), both of whom tionally known through his music for the 
were entirely under European influences, film Redes (The Wave). He also com- 
However, they broke away from the Ital- posed the symphonic poems Caminos^ 
ian influence that had so long dominated Cuanahuac^ Esquinasy and Sensemaya 
Mexican music, substituting instead that (with chorus); several ballets, chamber 
of France (in the case of Campa) and Ger- music, and piano pieces. Chdvcz, founder 

many (in the case of Castro). Castro was and conductor of the National Symphony 

an excellent pianist and as such attained Orchestra of Mexico (1928), is the lead- 
conspicuous success in Europe and the ing modernist of Mexico and is also an 
United States. In his compositions he re- ardent exponent of musical nationalism, 
peated the formulae of German Romanti- seeking to incorporate indigenous ele- 

cism, and at the same time he revealed a ments and pre-Hispanic traditions into 

[444] 



MEZZO 


MI-FA 


his art. He has appeared frequently as 
guest-conductor with leading orchestras 
in the United States. Among his best- 
known compositions are two symphonies, 
Sinfonia India and Sinfoma de Antigona\ 
the ballets H,P. (Horsepower) and Los 
Cuatro Soles; Energia for small orches- 
tra. A number of his smaller works have 
been published in the United States by 
the “New Music** edition, 

Mexico has a group of outstanding 
young composers, comprising Luis Sandi 
(b. 1905), Daniel Ayala (b, 1908), Pablo 
Moncayo (b. 1912), Salvador Contreras 
(b. 1912), and Bias Galindo (b. 191 1). Of 
these, the first three are mo:t definitely 
nationalistic. Ayala is of pure Mayan 
(Indian) blood and seeks a direct racial 
expression in his music. Another young 
composer who holds a distinctive place is 
Miguel Bernal Jimenez (b. 1910), who 
was trained in Italy and represents the 
Catholic tradition in contemporary Mexi- 
can music. He has written much church 
music, also the opera Tata Vasco (Mex- 
ico, 1941), based on the life of the famous 
missionary Vasco de Quiroga. 

Mexican dances are the *Corrido and 
the *Jarabe. 

Lit.: M. Galindo, Historia de la musica 
mejicana, tomo i (Colima, 1933); G. 
Saldivar, Historia de la musica en Mexico 
(Mexico, 1934); O. Mayer-Serra, Pano- 
rama de la musica mexicana (Mexico, 
1941); R. Lach, “Die . . Altmexikan- 
ischen Tempelgesange** (Festschrift fiir 
JoL Wolf), G.C. 

Mezzo, mezza [It.]. Half. Mezzo 
forte (abbr. /n/), half-loud, moderately 
forte. Mezza voce, with “half voice,’* i.e., 
with restrained volume of tone [see, how- 
ever, *Messa di voce] . Mezzo legato, half 
legato. Mezzo-soprano, see *Voices, 
Range of. 

Mf. Mezzo forte. 

M.g. [F.]. Main gauche, I.e., left hand. 

Mi. See ^Solmization; ’••‘Pitch names; 
'••'Hexachord. Being the third degree of 
the hexachord, mi adopts in the Guido- 
nian system the meaning of the leading- 
tone (e, b) [see *Mi-fa]. 


Micanon. See ^Psaltery. 

Mi contra fa. Sec *Mi-fa. 

Micrologus. A treatise by Guido of 
Arezzo (d. 1050; see *Theory) which iz 
an important source for the development 
of organum [see ’••'Organum II]. Re-edi- 
tion by A. Amelli (1904); German trans- 
lation by R. Schlecht in MfM v. 

Micro tone. Any interval smaller than 
a semitone, e.g., the ^chroai of Greek 
music or th? sruti of the *Hindu scale. 
During the last fifty years there has been 
much experimentation with microtones: 
quarter-tones, sixth-tones, eighth-tones, 
and even sixteenth-tones (Haba, Busoni, 
Juan Carillo). Only in the field of quar- 
ter-tone music have definite results been 
gained [see ’••‘Quarter-tone]. 

Middle Ages, Music of the. The 
music of the Christian era prior to the 
Renaissance, thus roughly comprising the 
millennium from 500 to 1500 (1450). In 
view of the extension of this period it is 
necessary to divide it into periods of lesser 
duration comparable to those of other 
periods of music, such as the Renaissance 
and the Baroque. See ’•^History of music 
and the special articles ^Gregorian chant; 
*Ars antiqua; *Ars nova; ’••‘Burgundian 
School. Also the initial chapters of 
^French music; ^Italian music; ^English 
music, etc. 

Lit.: G. Reese, Music in the Middle 
Ages (1940); H. Gleason, '^Examples of 
Music before 1^00 (1942); H. Besseler, 
Musi\ des Mittelalters und der Renais- 
sance (1931-35); Th. Gcrold, Histoire de 
la musique des origines h la fin du XlVe 
siecle (1936); R. von Ficker, Die Musi\ 
des Mittelalters (1930). 

Middle C. The C near the middle of 
the keyboard, that is c' [see *Pitch 
names]. It is represented on the first 
ledger line below the violin staff, or on 
the first ledger line above the bass staff. 

Mi-fa. In the medieval theory of ’•^hexa- 
chords a general expression of cautioning 
the singer against special or dangerous 
intervallic progressions. From the fob 


[445] 



MILANESE CHANT 

lowing table, showing the mt% and fas 
of the three hexachords, it appears that 
the combination mi-fa designates a semi- 
tone if the two syllables are taken from 
the same hexachord, a tritone, if from 
successive hexachords (see the diagonal 
lines) : 

Mi Fa 

Hcxachordum durum (on G): c 

Hexachordum naturale (on C) : e \^f 

Hcxachordum molle (on F); a 

It is particularly to the *tritone, the 
‘‘diabolus in musica,’* that the warning 
term mi contra fa (“mi contra fa, diabo- 
lus in musica”) refers. 

Milanese chant. See ^Ambrosian 
chant. 

Military band. The rise of military 
bands and of military music is coeval with 
that of the development of organized 
armies, during the 15th and i6th centu- 
ries. The mercenary troops of the Aus- 
trian emperor Karl V and of the French 
king Fran9ois I had large bands of trum- 
pets and kettledrums, and when they met 
in the battles of Marignano (1515) and 
Pavia (1525) the clash of the instruments 
was as fierce and famous as that of the 
weapons [see ^Battaglia]. The military 
trumpeters became organized in guilds 
(G. Feldtrompeter) and were endowed 
with many privileges which distinguished 
them from the Kammertrompeter^ i.e., 
the members of the civilian orchestras. 
The kettledrummers were expected to 
use all sorts of extravagant and affected 
movements such as survive to the present 
day with the drum majors and majorettes 
[cf. SaHMl, 330]. The music of these 
groups was, of course, limited to signals, 
and it was not until the advent of the 18th 
century that the introduction of melody 
instruments, such as the oboe, the bas- 
soon, the French horn, and the clarinet, 
led to a rise of a broader repertory of 
military music, including marches and 
similar pieces. The bands of Louis XIV 
(1643-1715), organized by Lully, con- 
sisted of oboes, bassoons, and drums, while 
those of Frederick II (1740-86) included 
oboes, clarinets, horns, and bassoons. 
Around 1800, the vogue of Turkish mu- 


MILITARY BAND 

sic [see * Janizary music] resulted in the 
adoption of noise-making instruments 
such as cymbals, triangles, the military 
Glockenspiel, and the crescent. Infantry 
regiments under Napoleon had bands 
consisting of one piccolo, one high clari- 
net, and sixteen ordinary clarinets, four 
bassoons, two serpents, two trumpets, one 
bass trumpet, four horns, three trom- 
bones, two side-drums, one bass drum, 
one triangle, two pairs of cymbals, and 
two crescents. A landmark in the devel- 
opment of military music was a perform- 
ance given in honor of the Russian em- 
peror by Carl Wieprecht, the organizer 
of Prussian military music, in Berlin on 
May 12, 1838, at which he conducted the 
united bands of sixteen infantry and six- 
teen cavalry regiments, totaling 1000 
wind instruments and 200 drummers. 
Around 1850, Adolphe Sax reorganized 
the French military bands by the intro- 
duction of his novel valve brass instru- 
ments. 

In the history of American military 
music Patrick Sarsfield Gilmore (1829- 
92) and John Philip Sousa (1854-1932) 
are outstanding. The former was band- 
master in the United States Army during 
the Civil War and organized a brass band 
in New York (Twenty-second Regiment) 
which became widely known through its 
concert tours in America and Europe 
(1878: Liverpool, Dublin, London, Paris, 
etc.). Sousa was leader of a band of the 
United States Marine Corps from 1880 to 
1892, when he resigned and organized 
his own world-famous band (first con- 
cert, 1892, in Plainfield, N. J.; world tour 
1910/11). 

The composition of a military band 
varies in different countries and even in 
different regiments. An American band 
of 28 musicians consists of i bass BBb 
(sousaphone), i bass Eb (sousaphone), 3 
trombones, 3 horns, i baritone (or eu- 
phonium), 5 cornets (i solo), i trumpet, 
5 Bb clarinets, i Eb clarinet, i piccolo, 3 
saxophones (alto, tenor, baritone), i snare 
drum, I bass drum, i cymbal. 

Lit.: H. G. Farmer, Military Music and 
its Story (1912); M. Brenet, La musique 
militaire (1921); P. PanofI, Militdrmusi\ 


[446] 



MILONGA 


MINNESINGER 


in Geschichte und Gegenwart (1921); G. 
Dyson, “The Composer and the Military 
Band” {ML ii, no. i); M. Brenet, “French 
Military Music in the Reign of Louis 
XIV” {MQ iii); H. E. Adkin, Treatise 
on the Military Band, 3 vols. (1931); St. 
Gallo, The Modern Band (1935); G. 
Pares, TraitS d' instrumentation . . . des 
musique militaires . . . , 2 vols. (1898); 
War Department, Basic Field Manual, 
The Band (FM 2^5; 1941), V. F. Safra- 
nck, Complete . . . Manual for Field 
Trumpeters and Drummers (1942); R. 
B. Reynolds, Drill and Evolution of the 
Band (1943). For additional bibliog- 
raphy cf. B. Grosbayne, in Musical Amer- 
ica, Oct., 1943. 

Milonga. An Argentine dance of the 
late 19th century, originating in the sub- 
urbs and slums of Buenos Aires. Around 
1900 it was absorbed into the tango, of 
which it represents a quicker variety. 

Mimodrame. Older name for ’••'panto- 
mime. 

Minaccevole [It.]. Menacing. 

Mineur [F.]. Minor. 

Miniature score. Open scores of or- 
chestral or chamber music in pocket size 
and of low price, designed chiefly for the 
student, or for the amateur who wants to 
read the music while listening to the per- 
formance. This important and successful 
publishing enterprise was started by A. 
Payne in Leipzig and was taken over in 
1892 by E. Eulenburg, Leipzig, who de- 
veloped it greatly. Recently publications 
have been issued which include a great 
number of scores in one volume (e.g., all 
the chamber music of Beethoven). These 
are the size of ordinary music but contain 
on each page four pages of miniature 
score. 

Minim [L. minima^, (i) English name 
for the half-note. — (2) Sec ^Mensural 
notation I. 

Minnesinger, Minnesanger [from 
G. Minncy love]. Aristocratic German 
poct-musicians of the 12th to the 14th 
century who, inspired by the French 


•troubadours (rather than the •trou- 
vercs), became the leading — in fact, 
practically the sole — representatives of 
German music during the Middle Ages. 
The start of the movement is usually 
traced to the marriage of Frederick Bar- 
barossa to the French princess Beatrix of 
Burgundy, in 1156. The close relation- 
ship of the Minnesinger to the trouba- 
dours is demonstrated, among others, by 
a Provencal ^vers of the troubadour 
Guyot de Provins which also exists with 
a German text by Friedrich von Husen 
who flourished in the 12th century [cf. 
BeMMR, rof), 108]. Following is a (ten- 
tatively chronological) list of the most 
important Minnesinger of whom melo- 
dies are preserved (i, 2, etc. = number 
of melodies; / = Jenaer Handschrift; C 
— Colmarer Handschrift): 

Before 1200: Spervogcl (i; /). 

Early 13th century: Walther von der 
Vogel weide, d. 1230 (i and fragments 
in a Miinstcr MS); Neithart von Reu- 
enthal, c. 1180-1240 (62; cf. DTOe 
37.i); Bruder Wirner (6; /); Meistcr 
Alexander (5; /). 

Middle 13th century: Tannhauser (2; 
C); Konrad von Wurzburg (7; C); 
Rumelant (10; /, C); Der Meissner 

(15;/)- 

Late 13th century: Heinrich von Meis- 
sen, called Frauenlob, d. 1318 (26; 
C, /); Wizlav von Riigen, d. 1325 (13; 
/); Hermann dcr Damen (5; /). 
Fourteenth century: Heinrich von Mii- 
glin (4; C); Hermann Miinch von Salz- 
burg, c. 1350-1410 (10; C); Hugo von 
Montfort, 1357-1423. 

The Miinch von Salzburg also wrote 
the earliest extant German polyphonic 
pieces which, like those of Oswald von 
Wolkenstein (1367-1445), fall outside 
the repertory of Minnesinger music. 

In spite of the French influence the 
music of the Minnesinger differs consid- 
erably from that of the troubadours and 
trouv^res. The texts arc narrative rather 
than amorous or idyllic (Neithart von 
Reuenthal being a notable exception) and 
usually of a devotional character, many 
of them being songs in praise of the 


1 447] 



MINOR 


MINSTRELS 


Virgin. The melodies are more marked- 
ly modal (church modes) than the French 
ones and many of them are conspicuous 
for their extensive use of the interval of 
the third [for an example, see under 
*Third]. Textual considerations as well 
as a certain “Teutonic massiveness” of 
the musical line forbid the application of 
*modal interpretation (%-meter) which 
is generally accepted for the trouvere 
songs. Finally, the French refrain forms, 
the *virelai and the ^rondeau, are absent 
in the German repertory, which uses only 
two forms: the ^Barform, derived from 
the French ^ballade, and the *Leich, de- 
rived from the French *lai. Owing to the 
large number of preserved songs and the 
individual charm of his melodies, Nei- 
thart von Reuenthal stands out as the cen- 
tral figure of Minnesinger music, though 
from the literary point of view he already 
represents a decline from the refined 
courtly lyricism (Walther von der Vogel- 
weide) into a realistic, and occasionally 
slightly vulgar, naturalism. Ex. in HAMy 
no. 20. 

Lit,: H. J. Moser, Geschichte der deut- 
schen Musi\ i (1930); K. K. Muller, 
Phototypische Facsimile-Ausgabe der 
Jenaer Liederhandschrift (1893); F. L. 
Saran, ifDie fenaer Liederhandschrift, 2 
vols. (1902); H. Rietsch, \Gesdnge von 
Frauenlob, Reinmar von Zweter und Ale- 
xander (DTOe 20.ii, 1913); W. Schmie- 
der, '\Neidharty Lieder {DTOe 37.!, 
1930); P. Runge, fD/> Sangesweisen der 
Colmarer Handschrift und die Lieder- 
handschrift Donaueschingen (1896); id.. 
Die Lieder des Hugo von Montfort . . . 
(1906); H. Rietsch, Die Mondsee-Wiener 
Liederhandschrift {Acta Germanica iv, 
1902); F. Ebert, Die Liedweisen der 
Colmarer Liederhandschrift (Diss. Got- 
tingen 1932); F. Gennrich, Das Form- 
problem des Minnegesangs (1931); H. J. 
Moser, in ZMW vii; id., in KIM, 1924; 
E. Jammers, in ZMW vii; O. Ursprung, 
in AMW v; R. F. Molitor, “Die Lieder 
des Miinsterer Fragments” {SIM xii); C. 
Weinmann, P. Runge, “Der Minnesang 
und sein Vortrag” {MfM xxxv, 51, 83). 

Minor. See *Major and Minor. 


Minstrels [from L. ministrellus, serv- 
ant]. Originally and properly, the pro- 
fessional musicians (instrumentalists) of 
the Middle Ages, especially those who 
were employed in a feudal household. 
Today the term is used as a generic de- 
nomination for the entire field of popular 
music entertainment, from the mimes of 
antiquity to the show-business of the 
present day. 

The earliest known representatives of 
this field were the Roman mimes 
{mimus), the actors of the late Roman 
theater. After its decline, during the Mi- 
grations, these mimes, who already in 
Roman law were considered as outcasts 
{inf ami), devoted themselves to various 
activities — frequently of a dubious na- 
ture — among which was the playing of 
instruments. The efforts of Church and 
State authorities to suppress their influ- 
ence are documented in numerous edicts. 
Nevertheless, the mimes or, as they were 
later called, joculatores [from L. jocus, 
play; F. jongleur, E. juggler; G. Gau- 
dier], survived and gradually became 
more secure and reputable — at least 
those among them who were willing to 
abandon the dissolute and roving conduct 
of life, and to become members of the so- 
cial order. We may reasonably assume 
that they were the bearers of a tradition 
of folk music which occasionally crept 
into art music. In the iith/i2th cen- 
turies the jongleurs were employed by 
the troubadours and trouveres [see 
^Troubadours]. In the 14th century the 
name jongleur was replaced by menes- 
trier, probably in order to distinguish a 
class of higher social standing and pro- 
fessional repute. They became organized 
in guilds similar to those of the medieval 
craftsmen and known as *mSnestrandise. 

In England, a class of acrobat-musi- 
cians was known as gleemen, in Ger- 
many, as Gaudier. A vivid description of 
their activities is given in a German re- 
port of the 1 2th century according to 
which they were expected “to play the 
drum, the cymbals, and the hurdy-gurdy; 
to throw small apples and to catch knives; 
to perform card-tricks and to jump 
through four hoops; to play the citolc and 



MINUET 


MIRLITON 


mandora, the manichord, the guitar, and 
many other instruments/’ With the early 
14th century the term minstrel appears. 
Guilds and fraternities were gradually 
formed the history of which can be traced, 
at least up to the beginning of the 17th 
century [see *Waits]. The German 
counterparts of these guild-musicians are 
the Stadtpfeifer, See also *Negro music I. 

To include the *bards under the term 
minstrel is somewhat misleading since 
these always held a very high position in 
the social order of their countries, notably 
Wales and Ireland. 

Lit.: E. Duncan, The Story of Min- 
strelsy (1907); J. J. Jusserand, English 
Wayfaring Life in the Middle Ages 
(1888 and later); W. Grossmann, Friih- 
mittelalterliche Zeugnisse iiber Minstrels 
(Diss. Berlin 1906); P. Aubry, “La 
legende dorce des jongleurs” {RMC i); 
id,y “Un coin pittoresque . . (RMC 
iv); id., in TG vi; J. Sittard, in VMW i; 
ReMMA, 241. 

Minuet [F. menuet, from menu, i.e., 
small (steps); or, more likely, from 
^amener\. A French dance of rustic 
origin which was introduced at the court 
of Louis XIV about 1650. The king him- 
self is said to have danced “the first” 
minuet, composed by Lully, in 1653. The 
minuet was soon adopted as the official 
court dance of the regime of the Roi Sol- 
eil, and it quickly spread all over Europe, 
superseding completely the older types 
(courantes, pavanes) and establishing a 
new period of dance and dance music. 
The fact that a number of early minuets 
(e.g., those contained in the Collection 
*Philidor) show phrases of three meas- 
ures suggests a derivation of the minuet 
from the ^branle a mener, or *amener 
[example in HAM, no. 229]. Lully in- 
troduced the minuet into his ballets and 
operas; Muflat, Pachelbel, }. K. Fischer, 
in their suites (around 1700). Many of 
these minuets already show the “alterna- 
tivement” arrangement of two minuets: 
Ml— M2— Ml which is the origin of the 
minuet-and-trio movement of the sonata 
[see *Trio]. 

The minuet was the only one of the 


numerous dance types of the Baroque 
which did not become obsolete after the 
decline of the suite {c. 1750). The state- 
ment that Haydn was the first to intro- 
duce the minuet into the symphony is far 
from being correct. The operatic sin- 
fonias of Alessandro Scarlatti (1659- 
1725) and others usually close with a 
minuet, as do also numerous independent 
symphonies and sonatas of the pre-Haydn 
period. The minuet with trio as the next- 
to-last movement is found in practically 
all the symphonies of the ^Mannheimers 
[see *Sonata B, III (a)]. 

The minuet is in %-meter and, origi- 
nally, in very moderate tempo. The ac- 
companying example (Lully’s minuet 



“Dans nos bois,” as given in d’Anglebert’s 
Pieces de clavecin [see ^Editions XXIV, 
A, 8]) shows the graceful dignity which 
characterizes the early minuet and which 
still lives in the famous minuet in 
Mozart’s Don Giovanni. In the sym- 
phonies of Haydn and Mozart, however, 
the minuet took on greater speed and a 
more humorous or whimsical character, 
gradually leading into the ^scherzo. See 
also *Dance music and (regarding the in- 
ternal structure of the minuet) ^Binary 
and ternary form II. 

Minuta [It.]. Sec ^Ornamentation III. 

Miracle play. See ^Liturgical drama. 

Mirliton [F.]. An instrument in the 
form of a pipe closed at one end by a 
membrane, and with a side-hole into 
w’hich one sings in one’s natural voice, 
the tone issuing in a nasal and caricatural 
timbre. In the 17th century the instru- 
ment was known as flute-eunuque (Eu- 
nuch flute) and was admired by men of 
such high standing as Mersenne for its 
“new charm” [cf. GD ii, 180]. Today it 


[449] 


MIRROR FUGUE 


MISSAL 


is only a musical toy (also known as 
l{azoo). See ’^Instruments IL 

Mirror fugue [G. Spiegeljuge], The 
principle of mirror-reflection can be ap- 
plied to a melody in two different ways: 
(a) with the mirror placed at the end of 
the melody, thus leading to a crab — or 
•retrograde version; or, (b) with the mir- 
ror placed underneath, in which case the 
inverted form (i.e., contrary motion) re- 
sults. The latter method is the one indi- 
cated by the term mirror fugue which 
designates a fugue written in such a man- 
ner as to lead, by means of the method of 
vertical reflection, to another fugue which 
will also be satisfactory as to sound. In 
the reflected fugue, the position of the 
voices as well as each interval in every 
single voice is inverted. The only exam- 
ples known to have been composed are 
two in Bach’s Art of Fugue (Contrapunc- 


H! 

* a.HBUSM 



filkV#.'.'# ran 

mamamm maaama 


m 

m mmmaru a 
■r m-amuaam 

72'T?!a^rSt2mSSrmmm 

niMliB 

mmm 

r-k M-aam aMfmmmaamm 

\X»jaam 

m 

liSl 

tammmaaaam aramt .■aamamam 

1— — ■ 

■ maammM : rr ram 

«■ ■■ aMHi ^ Ml ■ ■ ■ a 


tus XVI, in three parts, and Contra- 
punctus XVIIT, in four parts). A pas- 
sage from the latter is given here as an 
illustration. The fugue and its mirror 
version are, of course, meant to be played 
one after the other, not simultaneously. 
Contrapunctus XVI appears also in a 
four-part version for two harpsichords 
(Contrapunctus XVII), in which a free 
fourth voice is added. 

Miserere. Psalm 50 (Vulgate): Mw- 
rere inei Deus (“Lord have mercy upon 
me”). In the Catholic rites it is sung at 
the end of the office of •tenebrae (also at 
Requiem Mass) to a psalm tone with an- 
tiphon. It is one of the •Penitential 


Psalms and has been composed as such, 
but also independently, owing to the par- 
ticular impressiveness of its text. The 
earliest example is a setting by Costanzo 
Festa (1517) for two choruses, one of 
four parts, the other of five, in familiar 
style {f also bor done). Various other com- 
positions in the same style, usually retain- 
ing the “traditional” number of nine 
parts, were written, among them the cele- 
brated composition by Gregorio Allegri 
(1582-1652) which has remained in use 
at the Papal Chapel to the present day, 
alongside Palestrina’s •Improperiae and 
•Lamentations for the same service. A 
host of legends and stories — including 
that of the young Mozart copying it from 
hearing, against the express law of the 
Church — have been formed, all intended 
to extol this work into a sphere of super- 
human beauty and importance. Actually 
it is a rather undistinguished work in a 
plain falsobordone style, the monotony of 
which is somewhat relieved by “abbelli- 
menti” (probably 18th-century additions) 
at the end of each verse. The mediocrity 
of Allegri’s Miserere does not, of course, 
prevent it from being very effective, if it 
is presented with all the solemnity char- 
acteristic of the Pontifical rites, and all 
the suavity of performance characteristic 
of the present-day Sistine choir. A much 
more beautiful and imaginative composi- 
tion of the text is the Miserere by Josquin. 

Missa [L.]. •Mass. — Mtssa pro de- 
functisy Requiem Mass, •requiem. — 
Missa solemnis (Solemn Mass, High 
Mass) is the Mass in its full form, with all 
the items (except for lections, etc.) sung, 
while in the Missa lecta (Read Mass, 
Low Mass) there is no music, except per- 
haps hymn singing. Missa cantata (Sung 
Mass) is, from the musical point of view, 
identical with the High Mass, but is cele- 
brated in a less elaborate manner. From 
the above it appears that the title Missa 
Solemnis chosen by Beethoven for his 
Mass (op. 123) carries no connotation 
which would not also apply to a Mass by 
Palestrina or Bach. 

Missal [L. missale\ G. Missel^. See 
•Liturgical books I. 


[450] 


MISTIC(H)ANZA 


MODE 


Mistic(h)anza [It.]. *Quodlibet. 

Misura [It.]. Measure, beat. Allamisu- 
ray in strict time; senza misurUy without 
strict time. 

Mixed cadence. See *Cadence I. 

Mixed mode. See ^Church modes III. 

Mixed voices. A combination of male 
and female voices [see *Equal voices]. 

Mixolydian. (i) See *Greek music. — 
(2) The seventh *church mode {septimus 
tonus'y tetrartus)y represented by the seg- 
ment g-g' of the diatonic scale, with g as 
the tonic. From the modern point of view 
it is a major mode with a minor seventh 
(F instead of F#). See also ^Modality. 

Mixture stop. See *Organ VI, IX (f). 


''national” composers; the last-mentioned 
tendency is conspicuous in the works of 
Debussy [see ^Impressionism] and of 
contemporary *neo-classical composers 
(Hindemith). The accompanying exam- 
ples illustrate the use of modality. Ex. i 
(Chopin, Mazurka no. 15) is ^Lydian 



M.M. See ^Metronome. 

Modal. In the character of a mode, 
either of a church mode (e.g., in modal 
harmony, ^modality), or of the rhythmic 
modes of the 13th century (modal 
notation, modal interpretation, modal 
rhythm). See *Modc. 

Modality. The term is generally used 
with reference to harmonic and melodic 
formations based on the *church modes, 
in contradistinction to those based on the 
major and minor modes (^Tonality). In 
particular, it is used to denote the occur- 
rence of modal idioms in the prevailingly 
tonal music of the 19th and 20th cen- 
turies. This phenomenon may be traced 
back to three different sources: (a) the 
desire to imitate the tonal language of 
16th-century sacred music; (b) the influ- 
ence of Slavic or other folk song which 
shows modal features; (c) the antagonism 
against the system of classical harmony. 
Examples of (a) are Beethoven’s “Dank- 
gesang an die Gottheit in der lydischen 
Tonart” (String Quartet in A minor, op. 
132, 1825) — probably the earliest exam- 
ple of 19th-century modality — and the 
compositions of Vaughan Williams; ex- 
amples of (b) occur in Chopin’s mazur- 
kas and in numerous compositions of 
Moussorgsky, Tchaikovsky, and other 



(B-natural instead of B-flat); Ex. 2 
(Franck, Symphony) is transposed 
*Dorian (major sixth D-sharp instead of 
minor sixth D); Ex. 3 (Brahms, Sym- 
phony no. 4) combines ^Phrygian (minor 
second F instead of F-sharp) with *Mixo- 
lydian (minor seventh D, instead of the 
leading-tone D-sharp); Ex. 4 (Sibelius, 
Symphony no. 2) is * Aeolian (minor 
sixth and seventh, F and G instead of F- 
sharp and G-sharp). 

Modal notation. See ^Square nota- 
tion. 

Modal rhythm. A rhythm based on 
the (rhythmic) *modes. See also 
♦Rhythm III (b). 

Modaltheorie [G.]. Modal interpreta- 
tion. See under ♦Plainsong notation. 

Mode. The term is used for two entirely 
different concepts, both rooted in medie- 


[451] 



MODERATO 

val music, namely ( i ) one of scale forma- 
tion, and (2) one of rhythm. 

(i) Mode, in the widest sense of the 
word, denotes the selection of tones, ar- 
ranged in a scale, which form the basic 
tonal substance of a composition. In any 
given key (i.e., for any given center-tone 
or tonic, e.g., E) a great number of modes 
are possible, some of which are indicated 
in our illustration: i is the “Dorian mode” 
(transposed from D to E) ; 2 is the “Phryg- 
ian mode” (untransposed); 3 is the “major 
mode” (usually called major key); 4 is the 
“minor mode” (usually called minor key); 
5 is a “pentatonic mode”; 6 is the “whole- 
tone mode.” See *Scale III. In a closer 
sense of the word, the term mode refers 
only to those scales which go back to the 



medieval *church modes (modes i and 2 
of the example). It is with reference to 
these that the terms “modal,” “modality,” 
are commonly used. For the use of the 
term mode with reference to Oriental 
(Hindu, Arabian, etc.) music see ^Melody 
types. 

(2) See *Modcs, rhythmic. Also ♦Mo- 
dus. 

Moderate [It.]. In moderate speed, 
i.e., between andante and allegro. 

Modern music. A term which is some- 
what loosely used to denote a period of 
music with a clearly fixed ending — the 
present day — while its beginning is 
variously set by different writers at about 
1830 [W. H. Hadow, Studies in Modern 
Music (1923), which includes Berlioz, 
Schumann, Wagner, Chopin, Dvorak, 
Brahms], i860, 1890, or 1910. This fact 
renders the term rather difficult to use for 
exact reference. Most people would prob- 
ably agree that modern music started 
around 1890, when composers such as 
Elgar, R. Strauss, Sibelius (all born 


MODES, RHYTHMIC 

around i860), produced their first signifi- 
cant works. The half-century of modern 
music comprises an extremely great vari- 
ety of trends and styles so that further 
classifications are indispensable. The 
above-mentioned composers, together 
with many others, form the school known 
as ♦Neo-romanticism, since they built up- 
on the tradition of the Romanticism. A 
greater determination to break away from 
the “German” Romanticism is patent in 
the ♦Impressionism of Debussy and 
Ravel, while the radical break occurred 
around 1910, leading to a new period of 
music history for which the term ♦New 
music has been widely adopted. 

See also: Atonality; Film music; Five, 
The; Futurism; Gebrauchsmusik; Im- 
pressionism; Modality; Nationalism; 
Neo-classicism; New music; Pandiatoni- 
cism; Parallel chords; Quarter-tones; Sat- 
ire; Six, Les; Twelve-tone technique; 
Verismo; Whole-tone scale. 

Lit.: G. Abraham, This Modern Stuff 
(1939); M. Bauer, Twentieth Century 
Music (1933); G. Dyson, Progress of 
Music (1932); D. Ewen, The Boo\ of 
Modern Composers (1942); C. Gray, A 
Survey of Contemporary Music (1927); 
E. B. Hill, Modern French Music (1924); 
J. T. Howard, This Modern Music 
(1942); A. Eaglefield-Hull, Dictionary of 
Modern Music and Musicians (1924); 

D. G. Mason, Contemporary Composers 
(1918); G. Pannain, Modern Composers 
(1933)5 N. Slonimsky, Music Since /900 
(19375 a chronological reference book); 

E. Goossens, in PM A xlviii; A. Bliss, in 
PMA xlix; G. Dyson, in PMA 1 ; E. 
Wellesz, in MQ x; R. D. Welch, in MQ 
vii. 

Modes, Rhythmic. A 13th-century 
system of rhythm, characterized by the 
consistent repetition of certain simple 
rhythmic patterns in ternary meter. Usu- 
ally six modes are distinguished, as shown 
on the next page. The Greek names 
conveniently serve to identify the modes; 
their application is, however, of a rela- 
tively late date (W. Odington, c, 1290; 
see ♦Theory II) and should not be con- 
strued to indicate a derivation of the 


[452] 




MODULATION 


MODINHA 


modes from the feet of ancient Greek 
poetry [see *Poetic meter]. 

As applied to musical compositions, the 


First (trochaic) ; 
Second (iambic): 
Third (dactylic): 
Fourth (anapaestic): 
Fifth (spondaic) ; 


IJ JU... 

IJJ IJ... 

IJ. IJ J IJ. I... 
IJJ IJ. IJJl- 
IJ. IJ. IJ. I... 


Sixth (tribrachic) : 


IJJJIJ... 


above patterns were reiterated a number 
of times, depending on the length of the 
phrase or, in medieval terminology, on 
the ordo. The ordo indicated the number 
of times a pattern was repeated without 
interruption, e.g.: 


jij JU JUH 

|JJ U- l-UU- U| 


cable resemblance to Russian and gypsy 
songs. Cf. Mario de Andrade, Modinhas 
imperials (S. Paulo, 1930). 

Modulamen, modulatio, modulus. 

Humanistic ( 16th-century) misnomers for 
motet. 


Modulator. See *Tonic Sol-fa. 

Modulation. The change of key with- 
in a composition. Such changes are 
among the commonest devices of har- 
monic variety, and arc found in practi- 
cally every piece of some extension. In 
order to make an effective modulation 
the initial as well as the new key should 
be established by a cadence. 

Modulations arc accomplished by 
means of “pivot chords, “ i.e., a chord 
which is common to both the initial and 



0:iv V| 


The modes form the rhythmic basis of the 
organa, the clausulae,and the motets of the 
13th century, which are therefore said to 
be written in modal notation [see under 
^Square notation]. Usually the first, sec- 
ond, and sixth modes occur in the upper 
parts; the third and the fifth in the lower 
(the fourth mode is very rare). Naturally, 
in the practical application of the modes, 
certain modifications of the normal pat- 
terns were admitted, such as occasional 
omission of a weak beat {extensio modi) 
or breaking up of one note into two or 
three {jractio modi). See the example 
under ^Square notation. See also remark 
under ^Perfect, imperfect. 

Lit.: ApNPMf 2280 ; A. Michalitschke, 
Die Theorie des Modus (192^); H. Sowa, 
in ZMW XV. 

Modinha. A type of song which origi- 
nated in Portugal, but exists now mainly 
in Brazil where it was imported in the 
second half of the 19th century. The 
Brazilian modinha is an urban type of 
folk song. Its style is that of a sentimental 
romance, occasionally with light syncopa- 
tions. It bears an unexpected and inexpli- 



Etn»V I Ab;IV*V| I I 



the new key. For instance, in Ex. i, the 
third chord is the pivot chord, being I in 
the old key (C), and IV in the new key 

(G), hence the designation qI jy. In 
Ex. 2, the same chord adopts the function 
of VII in D (properly, D minor), while, 
in Ex. 3, V of C is re-interpreted as III of 
E (properly, E minor). 


[ 453 ] 




MODULATION 

Modulations arc usually classified un- 
der three types, diatonic, chromatic, and 
enharmonic. A diatonic modulation is 
one made through a chord which is dia- 
tonic in both keys. The above three ex- 
amples belong to this type. A chromatic 
modulation is one made through a chord 
which is chromatically altered in one or 
both keys, a very common example being 
the modulation through the Neapolitan 
sixth [Ex. 4]. The field of chromatic 
modulation is very large, and its exploita- 
tion has been one of the main achieve- 
ments of ipth'Century harmony. Enhar- 
monic modulation is one which involves 
the enharmonic change of one or several 
notes. This is frequently achieved 
through the diminished seventh chord 
[Ex. 5]. 

If the new key is touched upon only 
momentarily, leading quickly into a third 
key, the modulation is said to be “false” 
or “passing.” The former term is used if 
the third key is the initial key [Ex. 6], 
the latter, if it is still another key [Ex. 7] . 
The latter case occurs mainly in sequen- 
tial progressions (sequential modula- 
tion). Naturally, the interpretation of a 
modulation as “real,” “false,” or “pass- 
ing” depends largely on the impression of 
permanence (to the second key) and, 
therefore, frequently on subjective judg- 
ment. 

Aside from the above-described “pivot- 
modulations,” change of key is frequently 
effected in a more direct manner, by sim- 
ply juxtaposing the old and the new key, 
a very effective device which, by some 
writers, is not held to fall under the cate- 
gory proper of “modulation.” The ex- 
ample 10, by Schubert, given under 
♦Harmony illustrates this method which 
usually involves a shift of a whole-tone or 
of a semitone. Even in these cases, how- 
ever, an analysis according to the prin- 
ciples of pivot chords may be made in 
order to explain the harmonic relation- 
ships. See ♦Harmonic analysis VI. 

Lit.: A. Foote, Modulation and Related 
Harmonic Questions (1919); C. Zdller, 
The Art of Modulation (1930); S. Ancis, 
Scheme Modulations (1929); Th. Otter- 
stroem, A Theory of Modulation (1935); 


MONOCHORD 

M. Reger, Supplement to the Theory of 
Modulation (1904); H. Riemann, Syste^ 
matische Modulationslehre (1887). 

Modus [L.]. (i) ♦Church mode; in 
this meaning the term tonus is more 
commonly used in early music. — (2) 
♦Mode, rhythmic. — (3) In ♦mensural 
notation, modus major {modus maxi- 
marum) denotes the relationship between 
the maxima and the longa; modus minor 
{modus longarum), or simply modus^ 
that between the longa and the brevis. 
In English books Morley’s translations 
“greater mood” and “lesser mood” are 
frequently used in this connotation. Both 
modi figure prominently in the theoreti- 
cal explanations of mensural notation 
from the 14th to the 17th century, but 
are of little practical significance, on ac- 
count of the long duration of the note 
values involved. For the relationship of 
the mensural modus to the modus 
(rhythmic mode) of the 13th century cf. 
ApNPMi 293f. See also under ♦Perfect, 
imperfect. 

Modus lascivus. Medieval name for 
the tonality of C major, which was 
avoided in plainsong, but was frequently 
used in secular music. 

Modusschrift [G.]. ♦Modal notation. 

Moglichst [G.]. As much as possible. 

Moll. German for minor key {G molly 
G minor). See ♦Dur. 

Molto [It.]. Very. Molto allegro 
{adagio), very quick (slow). 

Moment Musical [F.]. A name, used 
first and chiefly by Schubert, for lyrical 
pieces in Romantic style. See ♦Character 
piece. 

Monacordo [It.]. Sixteenth-century 
name for the clavichord. 

Mondscheinsonate [G.]. *Moonlight 
Sonata. 

Monochord [Gr. monos, one; chorde, 
string]. A contrivance consisting of a 
single string which is stretched over a 
lengthy wooden resonator to which a 


[454] 



MONOCORDO 


MONOPHONY 


movable fret is attached so that the vibrat- 
ing length of the string can be varied. 
The monochord is said to have been in- 
vented by Pythagoras (6th century B.C.). 
It was widely used in Antiquity and the 
Middle Ages for the investigation and 
demonstration of the laws of musical 
acoustics, a purpose for which it is still 
used in schools [see Acoustics II]. In 
the later Middle Ages the number of 
strings was increased to two or three, so 
that intervals and chords could be made 
audible. Such monochords were the 
probable ancestors of the clavichord 
which as late as the i6th century was 
called *monacordo in Italy. 

Lit.: S. Wantzloeben, Das Monochord 
als Instrument und System (1911); 
GeHM, 407. 

Monocordo. In violin playing, the per- 
formance of a piece on a single string. 
This effect was used first by Paganini, in 
his Sonata “Napoleon” for the G string. 

Monodrama. See ^Melodrama. 

Monody [Gr. monos, one; ode, song]. 
Literally, music for one singer. The term 
is occasionally used as synonymous with 
^monophonic music, or for accompanied 
solo song in general. More properly it 
denotes that particular type of accom- 
panied solo song which developed around 
1600 as the reaction against the poly- 
phonic style of the i6th century, and 
which is characterized by the recitativo- 


iTft..--— r?i-| 1 Kl ur-t.-l 



1 1 4. 1 ' j 1 tii 1 TT-n 



rJ rJ Tw w w A n 


^ Ra-^ppt-a 

efiam-rt»e 

liuni altncmora-btl 







(KM 7 T'M ^ 



— 1 

bo d}ilcarro 

Jorrl-vol- gCin- 

tor- 

nol 




’"8 







'-X5 = i ^ 


like design of the voice part and by the 
thorough-bass accompaniment. Accom- 
panying is one of the earliest examples of 


true monody, from Caccini’s Nuove 
musiche, 1602 [for others, cf. HAM, nos. 
182-185; SchGMB, nos. 169, 171-173, 
176, etc.; see also *Nuove musiche; *Aria 
III; *Cantata; ^Recitative]. 

Forerunners of the monodic style are 
the numerous 16th-century songs with 
lute accompaniment [Schlick, Tabula- 
turen etlicher lohgesang und lidlein 
(1512); Luis Milan, El Maestro (1535); 
Enriquez de Valderravano, Libro de 
Musica de vihuela (1547)] and poly- 
phonic madrigals arranged for a solo 
singer and an accompanist for the lower 
parts [e.g., Luzzascho Luzzaschi; cf. 
SchGMB, no. 166]. Bottrigari, in his 
Desiderio (1594; new edition by K. 
Meyer, 1924), informs us about an exten- 
sive practice of solo song in the *laudi, 
the ^intermedii, and in folk singing. 

Lit.: A. Schering, “Zur Geschichte des 
begleiteten Sologesangs im 16. Jahr- 
hundert” (ZIM xiii); E. Schmitz, “Zur 
Friihgeschichte der Monodie” (JMP 
xviii); W. Krabbe, “Zur Geschichte der 
Monodie im 16. Jahrhundert” {Allge- 
meine Musi\a\ische Zeitung, Jan., 1922); 
P. Nettl, “fiber ein handschriftliches 
Sammelwerk von Gesangen italienischer 
Friihmonodie” {ZMW ii); A. Einstein, 
“Firenze, prima della monodia” (LRM 
vii); L. Torchi, “Canzoni ... ad una 
voce nel sccoloXVII” {RMI i). 

Monophony, monophonic [Gr. mo- 
nos, one; phonos, sound] . Music compris- 
ing only a single melodic line without 
additional parts or accompaniment, as 
contrasted to ^polyphonic, ^homophonic, 
etc. [see ^Texture], Monophonic music 
is the purest realization of the melodic 
element [see *Melody]. It is the oldest 
type of music, being the only one em- 
ployed in ancient Greek music, in the 
various branches of early church music 
(Gregorian chant, Byzantine chant), in 
the music of the troubadours, trouveres, 
Minnesinger and Meistersinger, in the 
Spanish cantigas, and the Italian laude of 
the 13th century, and universally in Ori- 
ental and primitive music as well as in 
European folk music. See remark under 
*Monody. 


[455] 




MONOTONE 


MORDENT 


Monotone. The recitation of a liturgi- 
cal text on an unchanged pitch, as in 
psalms, prayers, lessons, reading from the 
Scriptures, etc. Usually, the monotonic 
declamation is modified by *inflections, 
that is, a few ascending or descending 
tones at the beginning, middle, or end of 
the phrase of the text. See *Psalm tones. 
The name “inflected monotone” has also 
been applied to rather elaborate chants 
which have been interpreted as a highly 
ornamented type of monotone [cf. GD 
ii, 709; iv, 368]. 

Montpellier, Codex. The name usu- 
ally refers to an important source of 13th- 
century polyphonic music, Montpellier, 
Fac. des Med., H ig 6 [see ^Sources, no. 
4; *Ars antiqua II], not to be confused 
with an equally important source of 
Gregorian chant, H 759 [see ^Editions 
XXIII, A, 7/8; also ^Letter notation]. 

Monumenta, Monumenti, Monu- 
ments. See ^Editions XIV; XVII; XVIII; 
XIX. 

Mood. See *Modus (3). 

Moonlight Sonata [G. Mondschein- 
sonate]. Popular but unauthentic name 
for Beethoven’s Sonata quasi una fan- 
tasitty op. 27, no. 2. The name probably 
goes back to a review written by Heinrich 
Rellstab (1799-1860) in which the first 
movement was likened to a boat wander- 
ing by moonlight on Lake Lucerne. An- 
other name is Laube Sonata, from Ger- 
man Laube, “bower,” referring probably 
to a fancied place of its composition. 
Curiously, this name is entirely unknown 
in Germany. See remarks under *Mute 
and under *Sonata B, IV. 

Moralities. Religious plays in which 
the virtues and vices are personified. 
Such plays were popular in the 17th cen- 
tury. See *Mysteries. 

Morbido [It.]. Gentle, soft (not mor- 
bid). 

Morceau [F.]. Piece, composition. 

Mordent [G.; F. pineSy pincement\ Old 
Engl, beat, open shake, sweetening; It. 


mordente]. A musical ornament consist- 
ing of the alternation of the written note 
with the note immediately below it. It is 
indicated in the music by one of the signs 
given in Ex. i (the third sign occurs only 



in music for bowed instruments). In 
performance the mordent always occupies 
part of the value of the written note and 
should not be introduced before it. The 
alternations of the written note and the 
auxiliary may be either single or double 
[Ex. 2]; there is a special sign for the 
latter [Ex. 3] but it is not often used and 
the choice between these executions is 
generally left to the discretion of the per- 
former, who bases his decision chiefly 
upon the duration of the written note. If 
two mordents occur in close succession 
contemporary authorities recommend 
that one should be made single and the 
other double, as in Ex. 4 (Bach). 

In the works of J. S. Bach the mordent 
often appears fully written out [Ex. 5, 
Adagio of the D minor Organ Toccata]. 
All of Bach’s mordents, with the excep- 
tion of those which occur in pieces with a 


[456] 






MORISCA 


MOTET 


particularly vigorous rhythm, should be 
performed comparatively slowly, as in 
Ex. 6 [a: Italian Concerto; b: Wt. 
Cl. ii, no. i]. When a mordent and an 
appoggiatura occur on the same note the 
mordent must be delayed until the appog- 
giatura has been held its normal duration, 
as in Bach’s Chorale Prelude, '‘Wenn wir 
in hochsten Ndten sein” [Ex. 7]. After 
1750 all mordents were performed more 
rapidly than at the time of Bach. The 
ornament apparently became absorbed in 
the ordinary notation before the classical 
period, for it is not found in the works of 
Mozart and Beethoven. 

The mordent occurs in the German 
organ tablatures of the 15th and i6th cen- 
turies, where it is indicated by the signs 
illustrated (a: Buxheim Organ Book, c. 
1470; b: Kotter, Buchner, c. 1520). The 
execution was, however, somewhat dif- 

'-j 

ferent, since the main note was held, and 
only the lower auxiliary was quickly re- 
peated [cf. WoHN ii, 22; ApNPM, 24]. 
For the so-called “inverted mordent” see 
under *Schneller. P. A. 

Morisca, Moresca [from Sp. morisco, 
Moor]. A pantomimic dance of the 15th 
and 1 6th centuries, which was executed 
in Moorish costumes and other disguises 
of a grotesque character, the dancers hav- 
ing their faces blackened and small bells 
attached to their legs. Arbeau, in his 
*Orchesographie (1588), reports having 
seen the morisca danced in his youthful 
days (around 1530) by “un gargonnet 
machure et noircy, des grelottieres aux 
jambes.” The morisca, which was easily 
the most popular dance for the ballets and 
mummeries of the Renaissance, occurs in 
two types, as a solo dance and as a dance 
between two groups representing a 
sword-fight between Christians and Mo- 
hammedans. The latter type was known 
also as Danse des ^bouffons [see also 
♦Matasinj. Dances of this type are still 
known today in Spain, Corsica, and 
Guatemala. They have survived particu- 
larly in England under the name Morris 


dancey partly in a continuous tradition, 
partly as the result of a revival made 
around 1900. The Morris was danced 
chiefly as a part of the May games. It in- 
cluded, in addition to six dancers in two 
opposing groups, certain solo characters, 
such as the “Mayde Maryan,” represented 
by a boy disguised as a girl, or by a dancer 
with a hobbyhorse. Cf. GD iii, 52 iff; 
also C. Sachs, A World History of the 
Dance (1940). See also under *Villa- 
nella. 

Mormorando [It.]. Murmuring. 

Morris dance. See ^Morisca. 

Motet [from Fr. mot, word]. The most 
important form of early polyphonic mu- 
sic, particularly during the Middle Ages 
and the Renaissance. On account of the 
great changes it underwent during the 
more than five hundred years of its exist- 
ence {c. 1250-1750) it is almost impos- 
sible to give a general definition which 
would cover all the various phases of its 
development. As a rule, a motet is an un- 
accompanied choral composition, based 
on a Latin sacred text, and designed to be 
performed in ihe Catholic service, chiefly 
at Vespers. There are, however, lateral 
developments branching out into the sec- 
ular field (13th-century French motet; 
15th-century ceremonial motets), as well 
as motets for soloists (13th-century motet; 
also in the late 17th century) or with or- 
chestral accompaniment and to texts in 
the vernacular (17th century, Germany; 
the English motets are called ^anthems). 
The history of the motet may be divided 
into three periods: A, that of the medieval 
motet (r. 1225—1450); B, that of the 
Flemish motet (1450-1600), as it might 
be called after its inaugurators although 
it became international property after 
1550; C, that of the Baroque motel 
(1600—1750). 

A. The Medieval Motet. I. The me- 
dieval motet originated in the early 13th 
century, possibly as early as 1200, by the 
addition of a full text to the upper part 
{duplum) of the ^clausulae of the Pero- 
tinus period, a procedure which is strik- 
ingly similar to that which, in the 9th 


[457] 



MOTET 


MOTET 


century, led from the vocalized melismas 
of the alleluias to the fully texted *se- 
quenccs. Owning to the addition of 
“mots,** the texted duplum was called 
motetus, a name which was adopted for 
the entire composition. The tenor of a 
motet (as that of a clausula) is practically 
always a melismatic (vocalized) passage 
taken from a chant of the Gregorian 
repertory (usually a gradual, alleluia, or 
responsorium) and identified by the same 
word or syllable {^incipii) with which it 
occurs in the original plainsong. The 
only change is that of rhythm, namely 
from the free oratorio rhythm of plain- 
song into a strict modal pattern [see 
*Modes, rhythmic]. The accompanying 
example shows the motet O Maria — 


The liturgical background of the 13th- 
century motet is furthermore illustrated 
by the fact that, in the early and in the 
classical periods {c. 1225-75), the text of 
the motetus is always a paraphrase of the 
fundamental thought expressed in, or 
suggested by, the tenor and its plain- 
chant. As a matter of fact, so great was 
the desire of the 13th-century ecclesiasti- 
cal poet-musicians to give new and indi- 
vidual expression to the sacrosanct ideas 
of the Church that, when the number of 
parts was increased from two to three, 
still another textual paraphrase was 
chosen for the third part (triplum), e.g.: 

In seculum^ Artifex seculi . . . 

In seculumy supra mulieres . . . 

IN SECULUM 



Nostrum [cf. ApNPM, 285] and the 
Easter Alleluia [cf. GR, 222] from which 
the tenor NOSTRUM is taken. It is im- 
portant to realize that, at least originally, 
a motet is not an independent composi- 
tion but — like the clausulae — a poly- 
phonic interpolation (polyphonic *trope) 
of the chant to which it is allied by its 
tenor. The following scheme — a modi- 
fication of that given under *clausula — 
shows two motets in their proper liturgi- 
cal position (ordinary print indicates 
plainsong; capital letters the motets; ital- 
ics the added text of the upper part) : 

0 Maria , . . 

Alleluia, alleluia, y. Pascha NOSTRUM 
Radix venie . . . 

immo- LATUS cst Christus. 


[cf. ReMMAy 313; see *In seculum]. Ex- 
amples in HAMy nos. 28, f-i and 32, c-d. 

II. An early precursor of the 13th-cen- 
tury motet exists in a number of compo- 
sitions dating from the early part of the 
i2th century (School of *St. Martial) in 
which the duplum of a Benedicamus- 
Domino organum is provided with a full 
text [cf. J. Handschin, “Der Ursprung 
der Motette'’ {KIMy 1924)]. There is rea- 
son to believe that the development of the 
13th-century motet started, not with two- 
voice motets, but with a special type of 
three- (or four-) voice motets in which a 
conductus-like superstructure of two (or 
three) voices with identical rhythm and 
text is combined with a tenor having dif- 
ferent text and generally slower rhythm 
(“conductus-motet”; cf. ApNPMy 227; 
HAMy no. 32c). The three-voice motet 
with two different Latin texts and with 
individual rhythm in each part must be 
considered the classical type of the 13th- 
century motet. In the later part of the 
13th century, however, a new phase of 
evolution was inaugurated by the intru- 
sion of secular texts in the French lan- 
guage. Since the tenor always retained its 
liturgical derivation, there resulted a 
musical type of startling incongruity, if 
not profanity, since the French texts usu- 
ally dealt with amorous subjects, occa- 
sionally even lascivious. Unfortunately, 
in modern writings this type of motet. 


[458] 



MOTET 


MOTET 


which, no doubt, represents a phenome- 
non of cultural extravagance, is empha- 
sized over the liturgical motet which, far 
from being incongruous, is a perfect ex- 
pression of the theological universalism 
of Thomas of Aquino and other medieval 
philosophers. Nonetheless, the amalga- 
mation of sacred and secular things, the 
merging of the Gregorian tradition with 
the trouvere movement, the frequent ex- 
changes and substitutions, musical as well 
as textual, are features which contribute 
towards making the final development of 
the motet a fascinating study [cf. HAM, 
nos. 28, 33-35]* Examples illustrating 
the extraordinarily manifold relationships 
within the repertory of the 13th-century 
motet are found in AdHM i, 237 and 240 
(F. Ludwig). For an example showing 
the transition from a clausula to a 
(French) motet, cf. ApNPM, 260 and 
272 {Flos filius); also HAM, no. 28d 
and h, also i. 

III. The explanation, not infrequent in 
modern books, of the motet as a “'^quod- 
libet is quite misleading. Actually, only 
a limited number of motets can be shown 
to include combinations of different pre- 
existing melodies [see ^Refrain; *Entel. 
The rhythmic texture of the motets is in- 
variably based on the rhythmic ’••'modes, 
the upper parts frequently employing a 
quicker pattern (first, second, sixth 
mode) than the tenor (third, fifth mode), 
as illustrated (schematically) in our ex- 

IJ JJ^IJ J Jl 
I J J Id J I 
|J. IJ. I 

ample. Towards the end of the century 
the strict modal rhythm (Franco and 
predecessors) was modified by the intro- 
duction (Petrus de Cruce) of quick notes, 
four to seven in the place of one brevis 
(quarter-note) and sung syllabically in a 
quick parlando (Petronian motet; exam- 
ple in HAM, no. 34). See also *Ars an- 
tiqua. 

IV. In the 14th century the motet lost 
its former dominant position [see *Ars 
nova] but, as a recompense, increased in 


elaboration, length, and rhythmic variety. 
A feature of special interest is the intro- 
duction of the ^isorhythmic principle. 
Practically all the motets of Guillaume dc 
Machaut (1300-77) are isorhythmic (ex- 
ample in HAM, no. 44), and a number of 
them have this principle applied not only 
to the tenor but also, with a certain 
amount of freedom, to the upper parts 
[cf. ReMMA, 354]. The isorhythmic 
principle continued to be used through 
the middle of the 15th century, in motets 
by Dunstable, Dufay, and others [see 
’••‘Isorhythmic] . There exists a consider- 
able repertory of English 14th-century 
motets [cf. HAM, no. 57a], some with 
English words [cf. M. Bukofzer, in ML 
xvii, no. 3]. 

Beginning with the 15th century, novel 
methods of composition were applied to 
motets. The two characteristics of the 
medieval motet, that is, polytextuality 
and cantus-firmus tenor, were abandoned 
in favor of free composition with the 
same text in all the parts. Occasionally 
motets of this period have a plainsong 
melody (or snatches thereof) in the so- 
prano. The origin of these novel types of 
motet is found in similar methods of 
composition which, in the later part of 
the 14th century, were applied to hymns 
or to the antiphons B.M.V. Another type 
of this period is the solo-motet with in- 
strumental accompaniment — evidently 
the result of an influence of 14th-cen- 
tury French secular song (’•^ballade). Cf. 
the examples by Dunstable and Power in 
SchGMB, nos. 34, 37. For a further study 
of the interesting but complex period of 
transition from c. 1400 to 1450, the reader 
is referred to the analysis of Dunstable’s 
motets in ReMMA, 414. 

B. The Flemish Motet, The return to 
sacred music, which characterizes the 
’•^Flemish School, brought the motet back 
into prominence as a musical form second 
in importance only to the Mass. The 
motet now becomes a choral composition 
of a Latin scriptural text, in four to six or 
more voice-parts. The cantus-firmus in 
long-held notes [see *Pfundnoten] is still 
found in many motets of the period 1450- 
1500 — one of the most famous examples 


U59] 



MOTET 


MOTET 


being Josquin’s Stahat mater [cf. W. Am- 
bros, Geschichte der Musi\y v, 62] — but 
was gradually superseded by a completely 
free treatment. The first master of this 
period, Jean Ockeghem (c. 1430-95), 
usually contrasts the long cantus-firmus 
notes with highly florid lines in the other 
parts [cf. SchGMB, no. 52], while his 
contemporary Obrecht (c, 1430-1505) 
prefers a more equal treatment of the 
parts, including imitation and passages in 
chordal (^familiar) style [cf. SchGMBy 
no. 54; HAMy no. 76 J. While German 
masters such as Adam von Fulda (r*. 1440— 
1506) and Heinrich Finck (1445-1527) 
would seem to have followed the model 
of Ockeghem, Obrecht’s method became 
the point of departure for the splendid 
development represented by Josquin 
(1450-1521), Heinrich Isaac (1450- 
1517), Pierre de la Rue (r. 1460-1518), 
Antoine Brumel (fl. c. 1500), and all the 
later Flemish masters. With Josquin the 
imitative treatment of successive portions 
of the text, resulting in a succession of 
•points, became the classical style of the 
motet — a style which has been so fully 
identified with this form that it is usually 
referred to as “motet-style” [see •Imita- 
tive counterpoint; •Chorale motet]. 
Chordal style, however, also plays an im- 
portant part in the works of this period, 
and the classical motet frequently shows 
a mixture of polyphonic and homophonic 
treatment. Usually the motets of the i6th 
century fall into two or three larger sec- 
tions, called PrimUy Secunduy Tertia Pars. 
While Josquin’s motets are mostly in 
from four to six voice-parts, eight or more 
voices are frequent in the later motets, 
particularly in connection with •poly- 
choral treatment. This novel style, which 
already occurs in some motets of Gombert 
(fl. 1520-40), led to a new type of motet, 
fhe “Venetian motet,” as it is called, in 
contradistinction to the “Netherlands 
motet.” 

Around 1530 the motet spread through- 
out Europe, and the Flemish masters 
(Josquin, Gombert, de Monte, Lasso) 
found disciples of equal rank in Italy (A. 
Gabrieli, Palestrina, Giov. Gabrieli), 
Spain (Morales, Vittoria), England (Tal- 


lis, Byrd), Germany (Senfl, Handl, Has- 
sler), and France (Goudimel, Regnart). 
In England the adoption, about 1560, of 
texts in the vernacular led to a special type 
of motet, the •anthem. 

Important collections of 16th-century 
motets are: Motetti A, By C (Petrucci, 
1502, ’03, ’04); Motetti della corona (4 
books, Petrucci, 15 14-19); Motetti del 
frutto (Gardano, 1539); Motetti del fiore 
(5 books, Moderne, 1532-42); Novum et 
insigne opus musicum (2 vols., Ott, 1537, 
’38; cf. RiMLy 1284); Thesaurus musicus 
(Montan and Neuber, 1564); Novus 
Thesaurus musicus (ed. by Joanelli, 
1568; cf. RiMLy 1284); Promptuarium 
musicum (ed. by Abr. Schade and Kas- 
par Vincent, 1611-17; cf. RiMLy 1435); 
Florilegium Portense (ed. by Boden- 
schatz, 1603, ’18; cf. RiMLy 519). 

C. The Baroque Motet. After 1600 the 
style of the motet changed considerably, 
owing chiefly to the abandoning of the 
pure a-cappella style and to the use of solo 
voices as well as of instrumental accom- 
paniment. This does not mean that the 
16th-century style was completely aban- 
doned. The traditional character of the 
motet easily accounts for the fact that the 
“stile antico” of Palestrina [see •Stile] as 
well as the Venetian style with its massive 
sound was continuously cultivated in the 
motets of the Baroque, sometimes in al- 
most unchanged manner as, e.g., in 
numerous motets written by the members 
of the •Roman School [cf. the motets by 
Fux, c. 1700, in DTOe 2.i]. Usually, 
however, the old methods were modified 
according to the stylistic devices of the 
17th century, such as instrumental partici- 
pation, solo voices, aria style, recitativo, 
etc. 

The earliest examples of the new prac- 
tice occur in Viadana’s Concerti ecclesias- 
tici (1602, ’08) which contain motets for 
one, two, three, and four voices with or- 
gan accompaniment. While organ ac- 
companiment is already prescribed in the 
Concerti ecclesiastici of A. and G. Gabri- 
eli (1587) and of Banchieri (1595), Via- 
dana’s innovation is the use of solo voices 
instead of choral performance, an innova- 
tion which is particularly conspicuous in 


[460] 



MOTET 

the pieces for one or two voices [cf. 
SchGMBy no. i68]. The solo-motet for 
two or three singers with organ accom- 
paniment prevailed in Italy throughout 
the Baroque, side by side with the choral 
style of the Roman or Venetian tradition; 
not a few motets of this period make use 
of both styles, e.g., solistic treatment in 
the first part, choral treatment in the sec- 
ond (e.g., Carissimi). Antonio Caldara 
(1670-1732) seems to have been one of 
the first in Italy to use instruments in 
addition to the organ [DTOe 13.!]. 

More interesting is the development in 
Germany, the beginning and end of 
which is indicated by two composers of 
the highest rank, Schiitz (i5%-i672) 
and Bach (1685-1750). Schiitz’s Sym- 
phoniae sacrae (1629, ’47, ’50) contain an 
inexhaustible treasure of masterpieces 
written in a great variety of styles, incor- 
porating instrumental participation, solo 
voices, expressive coloraturas, character- 
istic motives in rapid notes, echo-like 
alternation of two singers or instruments, 
realistic effects, trumpet calls, etc. Most 
of these pieces, particularly those from the 
later collections, are written to German 
texts, as are also the majority of motets 
written by the successors of Schiitz. It 
goes without saying that this practice 
makes it even more difficult, if not impos- 
sible, to draw a line of distinction between 
the German motet and other types of 
church music, such as the cantata, the 
spiritual song, the “geistliche Konzert,” 
and others. As a rule, the use of the 
chorus marks the German form, since in 
Germany (as distinguished from Italy) 
the motet remained a choral, frequently 
an a-cappella type. An idea of the Ger- 
man motet before Bach can be obtained 
from the selection contained in DdT 
49/50 (Thiiringer Motetten: Liebhold, 
Joh. Michael Bach, Topf). Continuing 
with Reinken, Buxtehude, Pachelbel, and 
others the German motet arrived at its 
peak in the six motets by Bach, four of 
which are written for unaccompanied 
double-chorus of eight voices, while one 
(“Jesu meine Freude”) is for five voices 
and one (“Lobet den Herrn”) for four 
voices with organ. 


MOTET 

An important but little known devel- 
opment took place in France, beginning 
with Marc-Antoine Charpentier {c. 
1634-1704) and continuing with Lully 
(1632-87), Michel Lalande (1657-1726), 
Campra (1660-1744; cf. HAM, no. 263), 
Francois Couperin (1668-1733; HAM, 
no. 266), and Rameau (1683-1764). 
While Lully’s motets are still a-cappella 
for double chorus, those by Campra and 
Couperin are for solo voices with organ or 
instruments, and those of Rameau employ 
chorus, soloists (for the “airs’*), organ, 
and orchestra. 

For modern reprints see ♦Editions, 
particularly V, VII-IX, XV, XX, XXI, 
XXVII. 

The rather unimportant development 
of the motet after Bach may be briefly 
characterized by the names of Hasse, 
Graun, C. P. E. Bach, Mozart (Ave 
verum), Mendelssohn, Schumann, and, 
particularly, Brahms (opp. 29, 74, no). 
A somewhat more continuous develop- 
ment took place in France, under Gou- 
nod, Saint-Saens, Theodore Dubois, 
Franck, Charles Borde, d’Indy, and 
other members of the ♦Schola can- 
torum. 

Lit., General: H. Leichtentritt, Ge- 
schichte der Motette (1908). 

To A, jph century: F. Ludwig, Re- 
pertorium . . . motetorum vetustissimi 
still (1910); W. Meyer, Der Ursprung 
des Motets (1897) ; OH i, iy6fl; ReMMA, 
passim; G. Kuhlmann, Die 2-stimmigen 
jranzdsischen Motetten des Kodex Mont- 
pellier (Diss. Frankfurt 1937); P. Au- 
bry, ^Cent, motets du xiiie sihcle, 3 vols. 
(1908; Codex Bamberg); Y. Rokseth, 
'\Polyphonies du xiiie sibcle, 4 vols. 
(1936-39; Codex Montpellier); F. Lud- 
wig, in AMW v; id., in SIM vii; J. 
Handschin, in KIM, 1924; H. Besseler, 
in AMW vii; H. Husmann, in AMF ii. 
— 14th and i^th centuries: F. Ludwig, 
fG. de Machaut, Musi\alische Wer^e, 
vol. iii (1929); A. Hughes, f Worcester 
Mediaeval Harmony (1928); Ch. van den 
Borren, \?olyphonia sacra (1935; MS 
Oxford, Canonici 2/3); A. Ramsbotham, 
'\The Old Hall Manuscript, 3 vols. ( 1933- 
38); fTrcnt Codices, in DTOe [see ♦Edi- 


[461 ] 



MOTET STYLE 


MOTU PROPRIO 


tions VII]; M. Bukofzcr, in ML xvii, 
no. 3; H. Besseler, in AMW viii. 

To B: W. Stephan, Die burgundisch- 
niederldndische Motette zur Zeit Oc 1 {e- 
ghems (Diss. Heidelberg 1931); K. P. 
Kempers, Die Motetten von Clemens non 
Papa (Diss. Munich 1925); J. Neyses, 
Studien zur Geschichte der deutschen 
Motette (Diss. Bonn 1927); A. Orel, in 
StM vii (15th cent.); Th. W. Werner, in 
ZMW vii (Josquin). 

Motet style. See ♦Motet B. 

Motetus [L.]. (i) Latin for motet. — 
(2) In the medieval motet, the voice above 
the tenor; see *Motet A, I; *Duplum. 

Mother Goose Suite. See ♦Sym- 
phonic poem IV. 

Motion pictures. See under ♦Film 
music. 

Motive, motif [G. Motiv], The brief- 
est intelligible and self-contained fragment 
of a musical theme or subject. As fev^ as 
two notes may constitute a motive, if they 
are sufficiently characteristic, e.g., the 
descending fourth at the beginning of 
Beethoven’s Piano Sonata A major, op. 
2, no. 2; or the descending fifth at the 
opening of his Ninth Symphony [see the 
example under ♦Phrase]. The motives 
arc the very bricks or germinating cells 
of the musical composition. It is through 
their highly developed use (repetition in 
the same or in other parts; transposition 
into other pitches; rhythmical modifica- 
tions; contrapuntal combination with 
other motives) that Bach as well as Bee- 
thoven has bestowed upon his work a 
unique quality of logical coherence and 
well-motivated organization. In particu- 
lar, the development-sections of the sona- 
tas are entirely based upon the motives 
derived from the various subjects of the 
exposition. See also ♦Leitmotif. 

The term “figure” is frequently used 
as synonymous with motive. A distinc- 
tion could, however, and should be made, 
namely, that motives arc derived from 
themes, while figures arc not and, there- 
fore, are of a more secondary importance, 
frequently serving as material for an ac- 


companiment or counterpoint to a mel- 
ody. The “motival” technique is there- 
fore, generally speaking, much more re- 
cent than the “figural” technique. Early 
examples of the consistent use of figures 
occur frequently in the keyboard pieces 
of the late i6th and early 17th centuries 
(English virginalists, Sweelinck [e.g., 
TaAM iii, 3-5] , Scheldt, and others). See 
♦Figural chorale. 

Motion. That element of a melody 
which is the result of the pitch quality 
(“high-low”) of the musical sounds, as 
distinguished from rhythm which is the 
result of their duration quality (“long- 
short”). In fact, any melody can be sep- 
arated into a motion-pattern and into a 
rhythm-pattern as is shown under ♦Mel- 
ody. Motion may be ascending or de- 
scending, in the narrow steps of the scale 
(conjunct), or in the wider steps of a 
chord (disjunct). The study of these fea- 
tures is of prime importance in melodic 
analysis. See ♦Melody I, IV; also ♦Primi- 
tive music III. 

The term is also used to describe the 
relative changes of pitch in two or more 
simultaneous voice-parts. Two such parts 
are said to be in ^parallel motion^ if they 
stay in the distance of the same interval 
[Ex., a] ; in similar motion^ if they move 



in the same direction, but change their 
distance [b]; in contrary motion^ if they 
move in opposite directions [c] ; in 
oblique motion^ if one part remains sta- 
tionary on the same pitch [d]. 

Moto, Con [It.]. With motion, quick. 

Motu proprio [L., of his own motion]. 
Generally, a Papal decree, referring to the 
administration of the Church. Particu- 
larly, a decree issued by Pope Pius X in 
1903 which contained a new regulation 
of the music in the Catholic service. The 
most important points of this decree were: 
(a) Abolishment of the theatrical and 


[462 ] 



MOUTH HARMONICA 


MOZARABIC CHANT 


worldly style of church music which had 
spread during the 19th century, particu- 
larly in the Roman countries, (b) Return 
to Palestrina’s music as the model of poly- 
phonic church music, (c) Restoration of 
Gregorian chant according to the princi- 
ples of the monks of *Solesmes; abolish- 
ment of the Editio Medicea and introduc- 
tion of the Editio Vaticana [see ’•^Liturgi- 
cal books], (d) Suppression of instru- 
mental music — save for special occasions 
— and reduction of organ-playing to a 
modest role, (e) The admission of mod- 
ern compositions (vocal, of course) pro- 
vided their character was in agreement 
with the spirit of the service and the 
liturgical functions. For the complete 
text (English) cf. N. Slonimsky, Music 
Since igoo (1937), pp. 523!!. 

Mouth harmonica, mouth organ. 

See ^Harmonica (2). 

Mouthpiece [G. MundstucJ(\, That 
portion of a wind instrument which is in- 
serted into the player’s mouth or applied 
to his lips. In a way, the mouthpiece is 
the most characteristic part of an instru- 
ment since it indicates to which family an 
instrument belongs. The following five 
types can be distinguished: 

(a) Cupped mouthpiece, used for the 
*brass instruments. This is an enlarge- 
ment of the bore to which the lips of the 
player are applied to form a kind of 
double reed. Cupped mouthpieces occur 
in a great variety of shapes, varying from 
the true “cup” of the trumpet to the 
“funnel” of the horn. Cf. the illustrations 
in SaHMly 418. 

(b) Single reed mouthpiece, used for 
the ^clarinets. This mouthpiece [called 
F. beCy G. Schnahel\ consists of a beak- 
shaped chamber with an opening on the 
under side to which a single reed is fixed. 

(c) Double reed mouthpiece, used for 
the *oboes (usually not considered as a 
“mouthpiece,” but included here for the 
sake of completeness and comparison). 
This consists of two reeds so shaped that 
they form at the top a narrow ( ) -shaped 
slit. Older oboes had much larger reeds 
(approaching the size of the bassoon 
reeds) than the modern instrument. In 


certain 16th-century types, e.g., the cro* 
morneSy the reed was covered by a wooden 
cap which acted as a windchest (similar 
to the reed pipes of the organ) [sec 
*Reed]. 

(d) Fipple mouthpiece, used with the 
^recorders. This consists of a beak- 
shaped chamber which is stopped by a 
plug leaving only a narrow flue to lead 
the breath towards the sharp edge of a 
side hole. The principle is the same as in 
the flue pipes of the organ. 

(e) Mouth hole, used in ^flutes. This 
is a lateral orifice and the stream of air is 
directed against its lower edge. Because 
the mouth hole of a flute does not form a 
separate “piece” of the instrument, it is 
not spoken of as a “mouthpiece,” but re- 
ferred to as “embouchure,” a term which 
is also applied to the class (a). 

Mouvement [F.]. (i) Movement. — 
(2) Tempo. 

Movable Do(h), Generally, any sys- 
tem of *solmization so designed that the 
syllables can be used in transposition for 
any key, as distinguished from Fixed 
Do(h) in which the syllables correspond 
to invariable pitches of notes. See also 
*Solfegc. 

Movement [F. mouvement\ G. Satz; It. 
tempo]. The various complete and com- 
paratively independent divisions which 
form the ^sonata, ’•^symphony, etc. One 
speaks of a “first, second, movement” or 
of a “fast, slow, movement.” The *suite 
also consists of various movements, each 
in the character of a dance. See ^Cyclic 

(x). 

Movente [It.]. Moving. 

Mozarabic chant. The chant of the 
medieval Christian Church of Spain [see 
♦Chant]. The name refers to the Moz- 
arabs, i.e., the Christians living in Spain 
(particularly in Aragon, Castile, Leon) 
under the Arab domination (711-1085). 
A coterminous name is Visi gothic chanty 
referring to the Visigoths who conquered 
Spain in the 5th century. Neither name 
is wholly appropriate since the chant goes 
back at least to the fourth century (the 


[463] 



MOZARTEUM 


MUSICA 


Visigoths, who brought with them an 
Arian Christianity, adopted the Catholic 
faith of Spain). St. L^ander (d. 599), 
St. Isidore (c, 570-636), and St. Ildefon- 
sus (d. 667) played an important role in 
the development of the chant which re- 
mained in use, untouched by the Gre- 
gorian reforms, until about the nth cen- 
tury. See ^Spanish music I. 

Lit.: ReMMAy iiofi (bibl., 436); A. 
Gastou6, Cours du chant gre gotten 
(1917)* PP- 79 (examples); P. Wag- 
ner, Der Mozarabische Kirchengesang 
. . . (1928); C. Rojo and G. Prado, El 
Canto Mozardbe (1929); P. Aubry, in 
SIM ix; M. Sablayrolles, in SIM xiii; G. 
Prado, in Speculum III, no. 2 (1928). 

Mozarteum. An institution at Salzburg 
(Austria), headquarters of the Mozart- 
Gemeinde, and devoted to the memory of 
Mozart and to the study of his works. 

Mp. Mezzo piano. 

M.s. Mano sinistra [It.], left hand. 

Muance [F.]. ♦Mutation (3). 

Mude [G.]. Tired, languid. 

Muhelos [G.]. Effortless. 

Muineira, muneira. A dance of the 
Spanish province of Galicia in quick %- 
meter and evenly flowing motion. Cf. 
LavE i.4, 2368. 

Multiple tonality. Sec ♦Polytonality. 

Mundharmonika [G.]. Mouth organ. 
See ♦Harmonica (2). 

Muneira. See ♦Muineira. 

Murciana [from Murcia, a town in 
Southern Spain]. A local variety of the 
♦fandango. 

Murky. An 18th-century name of un- 
known origin, given to pieces with a 
bass accompaniment in broken octaves 
(Murky bass) [cf. SchGMB, 289, 2; 
DdT 35/36]. This unimaginative ac- 
companiment was widely used in the 
second half of the i8th century (♦Roco- 
co). An early instance of broken octaves 
is found in Francois Couperin’s “La Tri- 


omphantc** (Pieces de Clavecin^ ordre X), 
where it serves a pictorial purpose. It 
may be compared with the highly dra- 
matic “murky” in the first movement of 
Beethoven’s Pathetique. 

Murmelnd [G.]. Murmuring. 

Musette, (i) The French ♦bagpipe of 
the 17th and i8th centuries. It had two 
chanters and a number of drones and bel- 
lows operated by the arm. The instru- 
ment became fashionable, together with 
the vielle [sec ♦Hurdy-gurdy] in French 
society when, during the reigns of Louis 
XIV (1645-1715) and Louis XV (1715- 
74), the court circles indulged in a so- 
phisticated crave for “Arcadia,” disguis- 
ing themselves as shepherds and peasants. 
The instruments of this period were 
splendidly decorated, the bags being cov- 
ered with elaborate needlework, the pipes 
being inlaid with ivory and precious 
stones. A selection of pieces for musette 
and vielles is contained in H. Expert, 
Amusements des musiciens jrangais du 
XVIlIe sihcle (Senart, Paris), which in- 
cludes compositions by Jacques Aubert 
(1678-1753), Charles Baton (d. 1758), 
and Nicolas Chedeville. Cf. also GD, ar- 
ticles Anet; Boismortier. — (2) Dance- 
like pieces of a pastoral character with a 
long-held drone, as could easily be played 
on the above instrument. Well-known 
examples are found in Bach’s English 
Suites nos. 3 and 6. An amusing piece 
written in the same style occurs in 
Mozart’s Bastien et Bastienne where it 
announces the arrival of the Sorcerer. 

Lit.: E. Thoinau, hes Hotteterre et les 
Chedeville (1894); De Bricqueville, Les 
Musettes (1894). 

Musica, the Latin word for music, oc- 
curs in early writings in the following 
connections: musica divina or sacra^ 
church music; musica vulgaris, secular 
music; musica mensuralis, ♦mensural 
(measured, i.e., polyphonic) music; 
musica plana, ♦plainsong; musica figu- 
rata, ♦figural music; *musica ficta or 
falsa, music involving chromatic tones. 
See also the classification by Boethius, un- 
der *Aesthetics. 


[ 464 ] 



MUSICA DIVINA 


MUSICA FICTA 

Musica Divina. See *EditIons, histor- zur Chromatik des 14. bis 16. Jahrhun- 
ical, XX. derts,” StMy 1914]. Musica falsa is sim- 

ply the older term (13th century) which 
Musica Enchiriadis [from Gr. en- was supplanted by the other in the 14th 
cheiridioTiy handbook]. An important century, probably because its implication 
treatise of the 9th century (before 867, of falseness became objectionable, 
according to J. Handschin, in Deutsche II. The earliest reference to chromatic 
Vierteljahrsschrift fur Literaturwissen- tones is found in the writings of Odo of 
schafty v), formerly attributed to the Clugny (d. 943) who in an interesting 
monk Hucbald (r. 840-930), but now table [GS i, 274; cf. H. Riemann, Ge- 
believed to have been written by Hoger schichte der Musi^theoriey p. 63] consid- 
of Werden (d. 905) or by Otger of St. ers transpositions of the fundamental 
Pons (d. 940), repr. in GS i, 152--173. It gamut G-e" to A (involving c 9 and f#), 
is the earliest treatise dealing with po- to C (involving eb), and to D (involving 
lyphony and containing examples of par- f#). However, he emphasizes the specu- 
allel *organum. It also makes use of the lative character of these tones, and ex- 
’'^Daseian notation. A slightly later com- plains them only in order to prevent their 
mentary is the Scholia enchiriadis {GS i, use by the singers. Nothing definite is 
173-212). See ^Theory II. known about the development of the 

Lit.: H. Muller, Hucbald' s echte und altered tones in the following two centu- 
unechte Schriften iiber Musi\ (1884); ries during which apparently the name 
Ph. Spitta, in VMW v; R. Schlecht, in musica falsa was introduced. As early as 
MfM vi; A. H. Fox-Strangways, in ML 1250 Pseudo-Aristotle (Magister Lam- 
xiii, no. 2; H. Sowa, in ZMW xvii; bert) turned against this name, declar- 
ReMMAy passim, ing that the system is “non falsa sed inusi- 

tata” — not false but little used [CS i, 
Musica ficta, musica falsa. I. In the 258] or that “falsa musica quandoque 
music of the loth to the i6th century, necessaria est.” The progress made in the 
th^ theory of the chromatic tones, that is, ensuing period appears plainly from 
of the tones other than those contained in Philippe de Vitry’s much more positive 
the diatonic scale based on the *hexa- statement, made around 1325, that musica 
chord. At an early time the B-flat was ad- falsa is “non falsa, sed vera et necessaria” 
mitted in practice (Gregorian chant) as — not false but true and necessary [C 5 
well as in theory (Guido’s hexachord) iii, 18]. Walter Odington (c. 1300) al- 
and was, therefore, frequently considered ready knows the flatted E and B, as well 
as not falling under musica ficta. The as the sharped C and F. For more details 
introduction of the chromatic tones be- concerning the treatises on musica falsay 
came necessary for two reasons, namely, cf. WoGM i, i09fl. In the 13th century 
melodic modifications of the church the writers on musica falsa discuss the 
modes or transposition of the church chromatic tones only with reference to 
modes. For instance, a C-sharp may oc- the single line, emphasizing chiefly the 
cur either as an artificial leading tone in *subsemitonium (leading tone) and the 
(untransposed) Dorian, or as the normal avoidance of the *tritone in progressions 
third of Mixolydian, transposed a second such as: g-f(#)~g; c-e— f(l^)-g; f— a- 
above. The distinction between these b(b)— a; etc. In the 14th century Joh. de 
two provinces is useful for the clarifica- Muris (r. 1325) approaches the problem 
tion of certain problems [cf. W. Apel, from the point of view of simultaneous 
Accidentien und Tonalitaet (1938), p. 

30], although it is not indicated in the 
medieval terminology, as has been main- 
tained by R. v. Ficker, according to whom 
the former type was called musica falsay voice-leading, forbidding the tritone as a 
the latter musica ficta [cf. his “Beitrage chordal formation [see *Tritone] and 

[465] 




MUSICA FICTA 


MUSICA FICTA 

postulating that the third or sixth before tion will show that, prior to 1450, the 

a fifth or octave should be major if the musical sources are, as a rule, fully pro- 

upper voice ascends, minor, if it descends vided with all the necessary accidentals, 

[see Ex.; cf. WoGM i, ii6f] . In the 13th century the tonal resources of 

III. In modern musicological writings, polyphonic music are so limited, the har- 
musica ficta denotes not so much the the- monies so clearly modal, that very seldom 
ory of early chromaticism, but the prob- are accidentals needed aside from a B-flat 
Icms arising from the very scarce indica- which is frequently found as a signature 

tion of chromatic tones in the musical in one of the lower parts [see ^Partial 

sources prior to 1600, or, in other words, signature, also *Tritone]. The manu- 

from the striking incongruity in this scripts of the 14th century show a strik- 
matter between the theoretical and the ing increase of notated accidentals, in 
musical sources. Considering the fact conformity with the broadened system of 
that W. Odington already discusses most harmonics and “keys.” Signs for C- 
of the chromatic tones it is disconcerting, sharp, F-sharp, G-sharp, E-flat, are found 
indeed, to find throughout the i6th cen- in considerable quantity so that additional 
tury many long compositions completely editorial accidentals will seldom be found 
lacking in any indication of accidentals, to be really necessary. A most striking 
Beginning with H. Riemann, musicolo- change, however, takes place with the rise 
gists have shown a strong inclination to of the Flemish School (c. 1450), in so far 
emend the original texts of this period by as now accidentals disappear almost corn- 
editorial accidentals which, in reliable pletcly from the sources, manuscript as 
editions of a scholarly character, are well as printed. Whether this means only 
placed above the notes, in order to distin- a clerical simplification or a real return 
guish them from those given in the origi- to the church modes as the basis of poly- 
nal sources. Although, generally speak- phonic writing is a question which still 
ing, the necessity of such emendations remains to be decided. Without antici- 
cannot be denied, matters have been car- pating a decision, it may be noticed that 
ried decidedly too far in many editions a reversal to the sacred field is one of the 
published between 1900 and 1930. In most characteristic features of the early 
fact, there has been a distinct tendency, Flemish School [see this article] and that, 
frequently expressed in prefaces of schol- as late as 1550, one of the most outstand- 
arly publications, to approximate the ing writers, Glareanus, discusses the 
tonal language of the Middle Ages and tonality of numerous compositions by 
the Renaissance periods to the standards Isaac, Josquin, and others, without ever 
of the fully developed system of major mentioning the possibility of the sul>- 
and minor. Fortunately, the 20th-century semitonium (raised seventh) in modes 
ventures in dissonance and atonality have such as the Dorian, Phrygian, Mixolyd- 
largely discredited the 19th-century bias ian, Aeolian. It would not be impossible 
against unfamiliar formations, and have to assume that Glarean’s Dode\achordon 
thus paved the way for an unprejudiced represents a last attempt to epitomize the 
examination of the whole problem. modal character of the Flemish polyph- 

IV. Aside from general prejudice, most ony which was endangered by the rise 

studies in this field suffer from their fail- of a novel tonality brought about by the 
ure to take the evolutionary point of view secular music (chanson, madrigal) and 
into account. It is, of course, futile to by the music for organ and lute. In this 
strive for an answer which would apply connection it should be noticed that some 
equally to music of the 13th and of the compositions by Josquin and, possibly, 
1 6th century. With a problem of such other composers of his day strongly sug- 
subtleness and flexibility only special gest an extended scheme of harmonic 
studies of periods, schools, and, perhaps, modulation, leading as far as A-flat [cf. 
single manuscripts can be expected to Lowinsky]. Such cases serve to empha- 
prove successful. An unbiased examina- size the importance of the general prin- 

[466] 



MUSICAL BOX 


MUSICA RESERVATA 


ciple outlined at the beginning of this 
paragraph. 

The foregoing explanations may be 
complemented by a number of examples 
showing unusual but entirely legitimate 
formations. See also ^Leading tone. 



Lit.: W. Apel, Accidentien und Tonali- 
tat in den Musi\denhjn 'dlern des 75. und 
16, Jahrhunderts (1937); ApNPM, 1040, 
120; articles by Schwartz, Kroyer, Wolf, 
and Bernouilli in KIM, 1909, pp. 1091!; 
L. Hibberd, “Musica ficta and Instrumen- 
tal Music’* {MQ xxviii); Ch. W. Fox, 
“Accidentals in Vihuela Tablatures” 
(BAMS iv); E. E. Lowinsky, in MQ 
xxix, no. i; E. St. Wilfort, in ZIM x; W. 
Apel, in BAMS ii; A. Einstein, in SIM 
viii (Merulo); E. Frerichs, in ZMW vii 
(organ tablatures); A. Cauchie, in Kroyer 
Festschrift (French vocal music). 

Musical box. See ^Mechanical instru- 
ments III. 

Musical glasses. See ^Harmonica (i). 

Musical Offering. English for “Das 
Musikalische Opfer,” one of the latest 
works of Bach, composed in 1747, and 
dedicated to King Frederick II of Prus- 
sia. It contains a number of contrapuntal 
pieces of a highly learned character all of 
which are based upon a theme of the 
king’s invention, upon which Bach had 


extemporized during his visit to Potsdam 
in 1747. The dedication copy bears the 
inscription: “Regis lussu Cantio Et Re- 
liqua Canonica Arte Resoluta” (By com- 
mand of the king, the theme and other 
things developed in canonical art), a 
sentence which, if read acrostically, spells 
RICERCAR, thus emphasizing the 
learned character of the work. In fact, 
together with the *Art of Fugue, the 
Musical Offering represents the summary 
and consummation of three centuries of 
contrapuntal art. Particularly interesting 
are the various enigmatical canons and 
the trio-sonata in the last movement of 
which the royal theme appears once in 
each part. 

Lit.: Ph. Spitta, Bach^ Etigl. transl., iii, 
191-197, 233, 292, 294; H. David, in MQ 
xxiii; A. Orel, in DM xxx, 2 and 3. 

Musica reservata. A term used first 
by Adrian Coclico in his Compendium 
musices (1551) as a characterization of 
the music of Josquin and his followers in 
contradistinction to that of the preceding 
period (Ockeghem, Obrecht, Isaac). The 
literal meaning of the term has been 
much disputed, the word “reservata” 
having been explained as referring to the 
greater restriction of the more recent 
style in the use of figurations and orna- 
mental design; or as pointing to some 
secrets of musical technique (improvisa- 
tion, expression of the text by musical 
motives, chromaticism not indicated by 
accidentals); or as indicating the exclu- 
sive character of music written for classes 
of high cultural standing. At any rate, 
musica reservata denotes the Renaissance- 
like clarity, balance, and expressiveness, 
the full-blooded humanism, of the Josquin 
period, in contrast to the abstract and 
mysterious transcendentalism of the 
earlier masters, particularly Ockeghem 
and Isaac. In the late i6th century the 
term was more narrowly used in the 
meaning of “expressive interpretation of 
the text,” as was natural in the period of 
the late madrigal and the approaching 
*nuov€ musiche. Thus, musica reservata 
constitutes a forerunner of the ’"'Affecten- 
lehre of the i8th century. See ^Maniera. 


[467] 




MUSICA SACRA 


MUSIC CRITICISM 


Lit.: M. van Crcvel, A, P. Coclico 
(1940); A. Coclicus, Compendium mu- 
sices (1552); G. Zarlino, Istituziones 
(1558), cap. 63; Th. Kroycr, “Von der 
Musica Reservata” {Festschrift fur Hein- 
rich Wolffliny Dresden, 1934); A* Sand- 
berger, Beitr'dge zur Geschichte der bay- 
rischen Hofkjipelle unter 0 . di Lasso i, 
5rfl; K. Huber, Ivo de Vento (1918); H. 
Lcichtentritt, in BAMS vi; E. Lowinsky, 
in BAMS vii. 

Musica Sacra. Sec ^Editions XXI. 

Music box. See under *Mcchanical in- 
struments I. 

Music criticism. I. Music criticism is 
generally understood today as the review- 
ing of public performances in a newspa- 
per or periodical. Before entering into a 
description of this most important branch 
of critical activity it may, however, be 
well to point to the somewhat less con- 
spicuous, but no less important criticism 
of musical compositions as found in a 
number of books. Long before the era of 
the newspaper, Glareanus, in his Dode- 
\achordon (1547), offered profound crit- 
ical analyses, still worth-while reading to- 
day, of the works of Josquin, Isaac, and 
other masters. About 200 years later we 
encounter a more aggressive type of criti- 
cism in Mattheson’s Critica musica 
(1722), in Scheibe’s Der critische Musi- 
cus (1737-40), and in Marpurg’s Der 
hfitische Musicus an der Spree (1749- 
50). The reviews of Robert Schumann 
are a highly important landmark in the 
development of music criticism. These, 
although published in a magazine, the 
Neue Zeitschrift fiir Musi\ (founded by 
Schumann and still issued today), may 
be mentioned here because they are con- 
cerned with the critical analysis of com- 
positions rather than with an account of 
their performance. Other great compos- 
ers who were also more or less active as 
critics are Weber, Berlioz, Liszt, Wagner, 
Hugo Wolf, Debussy. In general, how- 
ever, creative artists of high rank, in spite 
of their superior knowledge of musical 
art, are not good critics, because their 
subjective point of view makes it very 


hard, even impossible, for them to do 
justice to others. Schumann was a soli- 
tary exception, inasmuch as he had, in 
addition to his creative capacity, the fac- 
ulty of understanding and appreciating 
other personalities. Indeed, he had an al- 
most miraculous power of vision, as is 
shown by his numerous reviews, favor- 
able or adverse, of an op. i or op. 2, e.g., 
those of Chopin, Berlioz, Brahms. Among 
the more recent writers of critical studies 
we should like to single out D. F. Tovey 
in England and A. Halm in Germany. 

II. Turning now to musical journal- 
ism or, in other words, to the activity of 
the professional music critic, we enter 
quite a different phase of music criticism. 
While books are addressed mainly to the 
professional students or the musical ama- 
teur, the newspaper critic speaks to the 
general public. Up to the time of the 
French Revolution music had developed 
under the auspices of the Church or aris 
tocratic societies. In the 19th century, 
however, the masses of the middle classes 
became the prime supporters and patrons 
of musical performance, and the conse- 
quence of this process of democratization 
was the demand to see the public concerts 
critically discussed in the daily paf)ers. 
Thus came into existence a new profes- 
sion, music criticism. Eduard Hanslick, 
who wrote from 1864 for the Neue Freie 
Presse (Vienna), may justly be called the 
father of musical journalism, if only for 
the reason that, in his one-sided attitude 
against Wagner and for Brahms, he in- 
troduced into music criticism an element 
of personal aggressiveness and prejudice 
which, unfortunately, was imitated by a 
number of later critics. Hanslick’s suc- 
cessor as critic for the Neue Freie Presse 
was Julius Korngold who, until the rise 
of Hitlerism, exercised great power. 

In the 20th century Berlin acquired the 
leadership in music criticism, in conse- 
quence of this city’s rise as the world’s 
center of musical activities. Here the lead- 
ing critics were the Wagnerian Wilhelm 
Tappert; Leopold Schmidt at the Berliner 
Tageblatt and his successor Alfred Ein- 
stein; Adolf Weissmann, the champion 
of modernism; Hermann Springer at the 



MUSIC CRITICISM 


MUSIC CRITICISM 

Deutsche Tageszeitung. In the widely hand, the reviews of famous critics, past 
read Frankfurter Zeitung Paul Bekker as well as present, frequently bear the 
(d. in New York) and Karl Holl have stamp of presumption and arbitrariness 
acquired great authority. Among the rather than of integrity and knowledge, 
contemporary English critics Ernest New- Eduard Hanslick is only one of the many 
man is best known internationally, from who have greatly misused the ascendency 
his long activity on the Manchester inherent in their position. Various efforts 
Guardian and the London Sunday Times, have been made by modern writers, e.g., 

III. In the United States music criti- Ernest Newman and M. D. Calvocoressi, 
cism began with J. D. Dwight (1813- to advance music criticism from the level 
93), William H. Fry (1813-64), and of a hit-or-miss reaction of individuals to 
John R. G. Hazzard, Fry’s successor on the rank of a real science; to establish cer- 
the New York Tribune, Toward the tain general principles of approach and 
turn of the century there appeared on the judgment which might serve as a corn- 
scene a galaxy of eminent critics who mon basis for all the members of the pro- 
have done honor to the profession. Of the fession. Perhaps Calvocoressi has come 
older generation J. G. Huneker (New closest to the establishment of a general 
York Times, New York World), H. E. method by outlining three main consid- 
Krehbiel (New York Tribune), W. J. erations which enter into the mental ac- 
Henderson (New York Sun), Lawrence tivity of the critic: (i) “predispositions,” 
Gilman (New York Herald Tribune)^ (2) “direct data,” (3) “indirect data.” 
Philip Hale (Boston Herald), H. T. The first of these is the critic himself, his 
Parker (Boston Evening Transcript), R. personality, temperament, experience, 
Aldrich (New York Times), have ac- biases, etc. The second is the composition 
quired the greatest reputation. At present, as written and performed. The third 
Olin Downes (New York Times), Os- category includes numerous accessory 
car Thompson (New York Sun), Virgil facts, such as knowledge previously ac- 
Thomson {Herald Tribune), Samuel quired about the composer from other 
Chotzinoff (New York Post), Francis compositions or through outside informa- 
Perkins {Herald Tribune), Leonard Lie- tion; about his position within the gen- 
bling (New York with others, eral development of music or within a 
are the best known and most esteemed particular school; about the relationship 
critics. An essential difference between of the composition to others of the same 
music criticism in the United States and composer, etc. To separate these consid- 
in Germany, for example, is the much erations and, in particular, to avoid un- 
greater emphasis in America on the jour- due prevalence of the personal “predispo- 
nalistic side, which requires the critic to sition” over the factual “data” is the fore- 
have his review in the paper the morning most task of the critic. 

after the performance. In Berlin, reviews Even more important, perhaps, than 
frequently appeared in the form of weekly theories and methods of music criticism 
reports, sometimes several weeks after the is the establishment of a living tradition 
concert took place. inaugurated by men of outstanding qual- 

IV. It is generally agreed that music ities and perpetuated by others who try 
criticism, as practiced today, is, on the to emulate them. These qualities, not 
whole, unsatisfactory. It cannot be denied frequently combined in one individual, 
that the average music critic exercises an may be summed up as follows: Practical 
arbitrary and undeserved authority, not and theoretical knowledge of music in 
backed by sufficient ability, training, and its various fields; literary talent; a wide 
experience in the field he represents. In spiritual horizon; a great feeling of re- 
many places music criticism is assigned to sponsibility; a character in which sen- 
a reporter who has bare knowledge of sitiveness, benevolence, sincerity, and 
music and who is really at home in an fearlessness are coupled with tact and 
altogether different field. On the other some degree of diplomacy; finally, that 

[ 4^9 ] 



MUSIC DRAMA 


MUSIC EDUCATION IN U. S. 


scent for the new, valuable, and impor- 
tant which is the outstanding trait of the 
specific critical talent. 

For a list of living critics see Pierre 
Key’s Music Year Boo\. 

Lit.: M. D. Calvocoressi, The Princi- 
ples and Methods of Music Criticism 
(1923); S. Langford, Musical Criticism 
(1929); P. Rosenfeld, Discoveries of a 
Music Critic (1936); O. Thompson, 
Practical Criticism (1934); H. Andres, 
Beitrdge zur Geschichte der Musi\-l{riti\ 
(Diss. Heidelberg 1938); Y. Bannard, 
“Composer-Critics” (ML v, no. 3); W. 
Wright Roberts, “Berlioz, the Critic” 
(ML vii, no. i); J. D. Rorke, “The Per- 
sonal Note in Musical Criticism” (MQ 
xiii); P. C, Buck, in PM A xxxii; A. H. 
Fox-Strangways, in PM A Ixv; M. D. 
Calvocoressi, in MO ix; A. Schering, “Aus 
der Geschichte der musikalischen Kritik 
in Deutschland” (JMP xxxv); F. Stege, 
“Die deutsche Musikkritik des 18. Jahr- 
hunderts . . .” (ZMPF x); A. Damerini, 
“Gli albore della critica musicale Italiana” 
(LRM vi); G. del Valle de Paz, “I pri- 
mordi della critica musicale in Francia” 
(-RM/ xxxviii). H. L. 

Music drama. Designation for the 
Wagnerian type of opera. See ^Opera X. 

Music education in the United 
States. I. Public and Private Schools. 
The first music instruction in the schools 
of this country was offered in Boston in 
1838. From a modest beginning an im- 
posing system has developed until today 
music in some form is everywhere recog- 
nized as a feature of school education. 
That this system has not been more pro- 
ductive is due to the fact that the project 
has become almost as much a commercial 
as an educational one; that instruction 
has aimed not primarily at musicalness 
but rather at definitely measurable re- 
sults — an objective similar to that sought 
in the teaching of essentially factual sub- 
jects; and that the quality of most of the 
music used in teaching has been unworthy 
of respect. Music supervisors and teach- 
ers have been trained to be methodologists 
first of all, and too often lack the prime 
essential of musicianship, namely, good 


taste. Thus, provided children could 
read at sight effectively, the value of the 
music itself has been held to be of slight 
importance. Book companies have met 
these ideals by issuing volumes of inferior 
music, with the result that children, 
wearied by mechanical musical discipline 
and by an experience of songs that are to 
a great extent merely exercises, have not, 
in maturity, generally cared to cultivate 
music actively. This is shown, in part, by 
the comparatively small number of ama- 
teur choruses which exist in this country. 
Within the last years great emphasis has 
been laid on the orchestra and the band, 
and in certain school systems applied 
music is accorded diploma credit. Courses 
in appreciation and in the technical 
branches are also offered. At the moment 
there is evident a tardy disposition to im- 
prove the quality of all school music and 
to adopt a more enlightened pedagogy. 
This appears in the work of most private 
schools, in a few public school systems, 
and it is reflected in the output of one or 
two publishing companies. Recognition 
for much of the improvement should be 
given to the late Thomas W. Surette who 
for many years waged an almost single- 
handed fight against overemphasis on 
sight-reading, and who constantly advo- 
cated a higher standard of music. 

II. Children s Concerts. In cities where 
there are symphony orchestras, a series of 
concerts for children is not uncommon. 
The opportunity of making young peo- 
ple acquainted with music which they 
can appreciate and understand, presented 
without the medium of transcription or 
mechanical devices, is most valuable. For 
various reasons these performances too 
often become an amusement enterprise in 
which humor, surprise, and mere enter- 
tainment predominate to the exclusion of 
any systematic plan of instruction. At the 
other extreme are performances of entire 
symphonies which require for their un- 
derstanding and enjoyment a background 
of experience not possessed by children; 
and romantic and emotionally complex 
works with which the young can have no 
intelligent contact. The programs which 
have been most successful educationally 


[470] 



MUSIC EDUCATION IN U. S. MUSIC EDUCATION IN U. S. 

are those which have been devoted, in the work of glee clubs, bands, and orchestras, 

main, to music of a markedly melodic and for which degree credit is awarded in 

rhythmic character cast in the simpler many universities, is extensively and often 

forms; the music of composers like productively carried on. The tendency 

Haydn, Mozart, and Bach. Not the least in college music teaching has been either 

valuable in awakening the interest of to overemphasize the performing aspect 

children in music have been recitals of of music at the expense of the other 

chamber music, particularly music of the branches, or to stress the academic side, 

classical period. taking student competence in applied mu- 

III. The Phonograph and Radio. The sic for granted. The college course is not 

phonograph and the radio have assumed long enough to permit more than mod- 

an important role in music education, erate achievement in either field, and the 

and the former, in particular, has made problem has been best solved by those col- 

available for classroom use a wide variety leges which have treated music from the 

of material. Especially in locations where point of view of the Liberal Arts curric- 

orchestras are not available and where the ulum, recognizing the necessity for some 

teacher’s competence as a performer is practical skill, encouraging students to 

not adequate, both the phonograph and strive for it, but leaving it, in the main, to 

the radio are indispensable adjuncts to the conservatory. Colleges so situated that 

music instruction. The total efficiency of students cannot avail themselves of ap- 

the radio as a means of music education plied teaching often wisely include teach- 

is, however, still debatable. The many ers of practical music on their faculty, 

physical impediments to a satisfactory re- In some colleges regular course work is 
ception of the music are but one diffi- supplemented by tutorial instruction in- 

culty. Another is certainly the fact that tended to cover important aspects of the 

the radio (as well as the phonograph) be- subject not dealt with in classes. At the 

longs too much to the common currency end of the senior year general examina- 

of experience to stimulate and hold atten- tions are held which test the student’s 

tion. The radio is at its best when it sim- knowledge of the whole field, especially 

ply transmits music unaccompanied by those parts of it which he has worked un- 
speech. Present efforts are unfortunately der the supervision of his tutor, 

marked by overemphasis on the personal- V. Conservatories. The standard of in- 
ky of the radio instructor, and on amus- struction in conservatories, together with 

ing and sensational features rather than diploma requirements, has greatly im- 

on sound and progressive teaching. It proved during the last twenty years, with 

may be said that neither the phonograph the result that professional music training 

nor the radio as mechanical intermedi- in some institutions has drawn up level 

aries between the music and the listener with that traditionally maintained in Eu- 

can satisfactorily compensate for the ab- ropean conservatories. Those severe dis- 

sence of the teacher himself. His ges- ciplines which are inevitable in the pro- 

tures and facial expressions are most im- duction of sound musicianship and tech- 

portant in conveying his ideas regarding nical accomplishment are now required, 

the music, especially where children are and the distinction of American trained 

concerned. Perhaps television will over- composers, orchestral players, and solo 

come at least some of these difficulties. performers is generally recognized. As 

IV. Colleges. In colleges, music in- the musicianship of any executant, how- 

struction is offered in theory (harmony, ever, may justly be assumed to include 

counterpoint, fugue, and analysis), com- more than brilliance in technique, many 

position, form, history, musicology, ap- conservatories, without attempting to 

preciation, and applied (practical) music, compete with the colleges, pay not a little 

Musicology is the latest addition to the attention to the study of the history of 

curriculum, and instruction in this branch music and of musical styles. 

of learning is not widespread as yet. The VI. Settlement Schools of Music. One 

[47* ] 



MUSIC EDUCATION IN U. S. 

of the most praiseworthy and rewarding 
features of American music education is 
the settlement school. Those who are un- 
able to pay for instruction in regular con- 
servatories may receive there, for a com- 
paratively small fee, a training in music 
which is often of a high grade of excel- 
lence. These schools sometimes serve as 
an animating center for the whole musi- 
cal life of the community, creating a so- 
cial bond which would otherwise lack- 
ing, and at the same time they offer to the 
ordinary as well as to the talented indi- 
vidual an opportunity for the develop- 
ment of musical skill according to his 
capacity. 

VII. Adult Education, For those whose 
formal education is ended, but who wish 
in after-life to make an acquaintance of 
music denied them by previous indiffer- 
ence or the deficiencies of early school 
training, opportunity for study and par- 
ticipation is offered by numbers of adult 
centers. In some cities, too, laymen’s 
courses in listening to music are given. 
But as not a few of these courses seem to 
be predicated on the assumption that it is 
the function of the professional to make 
music, and the part of the amateur to 
listen passively, the fundamental value of 
this type of teaching may be doubted. 
The most successful results have been ob- 
tained where instruction has concerned 
itself first with an active experience of 
music gained by membership in choruses 
and orchestras maintained as part of the 
musical organization of the adult center. 

VIII. Conclusion, In many fields, mu- 
sic education in the United States is stead- 
ily improving. At the moment, however, 
it is more notable for the extent of its 
cultivation than for its adherence to any 
considered philosophy. The tendency is 
to view each step in music training as a 
separate issue having its own aims unre- 
lated to those which precede or follow. 
The lack of any generally adopted or in- 
tegrated plan, the use of so much inferior 
music, and preoccupation with the more 
mechanical aspects of instruction have re- 
sulted in a lethargic attitude toward mu- 
sic on the part of the average adult which 
will be remedied only when really valu- 


MUSIC EDUCATION IN U. S. 

able and permanent objectives are set up. 
Of all branches of music education, that 
connected with public schools is the most 
static and reactionary, and in that quarter 
enlightened progress is painfully slow. 
On the whole, the faults of the American 
system are those which are characteristic 
of any country in its youth; as, for exam- 
ple, our present tendency to revere de- 
grees and diplomas more than the knowl- 
edge they represent. But the American is 
no less innately musical than members of 
other races. He needs only wise and skill- 
ful educational guidance to convert his 
native musicalness into an active, enthu- 
siastic, and intelligent interest. 

It follows, therefore, that the greatest 
need is a teaching body that is better edu- 
cated musically; one that is thoroughly 
trained at least in those branches of the 
art which are pertinent to school music 
instruction. The most serious demand, 
however, is for teachers whose knowledge 
and experience of music is wide enough 
to guarantee a sound musical taste. Only 
when there is intelligent revolt against 
much educational material that now 
passes for music, will there be hope for a 
productive music education in this coun- 
try. A. T. D. 

IX. It has not been considered advis- 
able to include in the present book infor- 
mation on the single institutions of higher 
musical education, whether conservato- 
ries or music departments of colleges. To 
include them all would be impossible as 
well as undesirable. To include part of 
them — assumedly the better part — 
would involve a process of grading which 
the author wants to avoid for obvious 
reasons. The author’s decision has been 
greatly facilitated by the fact that accu- 
rate and complete information on all these 
institutions is easily available in Pierre 
Key’s Music Year Boo\ [see also R. 
Thompson, College Music, and numer- 
ous separate entries in O. Thompson, 
The International Cyclopedia of Music 
and Musicians (1939) ]. For the English 
institutions see A. Eaglefield-Hull, Dic- 
tionary of Modern Music (1924), article 
“Academies”; for the German, see RL, 
article “Konservatorium”; for the French, 


[472] 



MUSICOLOGY 


MUSICOLOGY 

see LavE ii.6, 345 iff. Sec also ^Degrees about music, which results from the ap- 
and diplomas; ^Profession; ^Scholarships, plication oi a scientific method of inves- 
Lit.: E. B. Birge, History of Public tigation or research, or of philosophical 
School Music in the United States speculation and rational systematization 

A.T^DaiWSonj Music Education tn Amer- to the facts, the processes and the devel- 
ica (1926); W. Earhart, The Meaning opment of musical art, and to the relation 
and Teaching of Music (1935); J* of man in general (or even animals) to 
Schenck, Music, Youth and Opportunity that art” (Kinkeldey, article “Musicol- 
(1926); O. S. Stokowski, The Layman s ogy” in O. Thompson, International Cy- 
Music BooJ{^ (i 935 )> T. W. Surette, Mu- clopedia of Music and Musicians, 1939); 
sic and Life (1917); R. Thompson, Col- “Musicology unites in its domain all the 
lege Music (1935); A. D. Zanzig, Music sciences which deal with the production, 
in American Life (1932); id,, Music and appearance and application of the physi- 
Men (1941); T. L. Mursell, Music in cal phenomenon called sound” (H. 
American Schools (1943). Lang; cf. L. Harap, “On the Nature of 

Musicology,” MQ xxiii). 

Musicology. A term recently adopted Although these definitions differ to 
from French musicologie into the Eng- some extent, they all indicate the tendency 
lish usage to denote the scientific study to interpret musicology as a broad cate- 
of music. It is the equivalent of the Ger- gory of “musical science,” including ev- 
man term Musi\wissenschaft (science of ery thing that is not clearly “practical” 
music) which was introduced by F. music (composition and performance). 
Chrysander in the preface to his ]ahr- Thus, traditional fields of study such as 
bucher fur musi\alische Wissenschaft harmony, counterpoint, music history 
(1863) in order to emphasize the idea would fall under the term musicology, 
that musical studies, particularly those in One might argue whether this tendency 
the field of history, should be raised to the is desirable and commendable. The un- 
same level of seriousness and accuracy favorable reception which, on the whole, 
which had long been adopted in the other musicology has encountered since its in- 
fields of knowledge, natural sciences as troduction in this country some 30 years 
well as humanities. Guido Adler, in the ago may well be due largely to the some- 
first volume of the Vierteljahrsschrift fur what boastful manner in which its cham- 
Musi\wissenschaft (1885), wrote an ar- pions have laid claim upon fields which 
tide “Umfang, Methode und Ziel der had an old standing of their own. An- 
Musikwissenschaft” (Scope, Method and other undesirable asp)ect of the present 
Aim of Musical Science) in which he situation is the fact that, owing to the 
drew up an extensive and all-inclusive very broad interpretation of the term, 
table of the entire province of music people have been able to call themselves 
study. This table included, side by side “musicologists” who are not good in any 
with paleography (musical notation), musical field at all. 

aesthetics, acoustics, history, such subjects The main fault of the interpretation of 
as harmony, rhythm, melody, teaching of musicology as the “science of music” or 
counterpoint, etc., as well as a final cate- the “scientific approach to music” is that 
gory “Musikforschung” (musical re- it comes half a century post festum. The 
search). Similar programs have been laid situation of the i86o’s, which caused 
down by other writers, e.g., by Waldo S. Chrysander to insist upon “musikwissen- 
Pratt in his article “On Behalf of Musicol- schaftliche Methoden,” no longer exists, 
ogy” (MQ i). The current interpretation The general standards of scientific treat- 
of musicology may be illustrated by the ment, such as seriousness, accuracy, cor- 
following quotations: “Musicology must rectness with regard to material and 
include every conceivable discussion of sources, have been so generally adopted 
musical topics” (Pratt, in MQ i); “the in recent musical studies that scientific 
whole body of systematized knowledge procedure can be taken for granted, in a 

[473] 



MUSICOLOGY 


MUSICOLOGY 


book (or course) on harmony, as well as 
in one on the life of Wagner, etc. If, 
then, the scientific approach is taken for 
granted in all studies of musical theory, 
history, etc., there remains one category 
of Adler’s table which stands apart as 
something different, namely the last-mcn- 
tioned, Musil^jorschungy i.e., musical re- 
search. If we interpret musicology as re- 
search-work in music, then it denotes that 
activity — in any of the fields mentioned 
previously — which is bent upon the dis- 
covery of unknown or obscure matters, 
an activity which is comparable to that of 
the research-chemist, as opposed to the 
“commercial chemist” who makes the dis- 
coveries of his colleague available to the 
public for consumption. The musicolo- 
gist, then, is the pioneer of music study, 
the explorer who is equipped with the 
same zeal which spurs and guides every 
discoverer, whether he sets out to find 
the North Pole, a new chemical element, 
or a new mathematical truth. If the re- 
sult of his research is valid and impor- 
tant, it will, sooner or later, be accepted 
into general usage, in other words, it will 
change from the field of musicology into 
the domain of the theorist, the essayist, 
the biographer, the performer, and per- 
haps even the creative artist. An exam- 
ple illustrating the situation and the 
process just outlined is the case of Bach. 
Around 1850, his work was largely for- 
gotten, most of his compositions being 
scattered around in obscure manuscripts. 
The men who undertook to “discover 
Bach” (Chry Sander was one of them) 
were musicologists in the true sense of 
the word. When their work was done, 
when Bach’s compositions were available 
for every student, the work of the musi- 
cologist was finished. A student who 
now examines, say, a partita by Bach, is 
not a musicologist, any more than is the 
performer who plays it, or the creative 
artist who derives from it new inspira- 
tion. This does not mean that musicolog- 
ical study in connection with Bach was 
finished after the publication of the B.-G. 
There were — and still are — many as- 
pects connected with his works to be in- 
vestigated, an example in point being 


Spitta’s studies of their historical back- 
ground, or Ernst Kurth’s work on Bach’s 
counterpoint, or Terry’s thorough inves- 
tigation of the details of his life. 

Perhaps the difference between the pro- 
gram just outlined and that given by 
Adler and others is not so much a differ- 
ence of scope (Adler’s being much 
wider), but one of emphasis. It goes 
without saying that most, if not all, the 
categories of Adler’s program are more 
or less directly connected with musicol- 
ogy, either as preparatory or as peripheric 
categories. The important point, how- 
ever, is that the category Musical Re- 
search (Musikforschung) must be given 
the central position in the plan, with the- 
ory, music history, etc., forming the foun- 
dation, while aesthetics, acoustics, etc., 
represent adjunct fields of study. 

Viewed from this angle, it appears only 
natural that the efforts of musicology are 
directed mainly towards the history of 
music in which there are still so many 
facts to be discovered or clarified. As a 
matter of fact, the progress in the fields of 
harmony, composition, etc., is made, not 
by theoretical investigation (efforts of 
this type, as, e.g., novel theories of quar- 
ter-tones, have usually remained without 
practical results), but as the result of the 
natural development of the musical art. 
There is, however, another field of musi- 
cal research which has attracted the at- 
tention of many recent investigators, that 
of primitive and Oriental music which, 
because of the special methods involved, 
is classified separately as ^comparative 
musicology. Important progress has also 
been made in the fields of musical acous- 
tics, particularly in the recent studies on 
pitch and on timbre (theory of formant). 
As a rule, however, such studies involve 
methods of physics, physiology, and psy- 
chology rather than of musical research. 

Although the above interpretation of 
musicology as the “research laboratory” 
of music is not the one generally accepted, 
it might seem worth while to stress it, if 
only in order to secure for musicology 
that place in the American institutions of 
higher learning to which it is, no doubt, 
entitled and from which it is, equally 

[474] 



MUSIKALISCHES OFFER 

doubtless, still far removed. The leaders 
of such institutions are likely to take 
“rigorous technique” and “scientific treat- 
ment” as matters of course in any of their 
departments, but may be willing to give 
some thought to the necessity of provid- 
ing in the field of music a type of instruc- 
tion similar to that which is the very basis 
of progress in all the other fields of higher 
learning. 

Lit.: G. Hay don, Introduction to Musi- 
cology (1941); L. Schiedermaier, Ein- 
juhrung in das Studium der inusi\ge- 
schichte (1930); H. Riemann, Grundriss 
der MusiJ{wissenschajt (1908); Ch. See- 
ger, in AM xi; L. Harap, in MQ xxiii; P. 
Lang, “Musicology for Music” {MM xix, 
no. 2); R. Sessions, “Musicology and the 
Composer” (BAMS v); various authors, 
in PAMS, 1936; A. Machabey, in RdM, 
nos. 38, 39. Add. bibl. in MoML, 551. 
See also ^Periodicals VII. 

Musikalisches Opfer [G.]. ♦Musi- 
cal Offering. 

Musikwissenschaft [G.]. See under 
♦Musicology. 

Mustel organ. See ♦Harmonium. 

Muta [It., change] indicates change of 
tuning in the orchestral parts for kettle- 
drums and, in earlier score, change of 
crooks for horns and natural trumpets. 
For instance, “muta in G/d” means that 
the two kettledrums shall be tuned in G 
and in d. 

Mutanza [It.]. Old (16th-century) term 
for variation. 

Mutation, (i) The change from so- 
prano or alto to tenor or bass which takes 
place in a boy’s voice during adolescence, 
usually between the ages of 14 and 16. — 
(2) The term is occasionally used to de- 
note the ♦shift in violin playing. — (3) 
See ♦Hexachord IV. 

Mutation stops. See ♦Organ VI. Also 
♦Foot (2). 

Mute. A device for softening or muffling 
the tone of a musical instrument. In vio- 
lins, etc., the mute is a three-pronged 


MUTE 

clamp which is placed on the bridge and 
which renders the tone veiled and some- 
what nasal. It is usually called for by the 
remark con sordini. This effect has been 
frequently used for the purpose of creat- 
ing a mysterious or uncanny atmosphere, 
one of the earliest examples being in a 
sleeping scene of Lully’s Armida (1686). 
Beethoven used muted violins in the 
prison scene of his Fidelio, and Berlioz 
for the “Valse des Sylphes” of his La 
Damnation de Faust, to mention only a 
few of the earlier instances. The mutes 
are very effective on the violin and the 
viola, but not on the cello, where a much 
heavier device would be necessary to pro- 
duce a comparable result. — Brass instru- 
ments, particularly horns, are muted by 
inserting a pear-shaped piece of wood or 
metal into the bell. — Kettledrums were 
formerly muted by placing a cloth over 
the parchment; today sponge-headed 
drumsticks are generally used. — In piano- 
fortes, the sound is muted by the left 
pedal (soft pedal) which causes the whole 
keyboard with the hammers to shift a 
little to the right side (hence the German 
name V erschiebung, shift) so that the 
hammers strike only one string, instead 
of two or three (hence the Italian name 
una corde, one string); see ♦Pianoforte I. 
In upright pianos a similar effect is 
achieved by reducing the ambit of the 
hammer. 

The term mute is frequently identified 
or confused with ♦dampers. Properly, a 
damper serves an entirely different pur- 
pose, namely to deaden a sound. The dif- 
ference between mute and damper is par- 
ticularly clear on the piano where the left 
pedal is a mute, while the right pedal is 
connected with the dampers, setting them 
out of action upon being depressed. Un- 
fortunatelv. Webster encourages and per- 
haps justifies the looseness of terminol- 
ogy when, under “to mute,” he says: “to 
muffle or deaden the sound.” The same 
ambiguity of terminology exists with the 
Italian word sordino which is applied to 
the muting of the violins (sordini alzati 
or levati, remove the mutes) as well as to 
the dampers of the piano, while the mut- 
ing of the piano is called una cor da. The 


r475 ] 



MUTIG 


NACHSCHLAG 


confusion has been brought to its climax 
by modern (German and English) editors 
who, reading the indication “senza sor- 
dini” in the first movement of Beethoven’s 
Moonlight Sonata, considered this an er- 
ror and changed it into “con sordini” or 
“una corda.” Actually, Beethoven’s sor^ 
dim are the dampers of the piano and his 
indication “senza sordini” means “with- 
out dampers,” i.e., “with the right-hand 
pedal,” — not “with the left-hand pedal.” 
See *una corda. 

Mutig [G.]. Bold. 


M.v. *Mezza voce. 

Mystery. See ^Liturgical drama. 

Mystic chord. A chord invented by 
Scriabin, consisting of a series of six 
fourths: C-fK-bb-e'-a'-d". It forms the 
harmonic basis of his Prometheus (1910) 
and the Seventh Piano Sonata, op. 64. 
Scriabin, in other compositions, used sim- 
ilar chord formations, e.g., c-fJP-b-e' (op. 
57), and A-dif~g— c'Jt-(f')-b'--^" (Eighth 
Piano Sonata, op. 66). Cf. A. Eaglefield- 
Hull, in PM A xliii. See ^Fourth. 



Nabla, nablum. A stringed instrument 
mentioned by Greek writers, probably the 
nevel of the old Hebrews [see ’"‘Jewish 
music I]. 

Nacaire. See ♦Drum II. 

Nachahmung [G.]. Imitation. 

Nachdrucklich, mit Nachdruck 

[G.]. With emphasis. 

Nachlassend [G.]. Slackening. 

Nachschlag [G.]. (i) In modern Ger- 
man terminology, the two terminating 
notes which are usually played at the end 
of a trill [see ♦Trill IV] . 

(2) In 1 7th/ 18th-century music, an or- 
nament consisting of one or several short 
notes attached to the preceding main note. 
The ornamenting notes constitute a me- 
lodic movement away from the preceding 
note, and are to be performed as a part of 
this, i.e., before the next main note. Thus 
the Nachschlag is the exact opposite of 
the ♦appoggiatura, which is a melodic 
movement towards, and forms a part of, 
the following note. The accompanying 
illustration shows the simplest method of 



notating the Nachschlag, together with 
the correct rendition. 

In French music of the 17th and i8th 


centuries the most common form of 
Nachschlag is the agrement variously 
called accent^ aspiration, or plainte, which 
consists of a raising of the pitch a half 
tone or whole tone at the end of a sus- 
tained note. The accent was indicated by 
several different signs: an inverted V, a 
short vertical stroke, or a tiny grace note. 
All these signs are invariably suppressed 
in modern editions. Ex. i, from Rameau’s 
opera Hyppolyte et Aricie, shows the no- 
tation and the approximate effect of the 
accent. The 17th-century English equiva- 
lent of the accent is called the springer. It 
was used chiefly in music for the lute or 
viol, and was performed by lightly touch- 
ing the string at a higher fret (without 
plucking it again) at the end of a sus- 
tained note. The sign for the springer is 
an ascending oblique stroke placed slight- 
ly to the right of the written note (or 
letter, in the case of tablatures) as in Ex. 2. 

The Nachschlage described above were 
rarely used in Germany, but a similar 
ornament occurs in German music of the 
Baroque period. It always appears be- 
tween a series of descending thirds and 
is indicated by a curved hook extending 
to the right of the main note, as in the 
accompanying example by J. S. Bach 
[Ex. 3]. This ornament had no sign in 
the contemporary French music. Its use 
was taken for granted, however, by 
French musicians, and it should be in- 


[476] 




NACHSCHLAG 


NAGELSCHRIFT 


serted, in performance, in all passages danger of confusing it with an appoggi- 
where thirds descend in notes of equal atura, unless the composer is careful (as 

value. This practice was known as Schumann always was) to place the 
“couler les tierces.” Nachschlag before the bar-line [Exam- 

ple 6, Warum], There is no strict rule 
which will eliminate this confusion en- 
tirely, but it may at least be assumed that 
whenever the grace note is identical with 
the following note (as in the Ex. 7, from 
Chopin's Nocturne op. 32, no. 2) the 
ornament is a Nachschlag. P. A. 

Nachspiel [G.]. Postlude. 

Nachtanz [G., after-dance]. In the 
dance music of the i6th century a quick 
dance in triple meter which follows upon 
a slower dance in duple meter [see 
*Dance music II]. Other names for such 
after-dances were: Dcr Sprungk^ (jump, 
jumping dance), Hupfauf (“hopping 
up”), Proportz or Tripla (from propor- 
iio tripla^ with reference to the triple 
meter), or Kerabe (Kehraby lit. “sweep- 
off,” i.e., closing dance). Especially fre- 
quent combinations of dance and aftcr- 
dance were: pavane-gaillarde (c. 1500- 
A special type of Nachschlag is that 1600); passamezzo-saltarello (c. 1550- 

which anticipates the following note, i.e., 1620); allemande-courante (c. i6oo- 

the “anticipation” of modern composi- 50); the last-named combination was 
tion [see •Nonharmonic tones]. The de- taken over into the •suite. Frequently 
scending anticipation was very common the Nachtanz is a rhythmic variation of 

as an ornament in the 17th century, when the main dance. This practice, which al- 

it was known in France as a cheute, in ready occurs in the early 14th century 

England as a cadent. Its sign is the same (cf. SchGMB, no. 28), is regularly ob- 

in the music of both countries — a de- served in the •Proportz. Examples in 

scending oblique line to the right of the HAM, nos. 83, 102, 105, 137, 154a, 179. 

written note. The proper execution , ., r i 

given in Ex. 4. In the i8th century the Nachtmusik [G.]. ’^'Serenade. 

most common use of this type of Nach- Nachtstiick [G., night piece]. •Noc- 
schlag IS as an anticipation m the final tume. However, the pieces by Schumann 
note of a phrase [Ex. 5] . The Nach- Hindemith {Suite 1922) bearing this 

schlag, in this position, is usually written rnuch more suggestive of nightly 

as an ordinary note or else left to the dis- Chopin’s 

cretion of the performer. Particularly nocturnes, 
frequent is the Nachschlag as the closing 

note (or notes) of a *trill. In modern Nagarah. See *Drum II. 

German usage the term Nachschlag usu- Nagelgeige [G.]. •Nail violin, 
ally refers to this practice [see (i)J. 

Romantic composers returned to some Nagelschrift, Hufnagelschrift 

extent to the earlier custom of writing [G.j. A German variety of *neumes 

Nachschlage as grace notes. Since they used during the 14th and 15th centurie*;. 

generally do not trouble to slur the grace and so named on account of the similarity 

note to the preceding note there is some of its characters to the nails used with 

[477] 





NAIL VIOLIN 


NATIONALISM 


horseshoes. Another name is Gothic 
neumes. 

Nail violin, nail harmonica. An in* 
strument — if it may be called thus — 
consisting of a semicircular sounding- 
board in which nails or U-shaped iron 
pins of various lengths arc driven around 
the edge. The nails are made to vibrate 
by a violin bow. The nail violin (in- 
vented by }. Wilde, c, 1740) belongs to 
the same period of Empfindsam\€tt (late 
1 8th and early 19th century) which also 
produced the * Aeolian harp, as a result 
of its general penchant for the ethereal 
and bodyless. Illustrations in SaHMIy 
403 and AdHMy 632. There exists a 
quartet by F. W. Rust for nail violin, 
two violins, and cello [see ^Editions XII, 

Naked fifth. Same as •open fifth. 

Nakeres, nakers. See *Drum 11 . 

Napoletana. See under *Villanella. 

Narrante [It.]. In a declamatory man- 
ner. 

National anthems. The songs 
adopted by the various nations to be 
played on official occasions and to repre- 
sent them in international gatherings. 
The most important among the older 
ones are given here in a chronological 
order: Netherlands: Wilhelmus van 
Nassouwe (1570, music first in 1626). — 
England: God Save the King (comp, by 
H. Carey, 1744; melody is used in the 
American song My Country *tis of Thee^ 
as well as in the German pre-war anthem 
Heil Dir im Sieger\ranz and in the an- 
thems of several other nations). — Den- 
mark: Kong Kristian (J. Ewald-J. E. 
Hartmann, 1768?). — France: La *Mar- 
seillaise (comp, by Rouget de Lisle, 1792). 
— Poland: jeszee Pols\a (Wybicki-Ogin- 
sky, 1795). — Austria: Gott erhalte Franz 
den Kaiser (comp, by Haydn, 1797, now 
sung to the text Sei gesegnet ohne Ende\ 
Haydn’s melody is used also with the 
German anthem Deutschland, Deutsch- 
land iiber alles, text by Fallcrsleben, 
1841). — Hungary: *Ra\oczy March (J. 


Bihari, 1809). — Argentine: Did, mor- 
tales (V. Lopez -J. Bias Parera, 1813). 
— United States of America: The * Star- 
spangled Banner (1814). — Belgium: La 
Brabangonne (Jenneval -Campenhout, c. 
1830). — Finland: Maamme (comp, by 
F. Pacius, 1848). 

The political changes following after 
the first World War have found an ex- 
pression in three new anthems: Italy: La 
Giovinezza (M. Manni — Giuseppe Blanc, 
1909). — Germany: Horst Wessel Lied 
(text by H. Wessel, c, 1925). — Russia: 
Hymn of the Soviet Union (music by 
A. V. Alexandrov), adopted officially by 
March 15, 1944 instead of the Interna- 
tionale (E. Pettier, 1871 -P. Degeyter, 
1888). 

Lit.: S. Rousseau and Montorgucil, 
Les Chants nationaux de tous les pays 
(1901); E. Bohn, Die N ationalhymnen 
der europdischen Vdl\er (1908): E. 
Murillo, National Anthems of the Coun- 
tries of North, Central and South Amer- 
ica (1935); id,, Le Livre des chants na- 
tionaux (1917); D. R. Wakeling and G. 
de Frame, “National Anthems” {MR iii; 
complete list); H. Abert, “Einc National- 
hymnen-sammlung” {ZIM ii). 

Nationalism. A movement of the later 
part of the 19th century and still continu- 
ing today, which is characterized by a 
strong emphasis on the national elements 
and resources of music. It is based upon 
the idea that the composer must make his 
work the expression of national and ra- 
cial traits, chiefly by drawing upon the 
folk melodics and dance rhythms of his 
country as an inspiring factor, and by 
choosing scenes from national history or 
life as subjects for operas and symphonic 
poems. Nationalism, therefore, repre- 
sents an antagonism to what was there- 
tofore considered one of the greatest pre- 
rogatives of music, namely the universal 
or international character of its language, 
which made the works of the great mas- 
ters appeal equally to audiences every- 
where in the world. 

In order to defend their cause, cham- 
pions of the national movement have 
taken the stand that music always has 


[478] 



NATIONALISM 

been, and will be, national. They have 
been pointing out that the music of Bach, 
Beethoven, Schumann, and Wagner is 
thoroughly German, and that that of 
Scarlatti, Rossini, and Verdi is just as 
unmistakably Italian as that of Byrd or 
Sullivan is English. There is, no doubt, 
a good deal of truth in such statements. 
Although it is not easy, and perhaps im- 
possible, to point out in detail what is 
German, Italian, or French in musical 
style and expression, it would be ad- 
missible to make some broad character- 
izations, such as “idealistic” for German 
music, “corporeal” for Italian, “spirited” 
for French, the limitations of such tags 
being readily conceded. Such character- 
izations, however, whether summed up 
in words or merely felt, have nothing to 
do with nationalism in the proper sense 
of the word. Nationalism — in music 
and, perhaps, in general also — is not a 
matter of fact but a matter of intention. 
No composer can help belonging to 
some nation and inheriting from it, to- 
gether w^th his language, certain general 
traits of feeling and of character. The 
question is whether he takes these matters 
for granted or whether he emphasizes 
them. Briefly, the difference between an 
“international” and a “national” com- 
poser of Italian extraction is the differ- 
ence between one who cannot help speak- 
ing Italian and one who wants to speak 
Italian. It is only the latter that belongs 
to the Nationalistic movement in music. 
It is quite misleading to stamp Schumann 
as a Nationalistic composer simply be- 
cause he “expressed the German spirit” 
(which, after all, Schiitz, Bach, and Bee- 
thoven also did); or Chopin because he 
is “typically Polish” and composed ma- 
zurkas; or Wagner because he favored 
Teutonic subjects in his operas. In all 
these composers there is nothing to indi- 
cate that breaking away from the idea of 
music as a universal language and that 
emphasis on “my country’s language” 
which characterizes the Nationalistic 
composer. 

The National movement started, and 
must be understood, as a reaction against 
the supremacy of German music. With- 


NATIONALISM 

out being unfair, it is permissible to char- 
acterize it as a movement of despair, 
started by talented musicians who found 
themselves faced with the necessity oi 
competing with men like Beethoven, 
Wagner, Brahms, and who, in their na- 
tional treasure of melodies, dances, etc., 
found a weapon with which they could 
hope successfully to wage the combat 
This consideration explains the fact that 
the Nationalistic movement is practically 
non-existent in Germany. Neither is 
there such a movement worth mentioning 
in France. Debussy, who comes immedi- 
ately to mind, showed enough ingenuity 
to combat the Germans by purely musi- 
cal means which, though very “French,” 
are in no way nationally inspired. The 
absence of a definite Nationalistic move- 
ment in Italy has been explained as the 
result of the fact that Italy has no folk 
song tradition. Probably the reason is 
that Italy, like Germany and France, had 
an old musical tradition to draw upon 
and did not need to resort to the some- 
what extraneous resources of the Nation- 
alistic movement. 

Nationalism, therefore, was actually an 
affair of the “peripheral” nations, for 
which it proved, in most cases, the first 
opportunity to advance into the center of 
the musical scene. After some prelimi- 
nary attempts of a somewhat indecisive 
nature, it found its first realization in 
Glinka’s opera A Life for the Czar 
(1836). Around i860 the movement 
gained fresh impulse in Bohemia, Nor- 
way, and Russia, with Smetana’s Bar- 
tered Bride (1866), Grieg’s first book of 
Lyric Pieces (op. 12; e.g.. Folk Song, 
Norwegian Melody), and Borodin’s 
Prince Igor (1867). In Russia, the group 
known as *The Five formed a strong 
bulwark of Nationalism against the in- 
ternationally inclined Tchaikovsky and 
Rubinstein. Particularly Moussorgsky’s 
Boris Godunov (1872) is a landmark in 
the history of the Nationalistic move- 
ment. In Bohemia, Smetana’s work was 
carried on to some extent by Dvorak 
(1841-1904), more whole-heartedly how- 
ever by Lcos Jani^ck (opera Jenufa, 
1904). Toward the end of the 19th cen- 


I479I 



NATIONALISM 


NEAPOLITAN SCHOOL 


tury the movement spread to Spain where 
it found ample nourishment in the im- 
mense wealth of Spanish dance rhythms 
and dance melodies. Albeniz (i86o~ 
1909), Granados (1867-1916), and Falla 
(b. 1876) are the most outstanding rep- 
resentatives. In Finland, Sibelius (b. 
1865) must be mentioned as a composer 
who in his first period ardently supported 
Nationalism but later turned to “abso- 
lute” music which, nonetheless, remained 
largely Finnish in character. The main 
representative of the English national 
school was Edward Elgar (1857-1934). 
Outstanding Nationalistic composers of 
Latin America are Heitor Villa-Lobos (b. 
1881, Brazil) and Carlos Chavez (1899, 
Mexico). 

In the United States the Nationalistic 
movement started with H. F. Gilbert 
(1868-1928) whose compositions are 
marked by a racy flavor derived largely 
from Negro music {Negro Rhapsody y 
1913). Frederick Converse (1871-1939) 
drew inspiration from the American land- 
scape {California; American Sketches). 
Among the living composers Roy Harris 
(b. 1898) is the most prominent cham- 
pion of Nationalism in America. 

While in most of the European coun- 
tries the Nationalistic movement has al- 
ready lost most of its impetus, it still 
continues in the United States, not so 
much as an active force represented by a 
considerable number of prominent com- 
posers, but as a hotly debated issue. 
There are those who ardently maintain 
that the American composer must cease to 
imitate German, French, or other foreign 
models, must cease to write in the inter- 
national vocabulary of “abstract” music, 
but must turn whole-heartedly to his own 
country, its landscape, its national traits, 
its folk tunes, its treasure of aboriginal 
(Indian) music, and its singular musical 
possession, jazz, as his main resource of 
inspiration. There are others who con- 
sider such demands as somewhat imma- 
ture and as too easy a solution of the task 
of building up a great American school of 
composers (MacDowell, Roger Sessions, 
Walter Piston). They feel that Europe 
with its old musical tradition still has the 


lead and that American composers, for 
the time being, can use their talents best 
if they follow the general trend of inter- 
national music, contributing their share to 
make music continue what it has been for 
a thousand years: the universal language 
of mankind, understood by everybody, 
though sometimes spoken with a notice- 
able dialect. 

Lit.: C. Forsyth, Music and National- 
ism (1911); R. Vaughan Williams, Na- 
tional Music (1934); LaMWC, 9380 ; D. 
Hussey, “Nationalism and Opera” {ML 
vii, no. r); F. Toye, “A Case for Musical 
Nationalism” {MQ iv). 

Natural, (i) A note that is neither 
sharped nor flatted, e.g., G-natural in con- 
tradistinction to G-sharp or G-flat. — (2) 
The sign tj which indicates the natural 
note in cases in which otherwise the note 
would be altered, either according to the 
signature or to a previous accidental. See 
*B; * Accidentals. 

Natural horn, trumpet. Horns or 
trumpets consisting only of a pipe with- 
out side-holes operated by keys or extra 
tubing operated by valves. Such instru- 
ments can produce only the ^natural 
tones, aside from certain artificial chro- 
matic alterations produced by stopping 
(stopped notes). They were used until 
the end of the i8th century when the first 
keyed instruments were invented (key 
trumpets, key bugle). See *Horn II; 
♦Trumpet II. 

Natural tones. See ♦Wind instruments 

II. 

Naturhorn, Naturtrompete [G.]. 
Natural horn, natural trumpet. 

Neannoe. See ♦Noeane. 

Neapolitan School. I. An operatic 
school of the late 17th and the i8th cen- 
turies which was domiciled in Naples. It 
included a great many composers of 
greater or lesser significance, e.g., Fran- 
cesco Provenzale (d. 1704), Alessandro 
Scarlatti (1659-1725), Francesco Feo 
(1685-^. 1745), Niccolo Porpora (1686- 
1766), Leonardo Vinci (1690-1730), 



NEAPOLITAN SCHOOL 

Leonardo Leo (1694-1744), Nicola Lo- 
groscino (1698-1765), Giovanni Batista 
Pergolesi (1710-36), Gaetano Latilla 
(1711-91), Da vide Perez (1711-after 
1780), Domenico Terradellas (i7ii~5i)> 
Niccolo Jommelli (1714-74), Pasquale 
Anfossi (1727-97), Tommaso Traetta 
(1727-79), Pietro Guglielmi (1728- 
1804), Niccolo Piccinni (1728-1800), 
Giacomo Tritto (1733-1824), Antonio 
Sacchini (1730—86), Giovanni Paisiello 
(1740-1816), and Domenico Cimarosa 
(1749-1801). Scarlatti’s German pupil 
Johann Adolf Hasse (1699-1783) also 
belongs to this group. 

Most of these composers were born at 
or near Naples and had their musical 
education in one of the famous conserva- 
torii of this city. Their activity, however, 
spread to many other places all over Eu- 
rope, to Rome (Anfossi, Piccinni), Lis- 
bon (Perez), Paris (Piccinni, Sacchini), 
St. Petersburg (Paisiello), Stuttgart (Jom- 
melli), Vienna (Cimarosa), etc. They 
established a type of opera which was 
rather rigidly fixed in matters of the 
plot, the cast, of musical form and style, 
all these elements being classified under 
definite categories, such as: opera seria, 
opera bufla, opera serioridicola, comedia 
per musica, pastorale; *prima (seconda) 
donna, primo (secondo) uomo; aria can- 
tabile, aria di mezzo charattere, aria di 
bravura, etc. As regards the formal struc- 
ture, the opera consisted mainly of reci- 
tatives and arias, choruses being almost 
never used. The form of the aria is the 
da-capo aria. It was in the Neapolitan 
opera that the style known as *bel canto 
was developed and carried to an unpar- 
alleled degree of vocal virtuosity. The 
famous ^castrati of the period played a 
leading part in this development. Sec 
♦Opera VIII; also ♦Overture (Italian). 
For literature, cf. RiML, 1252 and 
MoMLy 1001; also S. di Giacomo, in 
RMI xxii, xxiii. 

II. Around 1600 there existed in 
Naples a school of harpsichord composers 
who were important links of transition 
from the keyboard style of the i6th cen- 
tury (A. Gabrieli, Cabezon) to that of the 
early Baroque (Frescobaldi). This school 


NEGRO MUSIC 

seems to have been inaugurated by the 
Belgian Giovanni Macque (d. 1614) who 
came to Naples in 1586. Antonio Valentc, 
Giovanni Trabaci, and Ascanio Mayone, 
his collaborators or successors, published 
collections of keyboard music between 
1580 and 1615. ♦Editions XVII (4); 
cf. W. Apel, in MQ xxiv. 

Neapolitan sixth. See ♦Sixth; also 
♦Harmonic analysis V. 

Nebel, neble. See ♦Jewish music I 
(nevel). 

Neben- [G., at the side of, auxiliary, ac- 
cessory]. NehenthemUy NebensatZy sec- 
ond theme (of a sonata). Nebendrei- 
\langy any triad other than I, IV, and V. 
NebennotCy a note other than those con- 
ditioned by the harmony, i.e., auxiliary 
notes, passing notes, appoggiaturas, etc. 
Nebentonarty a key other than the main 
key of a composition, for instance, the 
dominant and subdominant, the relative 
keys, etc. Nebenstimmey subordinate or 
accompanying part. 

Neck. The projecting portion of a vio- 
lin, lute, guitar, etc., which carries the 
finger board. 

Negligente [It.]. With insouciance, 
with indifference. 

Negro music. I. The songs of the 
American Negro form one of the choicest 
bodies of folk music originating on the 
North American continent. The term 
“Negro Music” is generally applied to 
music composed by the Negro himself, 
either as a folk-group creation or by in- 
dividual authors, and is not to be con- 
fused with the Negro-dialect songs 
which have been composed largely by 
white men: the “plantation songs” of 
Stephen Foster, the “coon songs” of the 
late 19th century, and the recent imita- 
tions of “blues” songs which are produced 
by a highly commercialized “Tin-Pan 
Alley.” In the last-named field, however, 
there are so many Negro composers en- 
gaged in the “jazz” and “swing” indus- 
try that it is often impossible to distin- 
guish between genuine Negro music and 
its imitation by white men. 

[481 ] 



NEGRO MUSIC 


NEGRO MUSIC 


References to Negro music date back 
to the 1 8th century. Thomas Jefferson 
wrote of the musical talents of the Negro 
in his Notes on Virginia (1784); Aird’s 
Selection of Scotch, Irish, and Foreign 
Airs (Glasgow, 1782) contained a “Ne- 
gro Jig,” J. Carr of Baltimore published 
in 1801 a “Negro Song,” composed or 
arranged by Benjamin Carr, an English 
musician who made his home in Amer- 
ica from 1793; and Gottlieb Graupner 
provided one of the forerunners of the 
minstrel show by singing in costume “A 
Gay Negro Boy” between the acts of a 
play in Boston, 1799. Thus, white men’s 
descriptions and imitations of the Ne- 
gro’s singing came into vogue long be- 
fore his own music was collected and 
preserved. The minstrel shows received 
their impetus directly from the Negro, 
however. According to tradition, which 
is partially confirmed by known fact, this 
type of entertainment was popularized 
by Thomas Rice, who dressed in clothes 
borrowed from a Negro and imitated the 
Negro’s manner of singing a song called 
“Jim Crow.” This occurred somewhere 
around 1830, and from that time the 
movement was contagious and dozens of 
minstrel troupes came into prominence. 
Most of the songs written for the min- 
strels were composed by white composers, 
among them Stephen Foster, and for 
decades these Negro-dialect songs consti- 
tuted the chief source of information that 
many Americans, particularly Northern- 
ers, possessed regarding the musical tal- 
ents of the Negro. 

It was not until after the Civil War that 
native Negro singing, and songs, became 
known to the country at large, and this 
knowledge came from the traveling 
groups of Negro singers from the indus- 
trial schools, Fisk University, Hampton, 
and Tuskegee Institutes, which were es- 
tablished after the War to educate eman- 
cipated slaves. Fisk University was estab- 
lished at Nashville, Tennessee, in 1866, 
and in its early years had difficulty in 
raising sufficient funds for maintenance. 
In 1871 George L. White, in charge of 
singing at the school, embarked on a con- 
cert tour with thirteen students, singing 


native Negro folk songs, and in three 
years succeeded in raising $150,000, 
largely from voluntary contributions by 
members of the audiences. As other Ne- 
gro institutes were founded, notably 
Hampton and Tuskegee, singers from 
their student bodies toured the coun- 
try, and were equally successful. Aside 
from financial results, these widespread 
tours acquainted the nation, particu- 
larly the North, with the Negro’s own 
songs. 

In the programs of these groups, the 
emphasis was principally upon the so- 
called “Spirituals,” or religious songs, of 
the Negro. This was owing to the fact 
that the Institutes themselves derived 
their support largely from religious 
groups and home missionary movements. 
The religious fervor of the Negro awoke 
sympathy among wealthier church-going 
people, and the Negro’s primitive inter- 
pretation of Bible stories and characters 
appealed to the imagination of members 
of the white denominations. Moreover, 
religion exerted a strong appeal to the 
Negro in bondage, for during the darker 
moments of his slavery he had learned to 
cling to the idea of an after life as his 
ultimate deliverance from human suffer- 
ing. Thus the crossing of the river Jor- 
dan, Daniel’s deliverance from the lions’ 
den, Moses leading the children of Israel 
to the Promised Land, all had a personal 
promise for the enslaved Negro. 

II. The origin of the Negro’s melodies 
is a controversial subject, particularly as 
to whether any appreciable number of 
them have an African background. Com- 
parison is made between the music of 
African primitives and that of the Amer- 
ican Negro. The pentatonic scale is com- 
mon to both, and each has a decided 
tendency toward syncopation. The Ne- 
gro has also a love for complex and in- 
volved rhythmic combinations, which 
some students claim derives from a tribal 
background. Other authorities, notably 
George Pullen Jackson in his White 
Spirituals from the Southern Uplands 
(1933), claim a white origin for many of 
the Negro songs, and point to many con- 
vincing examples [see *Jig]. It is true. 


[482] 



NEGRO MUSIC 


NEGRO MUSIC 


also, that white evangelists and “revival- 
ists” traveled among the southern Ne- 
groes, and sang to them many of the 
gospel songs from their own hymnbooks. 
The most tenable theory, perhaps, is that 
the Negro brought with him from Africa 
his own musical characteristics, and that 
association with white men and exposure 
to their customs and their music tempered 
and molded his native idioms into 
something that represented a combina- 
tion of the two. In other words, he took 
what he learned from his white masters, 
repeated it in his own manner and style, 
and, no doubt, often added something of 
his own. 

Many of the Negro songs are of group 
origin; improvised first by leaders at re- 
ligious gatherings, and answered and 
added to by the congregations. Others 
are probably the creation of individual, 
unnamed singers. The choruses and 
quartets from the Institutes sang in parts, 
using harmonies largely improvised by 
themselves. This has led to the supposi- 
tion that part-singing is natural to the 
Negro, and is part of his African heritage. 
Such a theory, however, is not universally 
accepted; documents exist which indicate 
that originally the Negroes sang in uni- 
son, which may suggest that their part- 
singing was developed by listening to 
musically-tutored white men. 

III. The emphasis on the religious 
songs of the Negro delayed for many 
years recognition and general knowledge 
of his secular songs, which cover a wide 
range, both in type and in mood. These 
have been collected and distributed only 
in recent years, when interest in folklore 
and balladry has become something of a 
science among American scholars and re- 
search workers. There are work songs 
— for cotton picking, corn shucking, 
stevedoring; railroad songs of the section 
gang; steamboat songs; and prison songs 
of the chain gang and the rock pile. The 
Negro’s love of balladry is responsible for 
many songs of the narrative type — 
“Frankie and Johnnie,” Negro versions 
of “Casey Jones,” the story of “John 
Henry,” and many other legends. In ad- 
dition there are bad men’s songs; un- 


printable “devil’s” songs; as well as 
numerous tunes for Negro dances. 

A type of Negro sorrow-song known 
as the “blues” has become extremely 
popular and has been adopted and imi- 
tated widely in the current Broadway 
song-literature. The typical “blues” is 
often based on self-pity, yet it generally 
embodies a carefree philosophy which 
keeps it far from the depths of despair. 
Melodically, the “blues” song is charac- 
terized by a flat seventh and sometimes a 
flat third, which have become known as 
“blue” notes. The “blues” were first 
popularized by W. C. Handy, a Negro 
musician who composed the “Memphis 
Blues” in 1912, and later the “St. Louis 
Blues.” The authentic folk “blues” and 
the modern, composed species are some- 
times indistinguishable. So many mil- 
lions of phonograph records of blues 
songs have been distributed that Negroes 
who hear these records accept them as 
their own songs and add new stanzas, or 
often change the words and alter the 
tunes to transform them into many local 
variants. As Odum and Johnson, in 
Negro Wor\aday Songs (1926), have ob- 
served: “The folk creative process oper- 
ates upon a song, the origin of which 
may already be mixed, and produces in 
turn variations that may later become 
the bases of other formal blues” [see also 
"^Jazz II]. 

The effect of Negro folk music on the 
art music of America, as well as the work 
of serious Negro composers, is discussed 
under ^American Music II, IV. See also 
*Jazz. 

Lit.: R. N. Dett, Religious Fol\'Songs 
of the Negro as Sung on the Plantations 
(1926); T. F. Seward, Jubilee SongSy as 
Sung by the Jubilee Singers of Fis 1 { Uni- 
versity (1872); W. F. Allen, C. P. Ware, 
L. M. Garrison, Slave Songs of the United 
States (1867, reprinted 1927); N. C. 
Burlin, Hampton Series of Negro Folkr 
Songs (1918--19); R. E. Kennedy, Mel- 
lows: Negro Wor\ SongSy Street CrieSy 
and Spirituals) G. P. Jackson, White and 
Negro Spirituals (1943); H. E. Krehbiel, 
Afro-American Fol\ Songs (1914); J. B. 
T. March. The Story of the Jubilee Sing- 


[483! 



NEIGHBOR-TONE 


NEO-CLASSICISM 


ers (1880); H. W. Odum and G. B. John- 
son, The Negro and His Songs (1925); 
id,, Negro Workaday Songs (1926); J. 
Tiersot, Chansons nhgres (1933); S. 
Grew, in ML xvi, no. 2; P. Laubenstein, 
in MQ xvi; J. Lomax, in MQ xx; E. An- 
drews, in MQ xxiii. J. T. H. 

Neighbor-tone. Same as appoggiatura; 
see *Nonharmonic tones II. 

Neo-Bechstein. See ^Electronic musi- 
cal instruments I. 

Neo-classicism. A movement of 20th- 
century music which is characterized by 
the inclusion into contemporary style of 
features derived from the music of the 
Bach era and of still earlier periods. It 
represents the latest and strongest expres- 
sion of the general reaction against the 
unrestrained emotionalism of the late 
Romanticism [see ’•^New Music]. Partic- 
ularly distinct is the influence of Bach 
which makes itself felt in the emphasis 
on contrapuntal texture; in the revival of 
early forms such as the suite (not the 
ballet-suite of the late 19th century), 
toccata, passacaglia, ricercare, concerto 
grosso, ground; in the reduction of or- 
chestral resources and colors; ‘in the 
abandoning of program music; and in a 
general tendency towards an objective 
and detached style. The music of Scar- 
latti, Couperin, Lully has also left im- 
prints on contemporary works, particu- 
larly of French and Italian composers 
who supplemented the “back-to-Bach” 
movement with the motto “Clarte latine.” 

The first neo-classicist was, no doubt, 
the German-Italian composer-pianist Fer- 
ruccio Busoni (1866-1924). His “Ger- 
man” enthusiasm for Bach and Mozart, 
together with his “Italian” penchant for 
the 18th-century commedia with its dry 
and unsentimental buffoonery, led him 
to an outspoken aversion against Roman- 
tic music. This attitude appears in a 
number of his compositions in which a 
neo-classical vocabulary is used to express 
a visionary mysticism [Comedy Overture 
(1897); First Sonatina (1910); Second 
Sonatina (1912); Fantasia Contrappun- 
tistica (1912); Sonatina in Diem Nativi- 


tatis Christi (1917); Toccata (1921)]. 
Perhaps it was the sublimity and incor- 
poreality of these works which prevented 
them from serving as an inspiration for 
other, younger, musicians. At any rate, 
neo-classicism as a general movement did 
not start until 1923 when Igor Stravinsky, 
a much more dynamic personality than 
Busoni, startled the musical world with 
his Octet for Wind Instruments written 
in what was then interpreted as an “18th- 
century mannerism,” but what proved to 
be the beginning of a new era in contem- 
porary music. The same idiom prevails 
in his Sonata (1922), Piano Concerto 
(1924), and Serenade (1925) for piano 
[see Example under *Pandiatonicism]. 
With the opera-oratorio Oedipus Rex 
(1927) and the ballet Apollo Musagetes 
(1927) Stravinsky’s style adopted a dis- 
tinct tinge of archaic Grecianism. 

Still closer in spirit to Bach than 
Stravinsky is Paul Hindemith who, from 
c, 1925 on (Four Concertos, op. 36; Piano 
Studies, op. 37), has systematically devel- 
oped a new contrapuntal style, deliber- 
ately impersonal and sometimes mechani- 
cal, which may well be characterized as a 
20th-century version of Bach. Certain 
features point to a still more distinct re- 
lationship, namely, to the dissonant line- 
arity of 14th-century composers such as 
Machaut [see reference under *Ars 
nova]. Hindemith is only one of a num- 
ber of composers who, around 1925, ar- 
rived at neo-classicism as their “third 
period,” after previous periods of impres- 
sionism and of a rather anarchic mixture 
of primitivism and jazz. Among this 
group we find Alfredo Casella, Francesco 
Malipiero, Walter Piston, and others. Sec 
also *Pandiatonicism; *Gebrauchsmusik; 
♦Opera XI. 

The denomination neo-classicist is 
sometimes extended to late 19th-century 
composers such as Brahms, Bruckner, 
Franck, Reger. Although the works of 
these composers do show the result of 
their studies of the early masters they can 
in no way be considered forerunners of 
the 20th-century neo-classicism, particu- 
larly owing to their entirely different at- 
titude towards Romanticism. 


[484] 



NEO-ROMANTICISM 


NETHERLANDS MUSIC 


Lit.: K. R. Heyman, The Relation of 
Ultramodern to Archaic Music (1921); 
A. Lourie, “Neogothic and Neoclassic” 
(MM v); A. G. Browne, “Hindemith 
and the Neo-classic Music” (ML xiii, no. 
!)• 

Neo-romanticism. See ’'^Romanticism. 
Term sometimes applied to late-nine- 
teenth-century ^Romanticism. See also 
’"‘Neuromantik. 

Netherlands music. A description of 
the history of Netherlands music cannot 
be given without taking into account the 
political changes which have been taking 
place during the last five hundred years 
in the northwestern corner of Europe. 
This was successively a part of France, 
Burgundy, and Spain until it became an 
independent state in 1581 (William of 
Nassau) which, until 1830, also included 
the present-day Belgium. Nineteenth- 
century historiographers, such as Kiese- 
wctter, Fetis, Ambros, v. d. Straeten, nat- 
urally included the latter country in their 
studies of Netherlands music, and even 
expanded their scope to some bordering 
provinces of northern France (Cambrai) 
which in the 15th and i6th centuries 
were politically or culturally related to 
the Netherlands. Modern scholars have 
adopted racial and religious demarcations 
as a more stable basis, drawing a line of 
distinction between the northern (now 
Protestant) part and the southern (Catho- 
lic) part of the Low Countries, the for- 
mer being considered as Netherlands or 
Dutch countries, the latter as Belgium or, 
with reference to early history, Flemish 
countries. If this distinction is adopted, 
the early history of Netherlands music 
loses much of that glory with which it 
has been surrounded by the above- 
mentioned writers [see ^Netherlands 
Schools], and the continuous history of 
Netherlands music begins around 1600 
with the great organ master Jan Picter- 
szon Sweelinck (1562-1621) whose organ 
playing at Amsterdam was an attraction 
of European fame, and who numbered 
among his pupils nearly all the leading 
German organists and organ composers 
of the early Baroque (Samuel Scheldt, 


Heinrich Scheidemann, Melchior Schildt, 
Paul Siefert, Jacob Praetorius), a fact 
which gave him the name “Der deutsche 
Organistenmacher” (the maker of Ger- 
man organists). A successor of Sweelinck 
was Anthony van Noordt who, in 1659, 
published a T abulatur-Boec\ which has 
been re-edited by the Vereeniging for 
Nederlandsche Muziekgeschiednis. The 
editions of this society [see ^Editions 
XXIX] contain practically everything — 
little of real importance — the Nether- 
lands has produced from the i6th through 
the 1 8th century. 

As late as the 19th century, creative mu- 
sical activity was slow in coming to the 
fore in the Netherlands. While Johannes 
Verhulst (1816—91) imitated Schumann 
and Mendelssohn, and opposed any prog- 
ress beyond this level, Alphons Diepen- 
brock (1862-1921), the most important 
Netherlands composer, was able to absorb 
the influence of Wagner and Mahler as 
well as of Debussy without losing the per- 
sonal stamp of a subjective mysticism. In 
striking contrast to the incorporeality of 
his music stands that of his contemporary 
Cornclis Dopper (1860-1939), the “Na- 
tional” composer of the Netherlands, 
whose program symphonies (Rembrandt, 
Zuyderzee) show a typically “Dutch” 
mixture of dispassionate sturdiness, ro- 
bust humor, and broad colors. The 
younger composers show a greater incli- 
nation towards an internationalism of 
either German or, more frequently, 
French derivation, e.g., Alex Voormolen 
(b. 1895) and Daniel Ruyneman (b. 
1886). Still more advanced in idiom are 
Willem Pijpcr (b. 1894) and Bernard van 
Dieren (1884-1936) who, living in Lon- 
don since 1909, identified himself with 
English music. 

During the past fifty years the Nether- 
lands has played a prominent role in the 
field of reproductive music. In addition 
to internationally known singers such as 
Joh. Meschaert (1857-1922) and Julia 
Culp (b. 1881), the world-famous orches- 
tra of the Concert gehouw [see ♦Orches- 
tras] under its conductor Willem Men- 
gelberg (b. 1871) must be mentioned. 
Cf. AdHM, 1081-87 (bibl.). 


[485] 



NETHERLANDS SCHOOLS 

Netherlands Schools. A designation 
introduced by R. G. Kiesewetter, in his 
Die Verdienste der Niederldnder um die 
Ton\unst (1826), for the long series of 
15th and 16th-century musicians in the 
Low Countries. He distinguished a first, 
a second, and a third Netherlands School, 
which were headed respectively by Dufay 
(1400-74), Ockeghem and Obrecht (b. 
1430), and Josquin (b. 1450). Today, 
these terms are being discarded, chiefly 
on account of the fact that among the host 
of “Netherlands” masters only one, name- 
ly Obrecht, came from the Netherlands 
proper, while all the others came either 
from the southern Lowlands (Belgium), 
from northern France (Cambrai), or 
from Burgundy (Dijon). A more appro- 
priate designation for the first Nether- 
lands School is ^Burgundian School, 
while the musicians from Ockeghem to 
Lasso can be grouped best in various 
generations of the ^Flemish School. Cf. 
P. Lang, in MQ xxv. 

Nettement [F.]. Clearly. 

Neue Musik [G.]. See *New music. 

Neuma. (i) [from Greek neuein^ to 
nod]. Sec *Neumes. — (2) [from Greek 
pneuma, breath, spirit]. Medieval term 
for extended melismatic passages of plain- 
song, sung to one syllable or simply a 
vowel [see ^Vocalization] . In the early 
Middle Ages, when the Christian service 
had the character of boundless exultation 
rather than of restrained devotion, the 
neuma (already through the name itself) 
had a symbolic significance as an expres- 
sion of mystic feeling which could not be 
put into words. After the reform of St. 
Gregory {c, 600) it survived chiefly in 
connection with the ^alleluia, under the 
name of ^jubilus. — (3) In the later Mid- 
dle Ages the name neuma was given to 
instructive melodics devised in order to 
indicate the special characteristics of each 
mode [cf. GD iii, 481]. By a misuse, 
these melodies were introduced into the 
office, and sung before or after the anti- 
phons (in Paris as late as 1873). They 
also served, under the name Neuma^ as 
tenors for 13th-century motets [cf. P. 


NEUMES 

Aubry, Recherches sur les ^'tenors' latins 
(1907), p. 13]. 

Neumatic style. See ^Gregorian chant 
II. 

Neumes [from Gr. neuma^ nod, sign; 
see also *Neuma]. The notational signs 
of the Middle Ages (8th-i4th centuries) 
which were used for the written fixation 
of plainsong. The term denotes chiefly 
the signs used for the music of the West- 
ern Church (Gregorian chant), but is 
also used for other systems of a similar 
character, such as the Byzantine neumes 
or the Armenian neumes. The following 
explanations refer only to the first type. 

I. The neumatic notation consists of a 
great number of signs for single tones as 
well as for groups of two, three, or more 
tones. The accompanying table shows the 
most important neumes as they occur in 
the MSS of St. Gall (pth-ioth centuries), 
together with their modern forms used in 
the present-day ^liturgical books (Soles- 
mes edition, Vatican edition), and with a 
rendition in ordinary notation. 

From the systematic point of view the 
neumes may be divided into two main 
groups, the “normal” neumes (A) and 
the “special” neumes (B). The former 
indicate melodic motion only, while the 
latter indicate in addition special man- 
ners of performance. The category A.i 
of our table includes the so-called “sim- 
ple” neumes, i.e., those having up to three 
notes. For these, individual names are 
used, while the neumes with more than 
three notes (A. 2, “compound” neumes) 
are designated by compound names 
which, however, differ in various sources. 
The first three signs under B.i indicate 
single notes to be sung in a special man- 
ner. The strophicus occurs as a single 
sign {apostropha) or, more frequently, in 
a group of two {distropha) or three {tris- 
tropha), and is thought to have called for 
some sort of staccato or ’•‘'tremolo. The 
oriscus is always joined to the end of a 
ncume and is sung more lightly than the 
other notes. The quilt sma usually occurs 
between two notes forming a minor third 
and probably called for a ^vibrato per- 
formance. Still another special neume of 


[486I 



NEUMES 


NEUMES 


the early MSS is the trigon, consisting of 
three dots forming a triangle, and indi- 
cating staccato performance for three 
tones such as c-b-c or e-f--e. The signs 
given here under B.z are the “lique- 


, I. Punctum 


• 


Virga 

/ / 



Podatus or 
Pcs 

yy 

a 

fi 

Clivis 

/? 


ri 

Scandicus 

/ 

• 

• 

t 

rP 

Climacus 

/. 

% 


Torculus 

y 

A 

m 

Porrectus 

y 

M 


2. Scandicus 
flexus 

• 


jm 

Porrectus 

flexus 


NA 

rm 

Torculus 

resupinus 

X 

A 

STJl 

Pcs sub- 
punctis 

y. 

\ 

mj 

I. Strophicus 




Oriscus 


♦ 


Quilisma 

Ac/ 

4 . 


Salicus 

/ 

p 

J) 

fp 

Pressus 




2. Epiphonus 

</ 

J 


Cephalicus 


P 


Ancus 


IhV. 



scent” neumes {semivocales) . They usu- 
ally occur on a diphthong or where there 
are two consonants in succession, such as 
ng (angelus), Im, rn^ etc. They are 
thought to have called for a particularly 
smooth transition by means of an inter- 
polated e, as for instance, in(e)fer{e)m 
instead of inferni. The epiphonus is the 
liquescent variety of the podatus, the 
cephalicus that of the clivis, the ancus 
that of the climacus. See the accompany- 
ing example, from the introit “Circum- 



infcTTjI circttm- 


dederunt.” Early writers mention numer- 
ous other “ornamenting” neumes under 
names such as notae vinnulae (“neigh- 
ing” notes) or tremulae which, we are 
told, the Frankish were unable to sing 
[cf. C. Vivell, “Les Sons repercutes dans 
le chant gregorien,” TG xviii; see *Orna- 
mentation]. 

II. Various theories have been offered 
for the origin of the neumes. The one 
most generally accepted today considers 
the neumes as an outgrowth of gramma- 
tical accents of Greek and Latin litera- 
ture, signs which indicated not so much 
accentuation in the modern sense of the 
word, but rather an inflection of the 
voice, the acutus (a), a raising, the gravis 
(b), a lowering of the pitch. The former 
became the virga (which, as a rule, is 

a b c d e 

/ \ /\ V A/ 

used for a higher note), the latter, the 
punctum (which usually indicates a lower 
tone). Combinations of these accents 
(c, d, e) lead to neumes of two or more 
notes, the podatus, clivis, porrectus, etc. 
Therefore, all these neumes (group A of 
the complete table) are called “accent 
neumes” [G. A\zentneumen\, Most of 
the neumes shown in group B belong to 
the category called “hook neumes” [G. 
Ha\enn€nmen\ because their graph in- 


[487] 



NEUMES 


NEUMES 

eludes a rounded hook which may have quickly adopted everywhere, except in 
come from the Greek apostrophe: Germany where a peculiar variety, the 

In the earliest sources and in many later Gothic neumes, remained in use as late 
MSS (9th~iith centuries) the neumes arc as the i6th century. The square-shaped 
written in such a manner as to give only neumes arc still used today in the liturgi- 
thc general outline of the melodic motion, cal books of the Roman Catholic Church 
but no evidence of the actual intervals. [see ^Plainsong notation]. The accom- 
Thus, the podatus may mean an ascend- panying illustration shows the eight “sim- 
ing second, third, fifth, etc. Evidently pie’* neumes in five different styles: I. 
these signs served only as a mnemonic aid Messine neumes (Monastery of Metz, 
for the singer who knew the melodies by 9th-ioth centuries; G. Metzer Neumen)\ 
heart, or for the choir leader who may II. Beneventan neumes (Monastery of 
have interpreted them to his choir by ap- Benevent in Southern Italy, iith-izth 
propriate movements of the hand. These cent.); III. Aquitanian neumes (southern 
neumes are called *cheironomic, staffless, France, I2th-i3th cent.); IV. Square 
oratorical, or in campo aperto (“in the neumes from Sarum, England (13th 
open field,” that is, without clear orien- cent.); V. Gothic neumes, also called 
tation). Around 1000 we find the earliest *Nagelschrift (German MSS of the 14th- 
traces of a more careful arrangement of 15th cent.). These may be compared 
the neumatic signs so as to give at least with the St. Gall neumes shown in the 
some indication of pitch. Particularly the table on p. 487. 

nth-century MSS of Italy, written in the The cheironomic neumes as such can- 
so-called Longobardian or Beneventan not be deciphered [for a futile attempt in 
character, are remarkable for their early this direction, cf. O. Fleischer, Die ger- 
use of “heigh ted” (intervallic, diastc- manischen Neumen (1923)]; they can 
matic) neumes, i.e., neumes which are only be compared with those of the later 
written on a staff, either imagined or really sources which, owing to the conserva- 
indicated by one, two, or finally four lines, tism of Gregorian chant, have preserved 
Slightly later than the Beneventan the old melodies in a clearer system of 
neumes are the Aquitanian (or Proven- notation, with the neumes written on an 

imaginary or real staff of one to four 
lines. For material showing the develop- 
ment of the neumes see ^Editions XXIII, 
A, 2/3. 

III. The question as to the rhythmic 
meaning of neumatic notation is infinitely 
more difficult. It has been the subject of 
the most painstaking research and of 
sharp controversies which still continue 
today. See ^Gregorian chant V. 

The neumatic signs in their final shape 
(square shapes of the 13th century) were 
also adopted for the notation of two other 
bodies of early music, namely, for secular 
monophonic melodies (troubadours, trou- 
v^res) and for polyphonic music (organa, 
clausulae of the School of Notre Dame). 
In both cases they present problems of 
rhythmic interpretation which are entirely 
gal) neumes which arc important be- different from those of the neumes in 
cause their shapes approximated, and Gregorian chant. See ^Plainsong notation 
finally led to, the square-shaped charao and ^Square notation; also ^Notation, 
ters of the 13th century. TTxcsc were Lit.: G. Sunol, Introduction d la palio- 

[488] 




NEUROMANTIK 

graphic musicale gregorienne (1935); P. 
Wagner, Neumenl{unde (1905, 2d cd., 
1912); H. M. Bannister, Monumenti 
Vaticani (1918; extensive tables of 
neumes); sec also the lit. under *Gre- 
gorian chant and in ReMMA^ 440-442. 

Neuromantik [G.]. Neo-Romanti- 
cism. However, the German term is usu- 
ally applied to the group Wagner, 
Brahms, Wolf, Bruckner, rather than to 
the neo-Romanticists of the 20th century. 

Neutoner [G., inventors of new 
sounds]. A derogatory term which has 
been applied around 1890 to Wagner, 
Richard Strauss, and other “radicals” of 
bygone days. 

New Music. A term which in the last 
few years has been gradually adopted as 
a general designation for the various rad- 
ical or progressive trends in 20th-century 
music (the corresponding German term 
Neue Musi 1 { has been in use since about 
1925). In distinction from designations 
such as “Modern Music” [see this] or 
“Contemporary Music,” this term ex- 
cludes composers who continue more or 
less along the traditional lines of the late 
19th century, expounding the ideas and 
technical resources of ^Romanticism, 
^Impressionism, ^Nationalism, etc. (e.g., 
Sibelius, Strauss, Debussy). The term 
New Music has also an interesting his- 
torical significance, as similar names were 
used for somewhat similar movements 
300 and 600 years ago, namely, *Nuove 
musiche and *Ars nova [see also ^History 
of music]. 

New Music is, briefly stated, anti-Ro- 
manticism. The reaction against the 
Romanticism of the 19th century is usu- 
ally understood as a pull-away from the 
Germanic tradition which held an al- 
most unlimited supremacy during the 
19th century. Thus, National composers 
such as Moussorgsky are credited with 
the initiative which finally led to the 
radical break of the early 20th century. 
Neither Moussorgsky, however, nor any 
other National composer succeeded in 
freeing himself from the fundamental 
conceptions or from the technical vocabu- 


NEW MUSIC 

lary of the Romanticism. Even Debussy’s 
impressionism, though much more defi- 
nitely anti-German in spirit and style, 
stands before us as the final embodiment 
rather than the negation of the tradition 
of the 19th century. If it is understood 
that Romanticism is, ideally, subjectivism 
and, technically, 19th-century harmony, 
then the credit for the initiative belongs, in 
the former respect, to Erik Satie (1866- 
1925) and Ferruccio Busoni (1866- 
1924), in the latter, to Arnold Schonberg 
(b. 1874). As early as 1900 Satie wrote 
pieces which, though artistically insignifi- 
cant and trifling, clearly show the tend- 
ency of distancing himself, by irony and 
w'himsicality, from the exhibitionism and 
the ostentatiousness of the late Romanti- 
cism. Details such as the use of fourth- 
chords, the omission of bar-lines, the re- 
placement of the traditional expression 
marks by plainly satirizing directions 
(“Comme un rossignol qui a mal de 
dent”), or the use of idiotic titles such as 
“Pieces froides” (1897), “Pieces en 
forme de poire” (1903), “Embry ons 
desseches” (1910), are significant, not as 
such, but as indications of a mentality 
which was bent on “shocking the bour- 
geois,” including the bourgeois-musician. 
Busoni’s opposition against the Roman- 
tic style was of a quite different nature 
and background. It was determined by 
his congeniality to Bach, Mozart, and by 
a general penchant towards detachment 
and distance — qualities which made him 
the father of one of the most important 
currents of New Music, i.e., ♦neo-classi- 
cism. Of still greater consequence was 
the activity of Schonberg. Ideally, i.e., 
from the point of view of feeling and ex- 
pression, Schonberg was — at least up to 
1920 — much less anti-Romantic than the 
other two, a fact which has caused many 
writers to deny him the role as a leader in 
the new movement and even to consider 
him a Romanticist. Such a view overlooks 
the fact that the break with a tradition 
involves not only a spiritual, but also a 
technical aspect. It was in the latter field 
that Schonberg’s radicalism fully achieved 
what so many composers before him had 
only approximated: the complete break 



NEW MUSIC 


NEW MUSIC 


with the harmonic system, with the sty- 
listic and formal principles of the 19th 
century. Completely casting away the 
harmonic and formal considerations of 
the tradition, he arrived at a novel style 
which has become known as *atonality 
(Drei Klavierstiicke, op. ii, 1909). See 
also ^Expressionism. Until after World 
War I, Schonberg’s influence remained 
restricted to a few friends and pupils, 
notably Alban Berg (1885-1935) and 
Anton von Webern (b. 1883). In the 
meantime, another potent factor had ap- 
peared on the scene of European music, 
namely, rhythm. As early as 1910 the 
Hungarian Bela Bartok (b. 1881) had, in 
his piano piece Allegro Barbaro, arrived 
at a type of “barbaric” rhythm compared 
to which the percussive qualities of Igor 
Stravinsky’s (b. 1882) much more fa- 
mous Petrouch\a (1911) sound almost 
conventional and suave [see also *Futur- 
ism]. Nonetheless, Stravinsky, perhaps 
owing to his more versatile personality, 
was destined to play a considerably 
greater role in the subsequent develop- 
ment than the Hungarian composer. 
Shortly after the war, jazz reached the 
Continent and created a sensation, not 
only among the dancing fans, but also 
among the composers. One of the first 
to use it was Stravinsky, in his Ragtime 
(1918) [see the list at the end of the ar- 
ticle *Jazz]. 

The post-war period proved a most 
fertile soil for all these innovations, not 
only because it opened the communica- 
tions between the various countries, but 
also because it left the whole of Europe, 
whether victorious or defeated, in a state 
of inner destruction and despair which 
threw the doors open to radicalism and 
anarchy. As a matter of fact, the period 
from 1918 to 1925 can hardly be termed 
other than anarchic. Scores of young 
composers appeared, particularly in Ger- 
many and France, who offered a confus- 
ing variety of solutions, of new ways out 
of the vacuum which the general nega- 
tion of the tradition had created. *Ato- 
nality, *Twelve-tone technique, barba- 
rism, *Bruitism, ^Futurism, Gregor ian- 
ism (Malipiero), *jazz, machine-music. 


♦satire, ♦Gebrauchsmusik, ♦quarter-tone 
music, are some of the most prominent 
traits of this period. Zoltan Kodaly (b. 
1882), Francesco Malipiero (b. 1882), Al- 
fredo Casella (b. 1883), Arthur Honeg- 
ger (b. 1892), Darius Milhaud (b. 1892), 
Paul Hindemith (b. 1895), Ernst Krenek 
(b. 1900), may be mentioned here among 
the many who made contributions to the 
spotted picture of this period. 

A third period of New Music began 
around 1925, when, after so many inter- 
esting experiments, so many futile efforts, 
a new name appeared on the scene: Bach. 
This great name was the magic word 
which was strong enough to dispel the 
destructive instincts, to make an end to 
so many sensational efforts, and to unite 
practically all the prominent composers 
in a new spirit of seriousness and con- 
structive cooperation. Much as it might 
seem regrettable that, after all the radical- 
ism of the previous years, music had to 
turn back to “history” in order to pro- 
ceed to a new future, yet there was ap- 
parently no other solution. Around 1925, 
almost all the composers mentioned above 
entered what is usually termed their 
“third period,” i.e., the neo-classic period 
after the “impressionistic” and the “anar- 
chic.” Up to the present day the move- 
ment known as ♦Neo-classicism has 
gradually gained impact and a foothold 
in practically every country. Only the im- 
mediate followers of Schdnberg have re- 
mained aloof from what they believe to 
be a sterile historicism and have tried to 
remain true to the ideals of a radically 
new music (e.g., Krenek). In twenty 
years we shall know who pursued the 
right path. 

A quarterly magazine dedicated to 
ultramodern music is published under 
the name New Music (founded in 1927 
by H. Cowell). 

Lit.: G. Dyson, The New Music 
(1924); H. Cowell, New Musical Re- 
sources (1930); E. Krenek, Vber Neue 
Musi\ ( 1937 ); id.y Music Here and Now 
(1939); A. Copland, Our New Music 
(1941); N. Slonimsky, “Modern Mu- 
sic . . .” (Introduction to D. Ewen, Boo\ 
of Modern Composers^ 1942); E. Blom, 


[490] 



NIBELUNGENRING 


NOEL 


*'The Truly Modern in Music” (ML, iv, 
3); R. W. Wood, “Modern Counter- 
point” (ML xiii, no. 3); G. Dyson, “The 
Texture of Modern Music” (ML iv, no. 
3); E. Wellesz, “Problems of Modern 
Music” {MQ x) ; H. Cowell, “New Terms 
for New Music” (MM v); W. Apel, “Die 
Neue Klaviermusik” (DM 1931/32, i, ii). 
See also under ^Modern music, *Neo- 
classicism, *Atonality, *Twelve-tone tech- 
nique, etc. 

Nibelungenring. See *Ring des Nibel- 
ungs, Der. 

Nicht schleppen [G.]. Do not drag. 

Niederstrich [G.]. Down-bow; see 
*Bowing. 

Ninth-chord. A chord which consists of 
the third, fifth, seventh, and ninth above 
the root. It occurs usually as the dominant 
of the key (dominant ninth-chord), e.g., 
in C major: g— b— d'-f'-a'. Frequently the 
root (g) is omitted in which case the 
chord can also be interpreted as the sev- 
enth-chord of the seventh degree (b). 
The principle of superposed thirds which 
leads from the triad to the seventh chord 
and to the ninth chord can be carried on 
still farther, resulting in the eleventh 
chord (g-b~d'~f'-a'-c") and the thir- 
teenth (g~b--d'-f'-a'-c"-e"). This build- 




§ 

1 

.J 1 J- 

^ to. 

ilU 




— ^ 


— 1 


ing-up principle is used as a climactic 
means of great impressiveness in the first 
movement of Bruckner’s Symphony no. 
7 [see illustration]. Usually, the chords 
mentioned above occur in a reduced form 
and in exchanged position of the higher 
notes. In such case they can usually be 
interpreted as appoggiaturas of simpler 
chords (e.g., g-f -b'-e" as an appoggia- 
tura of g-f'-b'-d"). 

Nocturne [F., night piece]. The name 
is usually employed for Romantic *char- 


acter pieces for the pianoforte, written in 
a somewhat melancholy or languid style, 
with an expressive melody over a broken- 
chord accompaniment. The first noc- 
turnes were written by the Irishman John 
Field (1782-1837) from whom Chopin 
adopted the idea and the name. See 
^Notturno; ^Nachtstiick. 

Nocturnes. Three ^Symphonic poems 
by Debussy. 

Nocturns [L. nocturnum^ horae noc- 
turnae\ . See *Office hours. 

Node. In a vibrating string the points 
of rest or of minimum amplitude. Such 
points occur not only at the two fixed 
ends of the string but also in regular dis- 
tances in between, owing to the fact that 
the string vibrates not only as a whole, 
but also in segments of ^4) 

etc., which are the physical cause of the 
harmonics. Similarly, in a vibrating air 
column (pipe), nodes are the points of 
highest density, where the air particles do 
not move. The intermediate points of 
maximum amplitude (string) or move- 
ment (pipe) are called loops or antinodes. 
See ^Acoustics V. 

No-drama. See ^Japanese music I. 

Noeane. Syllables of unknown mean- 
ing which appear in various treatises of 
the loth century in connection with short 
melodies designed to give the character- 
istics of the various modes. They are 
probably derived from the Byzantine 
enechemata [see *Eohos]. See also *Ane- 
naiki; *Solmization. Cf. ReMMAy 173; 
RiHM i.2, 57; H. Riemann, in ZIM xiv; 
E. Werner, in MQ xxviii. 

Noel [F., Christmas]. Popular Christ- 
mas songs, particularly those of French 
origin [see ^Carols]. In 1553 Nicolas 
Denisot published two books Cantiques 
€t Noelsy the second of which includes 13 
melodies. Another important early pub- 
lication is F. Colletet, Noels nouveaux et 
cantiques spirituels (1660). Courvoy’s 
Meslanges (1610) contain polyphonic 
settings of no^s. During the 17th to the 
19th centuries innumerable noels were 


[491 ] 



NOIRE 


NONHARMONIC TONES 


published (frequently as sheet-music) in 
which a semi-religious text was set to pro- 
fane melodies, dancing songs, drinking 
songs, vaudevilles, etc. In the 17th cen- 
tury the name was applied to organ 
pieces designed to be played during the 
Christmas service. Most of these are sim- 
ple variations on popular Christmas melo- 
dies. Collections of such noSs were pub- 
lished by Le Begue [cf. HAM, no. 231], 
Nicolas Gigault, Jean Fr. Dandrieu, 
Claude Daquin, Boely, Balbastre, etc. 
See ’•‘‘Editions I; H. Expert, "^Maitres 
fran^ais du clavecin^ F. Raugel, '\Les 
Maltres jrangais de V or gue. 

Noire [F.]. Sec *Notes. 

Nomos [Gr., law, rule]. In early Greek 
culture, particularly in the Homeric 
epoch, the traditional melodies which the 
singer {aoidos) used for the recitation of 
the epics, to the accompaniment of the 
phorminx. See *Greek music I; ^Melody 
types. 


lower auxiliary; also called embellish- 
ment, returning note, alternating note). 

The first four of these may, of course, 
occur between harmonic notes forming 
any larger interval, in descending as well 
as ascending motion. The difference be- 
tween echapp^e and cambiata is that in 



None, (i) German term for the interval 
of the ninth; NonenakXord, i.e., ninth- 
chord. — (2) See ^Office hours. 

Nonet [G. NoneU; It. nonetto]. Cham- 
ber music for nine instruments, e.g., 
string quartet and five winds. There ex- 
ist a few examples, by Rheinberger, Stan- 
ford, and Ravel {Poemes), 

Nonharmonic tones. In ^harmonic 
analysis, generic designation for tones 
which are foreign to the momentary har- 
mony and which occur as melodic “orna- 
mentations” in one of the voice parts. 
They may be classified into two main 
categories: 

I. Rhythmically weak notes occurring 
between two “harmonic” notes (i.e., 
notes which are part of the harmony). 
There are five types, four of which arc 
found between harmonic notes of differ- 
ent pitch [in our illustration, Examples 
i~4, at the interval of a second], and one 
between harmonic notes of the same pitch 
[Ex. 5]. These are called: (i) passing 
tone; (2) anticipation; (3) echappee; (4) 
cambiata; (5) auxiliary tone (upper or 


the former the motion to the ornament- 
ing tone is contrary to the motion to the 
harmonic tone, while in the latter these 
two motions are similar. Thus, with an 
ascending progression of harmony notes, 
e.g., E-G, the nonharmonic note D 
would be an echappee (E-D-G), the 
nonharmonic note A a cambiata (E- 
A-G). 

II. Rhythmically strong notes occur- 
ring in the place of a harmonic note. 
These are called appoggiatura [from It. 
appoggiare, to lean; also neighbor-tone]. 
An appoggiatura is usually the upper or 
lower second of a harmonic tone, played 
instead of this tone on the beat and re- 
solved afterwards into the proper tone. 
The plain triad already offers many pos- 
sibilities for appoggiatura formations 
[Ex. 6] which are interesting and impor- 
tant as sources for dissonant chordal com- 
binations. If the “wrong” note appears in 
the preceding chord, one speaks of a pre- 
pared appoggiatura [Ex. 7], otherwise, 
the appoggiatura is unprepared. The for- 
mer type is the more orthodox, because the 
previous appearance of the “wrong” note 


[492] 




NONNENGEIGE 


NOTATION 


somewhat weakens its dissonant charac- 
ter. This character is still more weakened, 
in fact almost eliminated, if the prepar- 
ing tone is tied to the appoggiatura. This 
formation is called suspension (some- 
times retardation) [Ex. 8]. The deriva- 
tion of the suspension from the appoggi- 
atura does not imply a statement regard- 
ing the origin and the proper nature of 
the former which actually results from 
“suspending” the progression of the tone 
beyond the moment of change of the 
harmony. If two or more appoggiaturas 
occur simultaneously one speaks of an 
appoggiatura chord [Ex. 9, Tchaikovsky, 
Symphony no. 4, last movement]. A 
characteristic idiom of modern music is 
the extended use of “unresolved appog- 
giaturas” [Ex. 10, Debussy, Pelleas et 
Melisande, end of Act I ] . 

III. It should be noted that the above 
classification and terminology (based on 
W. Piston’s Harmony, 1941 ) differs in 
particulars from that used by other au- 
thors. This is especially true in respect to 
the term appoggiatura which is frequent- 
ly restricted to those cases in which the 
“wrong” note is approached by leap, as 
in Ex. II, the cases of stepwise approach 
being called accented passing tone [Ex. 

12] . The advantage of this terminology 
would seem to lie chiefly in its applica- 
tion to historical studies, since accented 
passing tones occur in practically all 
periods of music history, while the “free” 
appoggiatura was not much used before 
r. 1750 [it forms a characteristic feature 
of the *Empfindsamer Stil of Ph. Em. 
Bach; cf. SchGMB, p. 458]. Other terms 
frequently used are: free passing tone for 
a passing tone approached by leap [Ex. 

13] ; changing notes for the upper and 
lower auxiliary in succession [Ex. 14]. 
Cf. E. Walker, “The Appoggiatura” 
(ML V, no. 2). 

Nonnengeige [G., nun’s fiddle]. Ger- 
man name for the *tromba marina. 

Non Nobis Domine. A celebrated 
canon which is usually, but without 
demonstrable evidence, attributed to 
William Byrd. It is frequently sung at 


English banquets as a grace. It is remark- 
able for the great number of solutions it 
admits, solutions which differ according 
to the number of parts, and to the inter- 
vals and distance of the imitating voices. 
Cf. GD iii, 642. 

Non tanto, non troppo [It.]. Not too 
much. Non troppo allegro, not too fast. 

Norddeutsche Schule. See ^Berlin 
School. 

Norwegian music. The rise of art 
music in Norway went hand in hand 
with that of an independent political life 
which began in 1814, with the separation 
from Denmark. Waldemar Thrane’s 
Singspiel F^eld-eventyret (1824) may be 
said to mark the beginning of Norwegian 
music. Hafdan Kjerulf (1815-68) wrote 
numerous small piano pieces and songs 
in the style of Schumann, though not 
without that special touch of Norwegian 
lyricism which became known all over 
the world in the “Lyrical Pieces” of Nor- 
way’s greatest composer, Edvard Grieg 
(1843-1907). Grieg replaced the some- 
what “effeminate Scandinavianism” of 
the Danish composer Gade and others by 
a more vigorous style, reminiscent of the 
ruggedness of his country and the strong 
individualism of its inhabitants. Grieg’s 
contemporaries Johan Svendsen (1840- 
1911) and Christian Sinding (1856- 
1941) are both exponents of the interna- 
tional Romanticism rather than of na- 
tional Norwegian music, although traits 
of the latter are by no means missing. 
Both cultivated mainly the larger forms 
of symphonic and chamber music. 
Among the younger Norwegian compos- 
ers no remarkable talent has as yet ap- 
peared. Cf. the article in AdHM, iii3ff. 

Notation. I. The art of expressing mu- 
sic in writing. A fully developed system 
of notation must be so designed as to 
clearly indicate the two main properties 
of a musical sound: its pitch and its dura- 
tion. The most satisfactory of the numer- 
ous symbols which have been devised for 
this purpose is the note, i.e., a point-like 
sign which indicates pitch by its position 


[493I 



NOTATION 


NOTATION 


on a ♦staff provided with a ♦€!€£, and 
duration by a variety of shapes, such as 
hollow or black heads with or without 
stems, flags, etc. [see ♦Notes]. Addi- 
tional symbols of modern notation are 
the *accidcntals, the ♦key-signature, the 
♦time signature, ♦dynamic marks, ♦tempo 
marks, ♦expression marks, the ♦tie, the 
♦slur, etc. The modern system of nota- 
tion dates back to the early 17th century. 
Previously, systems of notation had been 
used which differ more or less radically 
from the present one regarding either the 
fixation or rhythm (as in mensural nota- 
tion) or that of pitch (as in the tabla- 
tures). Here follows a brief conspectus of 
the evolution of notation (in Europe), 
with reference to special articles. 

II. Greek music was notated by means 
of letters. Two such systems were in use: 
an older one (used chiefly for instru- 
mental music and evidently devised for 
the kithara) which included certain an- 
cient symbols (Phoenician letters?) and 
which used these symbols in different po- 
sitions, upright, reversed, etc. [see under 
♦Pyknon] ; and a more recent one (used 
chiefly for vocal music) which employed 
the Ionic alphabet together with a few 
additional signs [cf. ReMMA 26, 27; 
C. Sachs, in ZMW vi, vii]. This method 
left no immediate traces in the musical 
notation of the Christian era, probably 
because its “Hellenistic” clarity and pre- 
ciseness did not lend itself to the “Orien- 
tal” exuberance of early Christian recita- 
tion and psalm-singing [for an 8th-cen- 
tury revival, see ♦Daseian notation ] . The 
ensuing development and, for that mat- 
ter, our modern system of notation, is 
rooted, not in the notational signs of 
Greek music, but in the much vaguer 
symbols of Greek and Oriental (Jewish) 
speech recitation, the grammatical accents 
of the second century B.C. and similar 
signs known generically as *e\phonetic 
notation. These developed (around 500?) 
into a more elaborate system of steno- 
graphic symbols vaguely indicating the 
outlines of the melodic movement, the 
^neumes. The neumes, far from being 
“primitive” (as they are frequently desig- 
nated) represent a very sensitive and sup- 


ple means of recording the innumerable 
finesses of ancient singing, involving spe- 
cial techniques which today survive only 
in Oriental tradition. On the other hand, 
owing to their failure to clearly indicate 
pitch as well as rhythm, they are not a 
fully-developed notation, but only a 
mnemonic aid for the oral handing-down 
of the chant. As early as the 8th century 
various methods were designed to remedy 
the indefiniteness of the neumes, chiefly 
by the addition of letters [ see ♦Letter no- 
tation; ♦Romanian letters]. More impor- 
tant were the modifications of the graph 
of the neumes which took place during 
the nth century, leading from the vague 
cheironomic symbols to shapes which 
corresponded more accurately to the rise 
and fall of the melody, the diastematic 
neumes. This evolution was stabilized by 
the adoption of ♦staff lines in increasing 
numbers, first one, then two, and finally 
four. Around 1200, the neumes acquired 
those square-shaped forms which are still 
used in the liturgical books of the Roman 
Catholic Church. See ♦Neumes. 

III. These shapes [see Ex. i] were 
soon adopted for the notation of mono- 
phonic secular melodies [see ♦Plainsong 
notation] as well as of polyphonic music, 
where they are known as ^ligatures. In 

1 a ^ V 

the latter field their introduction was 
accompanied, shortly before 1200, by the 
establishment of definite rhythmic values, 
on the basis of the rhythmic ♦modes. The 
resulting system is known as ^square no- 
tation [Ex. 2]. There followed, during 
the 13th and 14th centuries, an extremely 
rapid development, involving frequent 
changes and innovations: the introduc- 
tion of two different note values, called 
longa and brevis {c. 1225), which became 
necessary for the notation of the texted 
parts of the motet [Ex. 3]; around 1250, 
the introduction of a smaller note-value, 
called semibrevis^ two or three of which 
could be used in the place of a brevis; 
around 1260, the unequivocal rhythmic 
interpretation of the ligatures, independ- 
ent of the modes (Franco of Cologne; 



NOTATION 


NOTATION 


usually considered as the beginning of 
^mensural notation) \ around 1280, the 
introduction of more than three semi- 


2 



9 


Organum triplum Descendit 
Wolfcnbiittel Helmst. logg 

breves (up to seven) in the place of a 
brevis (Petrus de Cruce). Shortly after 
1300, the restriction to modal meter, i.e., 
to ternary rhythm, which prevailed 
throughout the 13th century [*Ars an- 
tiqua] was abandoned and the basic prin- 
ciples of rhythm and of notation were 


5 



Motet Ave beatissima 
Montpellier, Fac. des Med. H ig6 

radically revised by Philippe de Vitry who 
must be considered the “father of mod- 
ern notation,” much more so than Franco 
of Cologne. The new system, expounded 


in his treatise Ars nova (c» 1320), recog- 
nized duple and triple rhythm as equally 
important and applied this dichotomy to 
all the note-values in the different men- 
surations: modus (longa-brevis), tempus 
(brevis-semibrevis), and prolatio (semi- 
brevis-minima). The notational princi- 
ples of this period remained virtually un- 
changed until the end of the i6th century, 
the only modification being the transi- 
tion, around 1450, from black notes 
(black mensural notation) to white notes 
(white mensural notation). The expla- 
nations of the latter system, to be found 
in the article ♦mensural notation, there- 
fore cover also the principles (though not 
the details) of black mensural notation. 
Simultaneously with Vitry ’s system, 
however, there developed a different no- 
tational system in Italy {Italian notation) 
which retained to a greater extent the 
principles of the late 13th century (par- 
ticularly, the Petronian groups of semi- 
breves). After 1350 this system adopted 
features from the contemporary and more 
progressive French system, thus leading 
to a system {Mixed notation) which was 
used by Landini and other composers of 


4 



Francesco Landini, Nessun ponga speranca 
Paris, Bibl. Nat. itaL ^68 


the second half of the 14th century [Ex. 
4]. Toward the end of this century, no- 


[495] 



NOTATION 


tation took on features of spectacular 
difficulty and mannerism which make the 
pieces of this period the most interesting 
problems, the “etudes transcendentales“ 
of the study of notation {Mannered no- 
tation), 

IV. In the first half of the 15th century 
(Dufay) these complications were large- 
ly abandoned. There resulted what might 
be called the “classical” system of men- 
sural notation {c. 1450-1600), character- 




Pierre dc la Rue, Missa Vhomme arme^ “Patrem’* 
Misse Petri de la Rue (Petrucci, 1503) 

ized by the use of white instead of black 
notes (White mensural notation; Ex. 5). 
Its principles are the same as those of the 
French notation of the Machaut period, 
except for the addition of the *propor- 
tions as a notational device (hence the 
rather misleading term “proportional no- 
tation”) and for the occasional use of 
riddle canons [see *Canon II]. This is 
the notation of the ^Flemish masters, 
Ockeghem, Obrecht, and their numer- 
ous successors. In the later part of the 
1 6th century the use of triple mensura- 


NOTATION 


tion (tempus perjectum, prolatio per- 
fecta) as well as that of the ligatures was 
largely discarded, together with other 
special methods of mensural notation 
(proportions). Thus, the system of nota- 
tion became virtually that of the present 
day, particularly after the general accept- 
ance of *bar-lines and of score arrange- 
ment [see *Score; *Choir book; "'^Part 
books]. Throughout the 17th century, 
however, remnants of the older system 
still lingered on, particularly the use of 
blackened notes (coloration) and of pro- 
portional signs [see *Time-signatures]. 
Of all these the *alla-breve sign is the 
only one to survive to the present day. 
The accompanying example illustrates 
the development of the main notational 
signs in six periods. 


L 

II. 


/ \ 
1 X 

f . 


S 6 


A 


s 


V 




J 


III. 


1 


IV. 


V. ^ 

\b 


VI. 


■ ♦ 


to If 



i 





IS’ 




i 


17 

10 <9 

20 

21 


0 J 

J 


2^ 

25 2b 

X7 

20 


> 




a 

13 

cfl 


I. Greeks accents: i. Accentus acutus; 2. Acc. 
gravis; 3. Acc. circumflexis; 4. Hypothetical. 

II. Neumes: 5. Virga; 6. Punctum; 7. Podatus; 

8. Clivis. III. Black, mensural notation (1250): 

9. Longa; 10. Brevis; 11. Semibrevis; 12. Descend- 
ing ligature; 13. Ascending ligature. IV. Addi- 
tional signs of the 14th century: 14. Minima; 15. 
Semiminima. V. White mensural notation ( 1450): 
i6. = 9; 17. = 10; 18. = 11; 19. = 14; 20. = 15; 
21. Fusa; 22.= 12; 23.= 13. VI. Modern notation 
(after 1600): 24. Breve or double-whole note; 
25. Whole-note; 26. Half-note; 27. Quarter-note; 
28. Eighth-note. 


V. Side by side with the system of 
mensural notation there existed, particu- 
larly in the period 1450-1600, special no- 
tational methods known as *tablatures. 
These were used for the writing down of 
keyboard and lute music (generally of 
soloist music, i.e., for a single performer, 
while mensural notation was used for en- 
semble music; see ^Ensemble). Some of 




NOTES 


NOZZE DI FIGARO 


these systems employ the ordinary men- 
sural notes, differing from mensural no- 
tation only in that the parts are written 
in score, as in the modern piano score or 
the modern partitura. These may be des- 
ignated as \eyboard scores or \eyboard 
partituras^ in contradistinction to the 
tablatures proper, which use letters, fig- 
ures, or other symbols instead of notes. 

A survey of modern attempts at reform 
is given in A. Eaglefield-Hull, A Dic- 
tionary of Modern Music (1924). See 
also: Accidentals; Braille; Cheve; Chia- 
vette; Clef; Daseian notation; Ekphonetic 
notation; Griff schrift; Letter notation; 
Ligatures; Mensural notation; Musica 
ficta; Nagelschrift; Neumes; Notes; Part 
books; Partial signature; Plainsong nota- 
tion; Plica; Proportions; Punctus; Ro- 
manian letters; Score; Square notation; 
Staff; Staffless notation; Tablature; Tie; 
Time signatures; Tonic-Sol-fa. 

Lit.: J. Wolf, Handbuch der Notations- 
\unde (2 vols., 1913-19); id.^ ^Musikjil- 
ische Schrifttafeln (facsimiles; 1922); iW., 
Die Tonschriften (1924); W. Apel, No- 
tation of Polyphonic Music (1942; 2d 
edition 1944); H. Riemann, Studien zur 
Geschichte der Notenschrift (1878); id,y 
Notenschrift und Notendruc\ (1896); W. 
Apel, “The Importance of Notation . . 
(PAMSy 1938). See also under ^Mensural 
notation; ’•^Tablature; ’’^Square notation; 
^Plainsong notation. 

Notes. The signs by means of which 
music is fixed in writing [see ^Notation]. 
The term is also used for the sound indi- 
cated by a note, and even for the key of 
o [ 2 :] whole-note 
^ M half -note 

quarter-note 
eighth -note 
[t] sixteenth-note 

(^"1 thirty-second-note 
[^] sixty-fourth-note 

Whole-note: E., semibreve; G., Ganze (Note); 
F., ronde [pause]; I., semibreve. Half-note: E., 
minim; G., Halbe (Note); F., blanche [demi- 
pause]; I., minima or bianca. Quarter-note: ^.y 
crotchet; G., Viertcl (Note); F., noire [soupir]; 
I., semiminima or nera [sospiro]. Eighth-note: 
E., quaver; G., Achtcl (Note) ; F., croche [demi- 


soupir]; I., croma. Sixteenth-note: E., semi- 
quaver; G., Sechzehntel; F., doublc-croche [quart 
de soupir]; I., scmicroma. T hirty-second-note: 

E. , demisemiquavcr; G., Zweiunddreissigstcl; 

F. , triple-croche [huitieme de soupir]; I., bis- 
croma. Sixty-fourth-note: E., hemidemisemi- 
quaver; G., Vierundsechzigstel; F., quadruplc- 
crochc [scizieme de soupir]; I., semibiscroma. 

the pianoforte which produces this sound. 
However, a clear distinction between the 
terms tone and note is strongly recom- 
mended. Briefly, one sees a note, and 
hears a tone. 

The illustration shows the note values 
with their American terminology. Eng- 
lish, German, French, and Italian termi- 
nology are given below. The signs and 
names in brackets are those of the corre- 
sponding rests. The German names for 
the rests are: Ganze {halbe y viertely etc.). 
Pauses the Italian: pausa di semibreve 
{minimay etc.). 

Note sensible [F.]. *Leading tone. 

Notre Dame, School of. See *Ars 
antiqua; ^French music II. Cf. J. Hand- 
schin, in ZMW vi, vii, and in AM iv, nos. 
1-3; M. Schneider, in ZMW xiv. 

Notturno [It., night piece], (i) Italian 
designation for ^nocturne. — (2) Eight- 
eenth-century name for compositions sim- 
ilar to the ^serenade, designed to be 
played as an evening entertainment. 
Haydn’s Notturnos of 1790, for 2 lire 
(^hurdy-gurdies), 2 clarinetti, 2 viole, 2 
corni, e violoncello, consist of three move- 
ments (new ed. by E. F. Schmidt, 193511). 
Similar pieces were written by Mozart 
(K.V. 286) and Gyrowetz. 

Novachord. See ^Electronic musical 
instruments I. 

Novellette. A designation introduced 
by R. Schumann (op. 21) for a certain 
type of romantic piano piece [*Character 
piece] which is meant “to tell a story.” 
It contains a number of contrasting sec- 
tions, suggestive in a way of the various 
chapters of a narrative. 

Nozze di Figaro, Le (“The Marriage 
of Figaro”). Opera buffa in four acts by 


[497] 



NUANCES NUOVE MUSICHE 

W. A. Mozart, libretto by Da Ponte Number opera [G. Nutnmernoper]. 
(after Beaumarchais's play Zi An opera written in single “numbers,” 

FigarOy succeeding his Le Barbier dc Se- i.e., in separate pieces, such as arias, duets, 
villCy the source of Rossini’s ^Barbiere di ensembles, ballets, interspersed with reci- 
Swiglia)y composed 1786. Count Alma- tativo or spoken dialogue. This type of 
viva (Baritone), tired of his wife, the opera prevailed until the early 19th cen- 
Countess (soprano; the Rosina of Ros- tury. Itwasvehementlyopposedby Wag- 
sini’s opera), tries to console himself with ner who supplanted it by a continuous 
other women, but Figaro (Bass), now his music which follows the action without 
valet, no longer assists him (as in the interruption. His procedure has been 
Barbier e)y but plots against him in order adopted by practically all operatic com- 
to punish him for his infidelity. Around posers up to the present. It must be noted, 
this basic idea is woven a complicated however, that the replacement of the 
plot of love affairs the details of which “number-style” by continuous writing 
are not always clear. The Count flirts began as early as the operas of Jommelli, 
with the gardener’s daughter Barbarina Traetta, Gluck, and, particularly, Mozart 
(Soprano) and with the Countess’ maid whose late operas (Le Nozze di Figaro, 
Susanna (Soprano). The page Cherubi- Don Giovanni) contain several lengthy 
no (Soprano) is attached to Barbarina as movements in which various numbers 
well as to the aging Countess, and Figaro are linked together by transitional pas- 
has promised to marry Marcellina (Con- sages into a complete, well-rounded, and 
tralto) but is in love with Susanna, unified musical whole. This tendency is 
Figaro’s difficulties are cleared up by the still more pronounced in the operas of 
discovery (Act III) that Marcellina is his Beethoven, Weber, and Meyerbeer, while 
mother, and the Count’s intrigues are French and Italian composers such as 
brought to a stop by a plot which involves Auber, Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti, gen- 
the writing of a fictitious love letter by erally adhered to the number opera. See 
Susanna (dictated to her by the Count- ^Opera VIII; XL 
ess); the use of a pin to fasten this letter Nunc Dimittis. See ♦Canticum. 

(to be sent back by the Count in token 

that he has received the letter) ; the loss of Nuove musiche [It., new music] • (i) 
this pin by the messenger (Barbarina); Tide of a publication of 1602 by Giulio 
an exchange of clothes between Susanna Caccini (c, 1 550-161 8) containing arias 
and the Countess, etc. madrigals in the then new style of 

The looseness and confusion of the •monodic recitativo with thorough-bass 
plot, far from being detrimental, actually accompaniment. — (2) The term is used 
enhance the value of the opera, because today to designate the whole period 
they bestow on it a charming quality of around 1600 which forms one of the most 
Rococo lightness and, above all, because important landmarks in the history of 
they quickly cause the listener to give up music, since it marks the origin of the 
all effort to “follow the plot” and induce opera, the oratoria, the cantata, and of the 
him to accept the music as the central ele- ^Baroque period in general [see ^History 
ment of the opera. Needless to say, only of music]. The leading idea of the new 
music of such outstanding charm and movement was to abolish the Flemish 
artistic perfection as Mozart’s could lead tradition of the i6th century with its em- 
to this very desirable result. phasis on contrapuntal style and artful 

elaboration. A particular point of objec- 
Nuances [F.]. Subde modifications of tion and resentment was the obscuring of 
intensity, tempo, touch, phrasing, etc., the text which resulted from the poly- 
such as make musical performance alive phonic treatment and from the motet 
and interesting. The term is also used as style with its characteristic ^points of imi- 
a translation of the Greek *chroai, and tation. A reaction arose which, in the 
for other microtonic intervals. course of a few decades, led to a complete 

[498] 



o 


OBBLIGATO 


reversal of the relationship betv^^een music 
and text, as was clearly expressed by 
Monteverdi {Scherzi musicali, 1607) in 
the words: “L’orazione sia padrona dell* 
armonia e non serva” (The text should 
be the master, not the servant, of the 
music). The main result was the replace- 
ment of the polyphonic a-cappella style 
by accompanied solo song (*aria, *reci- 
tativo). 

These tendencies found a strong sup- 
port in the antiquarian studies of Greek 
music which, around 1580, were pursued 
by Vincenzo Galilei (1533-91) and others 
known as the**camerata. Although not 
sufficiently equipped to decipher the rem- 
nants of Greek music, these men formed 
a rather adequate picture of the role 
which music had played in the ancient 
Greek drama, and instinctively felt the 
close relationship of Greek music — al- 
ways a monophonic rendering of the text 
— to their own problem. Although ac- 
companied solo songs in a rather plain 
homophonic style were cultivated in 
Spain as early as 1530 (lute songs by 
Milan, Valderrabano), it was not until 
the last years of the century that the open 
break with the tradition occurred, in the 
earliest operas of Peri and Caccini [see 
*Opera III] which were based exclusively 
on the principle of *monody (stile rap- 
presentativo\ see also ^Recitative). Cac- 
cini, in his above-mentioned book of 
1602, applied the new style to short lyrics, 
imparting to it a more subtle and more 
expressive design [cf. HAM, nos. 182- 
185; SchGMB, nos. 171-173]. His pieces, 
some of which are quaintly termed “mad- 
rigals,” form the point of departure of 
the *aria and the ^cantata, which in the 


early 17th century are much the same 
thing. Cavalieri, another pioneer of the 
new style, used it for his La Rappresenta- 
zione di anima e di corpo of 1600 [see 
^Oratorio II], a work which, on account 
of its inclusion of choral passages [cf. 
SchGMB, no. 169], is less radical but ac- 
tually more progressive than those of 
Peri and Caccini. In fact, the limitation 
of the stile rappresentativo soon became 
patent. Music could not, for any length 
of time, be completely subjugated to the 
role of a mere servant, and musicians be- 
gan to resume some of the threads which 
had too abruptly been cut off. As early as 
1607 Monteverdi’s Or]eo showed that 
mixture of old and new ideas upon which 
the imposing structure of the musical 
Baroque was to be built. For literature 
see ^Baroque; *Camerata. 

Nut. (i) Of the violin. A slightly pro- 
jected ridge fastened to the upper end of 
the neck of stringed instruments (violin, 
etc.), over which the strings pass in order 
to keep them from touching the finger 
board. — (2) Of the bow. The lower end 
of the bow at which it is held. It is ad- 
justed by a screw mechanism in order to 
keep the hair in proper tension. Earlier 
bows (Bach) did not have this contriv- 
ance, the tension of the hair being ad- 
justed by the varying pressure of the 
thumb. See *Bow. 

Nutcracker Suite. An orchestral suite 
in six movements by Tchaikovsky (op. 
71a, 1891), arranged from his ballet of 
the same title (“Casse-noisette”), which 
was based on E. T. A. Hoffmann’s fan- 
tastic story The Nutcrac\er and the 
Mouse King. See *Ballet III. 



O, or similar signs (circle; zero), occur 
in the following meanings: (i) In music 
for violins, etc., as an indication of the 
open string. — (2) In English ^fingering 
for keyboard, as a sign for the thumb. — 
(3) In thorough-bass parts, for *tasto 
solo. — (4) In ^mensural notation, as a 


sign for tempus perfectum (circle). — 
(5) In medieval tonaries, it denotes the 
fourth church-mode. 

Obbligato [It.]. Obligatory, usually 
with reference to instruments (violino 
obbligato) or parts that must not be 

)\ 



OBBLIGO 


OBOE FAMILY 


omitted; the opposite is ^ad libitum. Un- 
fortunately, by some queer misunder- 
standing or thoughtlessness, the term has 
come to adopt the meaning of a mere 
accompanying part which may be 
omitted, if necessary. The consequence 
is that one has to decide in each single 
case whether obbligato means “obbligato** 
or “ad libitum,’* the chances being in 
favor of the former meaning in the case 
of early music; of the latter, in more re- 
cent pieces. For accompanimento obbli- 
gato^ see under ♦Accompaniment. 

Obbligo [It.]. In the learned counter- 
point of the 17th and i8th centuries con 
obbligo denotes a manner of writing 
which includes certain “self-imposed ob- 
ligations,’* such as canon, double counter- 
point, inversion, etc. 

Oberdominante [G.]. Dominant, in 
contradistinction to Unterdominante, 
subdominant. 

Oberstimme [G.j. Upper part. 

Obertas [Polish, turning around]. A 
Polish round dance in quick triple meter 
and of a rough character, like a wild 
waltz. Examples exist in Wieniawski’s 
Mazur\a Characteristique No. i (for 
violin) and in the first act of Boito’s 
Mefistofcle, Chopin*s Mazurka op. 56, 
no. 2 is in the character of an obertas. A 
modern example occurs in A. Tansman's 
Four Polish Dances (1931) fof orchestra. 

Obertaste [G.]. See ♦Taste. 

Oberton, Obertone [G.]. Upper har- 
monic(s). 

Oberwerk [G.]. Swell organ. 

Obligat [G.]. See ♦obbligato. 

Oblique motion. See ♦Motion. 

Oboe family. The term is adopted 
here as a convenient collective designa- 
tion for a large group of ♦wind instru- 
ments characterized by the use of a 
double reed [see ♦Reed; ♦Mouthpiece]. 
This group forms the contrast to the 
•clarinet family which includes the wind 
instruments using a single reed. In sci- 


entific classification the oboe, English 
horn, bassoon, etc., are considered as con- 
stituting families of their own, since each 
of these instruments existed in various 
sizes [see N. Bessaraboff, Ancient Euro- 
pean Musical Instruments (1941), p. 
in]. From the point of view of the 
present article such distinctions are hard- 
ly necessary. The instruments of the 
present-day orchestra are discussed under 
1 , others of rare use or obsolete, under II, 
while a historical survey is given under 
III. All these instruments (with the ex- 
ception of some old types) have a conical 
bore, in contrast to the cylindrical bore of 
the clarinets. [See illustrations on p. 
816.] 

I. Present-Day Forms. A. The Oboe 
[F. hautboisy high wood]. The oboe con- 
sists of a conical pipe made of wood 
(usually in three parts, top joint, lower 
joint, and bell) to the upper end of which 
a double reed is fixed. The natural scale 
of the oboe is D (as is that of the flute), 
but it is not treated as a transposing in- 
strument. Owing to its conical bore the 
oboe overblows at the octave, as do also 
all the other members of the family. For 
the difference in timbre between the oboe 
and the clarinet, see ♦Clarinet family I. 

B. The English horn [F. cor anglais; 
G. Englisch Horn; It. corno inghlese\. 
This is an alto oboe, pitched a fifth below 
the oboe. In order to facilitate the han- 
dling of the rather long instrument a small 
metal tube is attached to its upper end 
and is bent back to meet the player*s 
mouth. It is built with a pear-shaped bell 
[see II, A], which largely accounts for its 
soft and somewhat melancholic timbre. 
It is treated as a transposing instrument, 
the parts sounding a fifth lower than 
written. Eany instruments of this size 
had a curved form reminiscent of that of 
an animal’s horn, a fact which partly ex- 
plains its name, the meaning of the de- 
nomination “English” being obscure [for 
a possible explanation, see II, B]. In the 
early part of the 19th century the English 
horn gradually replaced the older oboe da 
caccia (alto oboe). The general accept- 
ance of the English horn into the orches- 
tra dates from 1830 when Rossini used it 


[500] 



OBOE FAMILY 


OBOE FAMILY 

in his T^// (1829) and Meyer- for it in The Creation, and Beethoven 

hcti m Robert le diable iised it in his Fifth and Ninth Sym- 

C. Bassoon [F. basson\ G. Fagott\ It. phonies. W. W. D. 

fagotto] . This is the bass of the family. On 11 . Rare and Obsolete Forms, It should 
account of the great length of the tube, be noted that the oboes of the i8th and 

this is bent back upon itself, first descend- early 19th centuries v^ere much more 

ing and then ascending. The instrument strident and piercing in sound than the 

modern instruments, a statement which 
is even more true of the still earlier in- 
struments [see remark under *aulos]. 

A. Oboe d’amore. This is a mezzo- 
soprano instrument with the same char- 

a. Oboe. b. En JshTorn. c. Bassoon. acteristic pear-shaped bell (Liebesfuss) 

d. Contra-bassoon. Which exists today with the English horn. 

The name probably refers to the sound of 
is made of five pieces: the crool(^, a nar- the instrument which was a good deal 

row, curved metal tube to which the reed “sweeter*’ than that of the other oboes of 

is attached; the wing, which forms the its day. It was created about 1720, one of 

descending section of the pipe; the dou- its earliest occurrences being in Bach’s 

or the bottom section in the cantata no. 37, Wer da glaubet (1725). 
shape of a U; the long joint which forms In a reconstructed form it has been used 
the ascending pipe; and the bell. The in- in R. Strauss’s Sinfonia Domestica to 
strument is remarkably even in tone col- characterize the “dreaming child.” 
or, although the lowest fifth of its range B. Oboe da caccia (“hunting oboe”), 
tends to be rather thick and reedy and the This was a straight alto oboe with an ex- 
highest fifth is somewhat “pinched” and panding bell or, more frequently, a pear- 
terse. It has a wide dynamic range and shaped bell which rendered the sound less 
performs all manner of legato and stac- strident. The instrument also occurred in 
cato figures with facility. It blends well the shape of a half-circle and was then 
with the French horns with which it is called cor anglais (English horn; origi- 
often used, but is equally valuable as a nally cor angle, “angled horn”.?), a name 
solo instrument or as a bass to the wood- which persisted after the straight form 
wind section. See *Phagotus. Cf. L. G. had been generally readopted. 

Langwill, “The Bassoon: Its Origin and C. Tenoroon [F. basson quinte; G. 
Development” (PMA Ixvi). Quintfagott, Tenorfagott; It. fagottino], 

D. Contra-bassoon or Double-bassoon A tenor instrument in the shape of a small 
[F. contrebasson; G. Kontrafagott; It. bassoon, pitched a fifth above this. It was 
contrajagotto] . This instrument, the invented and used in the first half of the 
modern form of which was developed by 19th century. 

Heckel, has a tube of over sixteen feet in D. Quartfagott. A large bassoon 

length, doubled on itself four times. The pitched a perfect fourth lower than the 

bell points downward, instead of upward, standard instrument, and used mainly in 
as in the bassoon. It is notated an octave Germany. 

above the actual sound (in Wagner’s E. Heckelphone. A baritone oboe 

Parsifal it is written at its true pitch), pitched an octave below the normal oboe. 
The lowest as well as the highest tones of invented by Heckel in 1904. In spite of 
its range arc rather unsatisfactory and its full and rich sound it has been little 
therefore less frequently used. It is best used (R. Strauss, Salome; Delius), 
suited for passages of from slow to mod- F. Sarrusophone. A whole family of 
crate speed. The double bassoon (natu- instruments made from metal and used 
rally in an older form) was used by Han- only in military bands. It exists in six 
del in the Coronation Anthem (1727) sizes (from soprano to double bass), 
and in L’Allcgro (1740). Haydn scored pitched alternately in B-flat and E-flat. It 

[501 ] 





OBOE FAMILY 


OCTAVE 


was introduced by the French bandmaster 
Sarrus, about i860. The only sarruso- 
phone used in the orchestra is a contrabass 
size in C which has the same compass as 
the contrabassoon and which has been 
preferred by many French composers over 
the contrabassoon. 

III. History, Double-reed instruments 
are very ancient and widespread, much 
more so than single-reed instruments 
(clarinets). They usually occur in pairs 
(double oboe), a fact which should not be 
construed as an evidence of “two-part 
music 3000 years ago,” as the longer pipe 
was used to provide a drone or, perhaps, 
some tones missing in the other one. 
Sumerian double oboes are documented 
as far back as 2800 B.C., and similar in- 
struments were frequent in Egypt, Israel 
(halil, see * Jewish music l), Greece 
(*aulos)y and Rome (tibia). They occur 
in practically all the countries of the Far 
and Near East, usually provided with a 
metal disk against which the lips of the 
player are stretched; he takes the reed en- 
tirely in his mouth — not, as in European 
practice, between his lips. Egyptian oboe 
players are trained to blow continuously 
without pausing for respiration, the 
breathing being done exclusively through 
the nose [see ^Launedda], The aborigi- 
nal oboe of China (\mn) and Japan 
(*hichiri\t) is cylindrical while a conical 
type is an importation from India, where 
“oboe music is in great demand . . . 
and expert performers are paid fabulous 
sums” [cf.^^HM/, 230]. 

The early European instruments with 
double reeds are collectively referred to 
as shawms. The French name is hom- 
barde\ the German, Pommer (Bomhart, 
Pumhart)^ except for the highest member 
of the group which was known as Schal- 
mei. The earliest reference to such instru- 
ments is in French literary sources of the 
13th century. In the 15th and i6th cen- 
turies they existed in all sizes, from 
sopranino (Praetorius* Klein-Schalmey) 
to double-bass (Gross-BasS'Pommer),Thc 
largest sizes (all straight tubes) were soon 
discarded in favor of shortened shapes 
which go back to a 16th-century type 
called curtail (the name is derived from 


G. Kortholty i.e., “short wood,” referring 
to the shortened form of the instrument). 
These instruments differed from the mod- 
ern bassoon mainly in that they were 
made from one solid block of wood with 
two bores, one descending and one as- 
cending. Another name for a similar in- 
strument, apparently of soft timbre, was 
dolcian (dolcino^ Dulzian), 

Numerous other types of double-reed 
instruments are described by Praetorius 
under names such as Sordune^ Schryari, 
Kortholty Bassanelli, The Sordune [F. 
sourdines^ had a channel running down 
and up two or three times within the 
same piece of wood and ending in a lat- 
eral hole [cf. SaHMly 3i7f]. More im- 
portant are the cromornes [G. Krumm- 
horn, so called on account of their slightly 
curved shape] which are shown on paint- 
ings of the 15th and i6th centuries in the 
hands of angels. They are interesting not 
only because their tube was nearly cylin- 
drical, but also because they had a pierced 
wind cap which covered the reed so that 
the player was not able to touch the reed 
[see illustr. in SaHMIy 320]. Thus the 
reed was set in vibration by indirect wind 
pressure as in the reed pipes of the organ, 
and consequently the tone was just as 
unchangeable as that of organ pipes. 
Naturally, over-blowing was impossible 
also. One of the queerest instruments of 
all times is the rac\ett (ran\ett)y a short, 
thick cylinder of solid wood pierced 
lengthwise by ten cylindrical channels 
which were connected so that they 
formed a continuous tube. In France it 
was known as cervelas (sausage), hence 
the name “sausage-bassoon” [G. Wurst- 
fagott]. 

Ocarina. A popular instrument in the 
shape of an egg, a bird, a “sweet potato” 
(hence the colloquial name), with a 
mouthpiece and a number of fingerholes. 
Scientifically it is to be classified as a glob- 
ular flute, a type which has an interest- 
ing ancestry in China and Africa [cf. 
SaHMIy i66f]. 

Octave, (i) The eighth tone of the 
diatonic scale [see ^Intervals]. Acousti- 
cally, the tone with twice the frequency 


1 502] 



OCTAVE FLUTE 

of the home tone (ratio 1:2; e.g., a = 440; 
a' = 880). The octave is the most perfect 
consonance, so perfect indeed that it gives 
the impression of a mere duplication of 
the original tone, a phenomenon for 
which no convincing explanation has ever 
been found and which may well be called 
“the basic miracle of music.’* Its pecu- 
liarity becomes apparent from a compari- 
son of the acoustical frequencies with the 
series of color-frequencies (spectrum) 
which does not show any such duplica- 
tion [see *Color and music]. The funda- 
mental importance of the octave appears 
also from the fact that it is the only inter- 
val which is common to practically all the 
scales ever evolved, regardless of the 
number or pitch of the intermediate steps. 
For the designation of the various oc- 
taves, see *Pitch names. 

(2) In ecclesiastical terminology. Oc- 
tave denotes the continued observation, 
for eight (or seven) days, of the greater 
feasts. 

Octave flute. ^Piccolo flute. 

Octave species [G. 0 \tavgattung€n\, 
See *Greek music II (c). 

Octavier [F.]. See *Wind instruments 
III. 

Octet. Chamber music for eight instru- 
ments, either all strings (Mendelssohn, 
Gade, Enesco), all winds (Beethoven, op. 
103; Stravinsky), or mixed (Schubert, 
Spohr). 

Octobass. See * Violin family (j), 

Octoechos. See *Echos. 

Oddonic letters. See ^Letter notation. 

Ode. In ancient Greek and Latin as well 
as in modern poetry, a poem in free 
meter and verse structure, frequently ad- 
dressed to a deity. Odes are usually com- 
posed in a free form, similar to that of 
the cantata, including several movements 
or sections for chorus, soloist, and or- 
chestra. Dryden*s “Ode on St. Cecilia’s 
Day** (set by Purcell) and Schiller’s “Ode 
to Joy” (set by Beethoven, Ninth Sym- 
phony) are well-known examples. 


ODHECATON 

In the 1 6th century the Horatian odes 
were frequently set to music in strict 
chordal style and in a rhythm dictated 
by the poetic meter, e.g.: 

I J Jlci JJld I cJJJ I JJU !■ 

Mae-cc-nas a-ta-vis c-di-tc rc-gi-bus 

This practice was inaugurated by Kon- 
rad Celtis, professor of poetry at the uni- 
versity of Ingolstadt, 1492-97. Among 
the earliest publications of such odes are: 
Petronius Tritonius, Melopoeia . . - 
super 22 genera carminum Horatit 
(1507); Paulus Hofhaimer, Harmoniae 
poeticae (1539; new ed. by Achleitner, 
1868); Ludwig Senfl, Varia carminum 
genera . . . (1532); Claude Goudimel, 
Q, Horatit Flacci . . . odae , , , ad 
rhythmos musicos redactae (1555). Ex- 
amples for the lute occur in Judenkunig’s 
Ain schone Xunstliche Underweisung 
. . . 1523 [cf. DTOe i8.ii; ApMZ i]. In 
France, this poetic modification of musi- 
cal rhythm [see ♦Rhythm II (b)] led to 
the ♦vers mesure. In the collections of 
♦frottole, published by Petrucci, the name 
ode is given to strophic songs in iambic 
heptameters and with the following 
scheme of rhymes: aaab/bbbc/ 
c c c d /, etc. Sec ♦Renaissance: ♦Hu- 
manism. 

Lit.: R. V. Liliencron, in VMW ui; P. 
Masson, in RMC vi; H. J. Moser, Paul 
Hojhaimer (1929), Notenanhang, pp. 
II2fI. 

Ode-Symphonie. French name for 
Beethoven’s Symphony no. 9 (♦Choral 
symphony). See under ♦Ode. 

Odhecaton [from Gr. ode^ song; he^a- 
tony hundred]. Title (complete form: 
Harmonice musices Odhecaton ^4) of a 
printed collection of “100 songs” (actu- 
ally only 99) published by Petrucci in 
1501. The book is interesting as the 
earliest printed publication of polyphonic 
music [see ♦Printing of music], and of 
great importance as a collection of secular 
polyphonic music of the period from c. 
1470 to 1500. Similar collections, Canti 
B and Canti C, appeared in 1502 and 
1503. Among the composers are Heync 
van Gizeghem [see ♦Burgundian 


[503] 



ODOISTIC NOTATION 

School], Ockeghem (1430-95), Obrecht 
(1430-1505), Isaac (1450-1517), Alex- 
ander Agricola (d. 1506), Josquin (1450- 
1521), and many others [c£. RiML^ 
1376]. The fact that only a few of the 
pieces have text does not necessarily prove 
that the contents of these books were in- 
strumental music in the strict sense of the 
word; indeed, a considerable number of 
the compositions are preserved in other 
sources (manuscripts) with a text, at 
least in the discantus. On the other hand, 
the omission of the texts, although condi- 
tioned perhaps by merely external con- 
siderations (typographic difficulties), 
throws an interesting light upon the lati- 
tude of 16th-century musical practice, 
which readily admitted instrumental per- 
formance of vocal pieces. It is impossible, 
of course, to assume that Petrucci could 
have supposed all the prospective buyers 
of his books to be familiar with the texts 
of more than 300 compositions [cf. 
Cauchy]. 

Lit.: '\Odhecaton (facsimile ed. by 
Bolletino bibliografico musicale, 1931); 
M. Hewitt, '\The Odhecaton (1942; 
transcr.); G. Reese, in MQ xx; M. 
Cauchie, “L’Odhecaton, recueil de mu- 
sique instrumcntale” (RdMy nos. 16, 26); 
J. Marix, in RdM, no. 56. 

Odoistic notation. See ^Letter nota- 
tion. 

Oeuvre [F.]. ♦Opus. 

Offertorium, offertory. In the Cath- 
olic liturgy, the fourth item of the 
Proper of the Mass, accompanying the 
placing upon the Altar of the Elements 
(Bread and Wine). Originally it was a 
psalm with antiphon {antiphona ad offer- 
endum); today only the antiphon is left. 
Beginning with the 15th century, musi- 
cal compositions (motets) were admitted 
instead of or in addition to the plainsong, 
in order to fill in the time consumed by 
the sacred rites. In 1593 Palestrina pub- 
lished a complete collection of such motets 
under the title Offertoria per totum an- 
num, During the 17th century many 
Offertoria for the organ with or without 
instruments were composed by Lc B^gue, 


OISEAU DE FEU 

Grigny, F. Couperin, and others. An 
early instance is Frescobaldi’s Toccata 
avanti I’elevazione [see ♦Toccata]. 

Office, officium. In the Catholic lit- 
urgy, the service of the hours [see ♦Office 
hours] as distinct from that of the ♦Mass. 
See ♦Gregorian chant I. 

Office hours [Canonical hours. Daily 
hours. Divine office; G. Stundenoffi- 
cium]. In the Roman Catholic Church, 
the hours at which service is held, eight 
times a day: i. Matins [L. matutinum\ 
G. Mette\^ during night, includes three 
Nocturns; 2. Lauds [L. laudes]^ at sun- 
rise; 3. Prime [L. ad primam\y c, 6 a.m.; 
4. Terce [L. ad tertiam\^ c, 9 a.m.; 5. Sext 
[L. ad sextam\y midday; 6. None [L. 
ad nonam]y c, 3 p.m.; 7. Vespers or Even- 
song [L. ad vesperam]y at sunset; 8. Com- 
pline [L. completorium]^ Mass 

is sung after Terce, except on ordinary 
weekdays when it is sung after Sext; and 
on fast days, when it is after None. 

From the musical point of view the 
most important services are those of 
Matins, Vespers, and Compline. That of 
Matins is now held regularly only in 
monastic churches; therefore only a lim- 
ited number of these services are given in 
the common books of plainsong, namely 
that for the Office of the Dead {AR 
[i52]-[i 76]), for ^Tenebrae^ and for 
the great feasts {LU 368, 765, etc). The 
chants of Matins include chiefly ♦respon- 
soria and certain special chants which are 
interesting because they have retained 
the complete structure of ancient Gre- 
gorian psalmody, e.g., the ♦Invitatorium 
and the responsorium Libera me [see 
♦Psalmody II]. 

The service of Vespers includes the 
♦Magnificat; it is the only Office for 
which music other than Gregorian chant 
(motets, organ music) is admitted. The 
service of Compline includes the four 
Antiphons B.M.V. [see ♦Antiphon (2)], 
one for each season of the year. The com- 
plete service for the hours of an ordinary 
Sunday is given in AR, 1-69. 

Oiseau de Feu, L* [‘The Firebird”]. 
Ballet by Stravinsky; sec •Ballet III. 


[504] 



OKETUS 

Oketus. See *Hocket, 

Oktave [G.]. Octave. In connection 
v^ith instruments it denotes sizes either 
an octave above the normal size (e.g., 
0 ]{tavfldte^ i.e., piccolo flute), or below it 
(e.g., O^tavfagott, i.e., contrabassoon). 
Oktavgattung^ ^Octave species. 

Oktavieren [G.]. See *Wind instru- 
ments III. 

Oktoechos. See ♦Echos. 

Old Hall MS. See ♦Sources, no 25. 

Old Hundred. An old hymn tune 
which was used in Beza’s Genevan 
Psalter (1554) for the 134th Psalm, in 
Knox’s Anglo-Genevan Psalter (1556) 
for the third Psalm, and in Sternhold and 
Hopkins’ Psalter (1562) for the looth 
Psalm, hence the name. 

Ole. See ♦Polo. 

Oliphant [Old English for elephant]. 
A medieval instrument for signaling, 
made from an elephant’s tusk, often beau- 
tifully carved. They are of no musical 
importance. Illustration in GD iv, 496. 

Ombra scene [It. ombra, shade]. In 
early operas, designation for scenes which 
take place in Hades or in similar sur- 
roundings. Every opera dealing with the 
subject of ♦Orpheus has, of course, an 
ombra scene. 

Ondeggiando [It.], ondule [F.]. 
Undulating, swaying. In violin playing, 
an undulating movement of the bow. It 
is used for arpeggio-like figures but also 
on one note in order to produce a slight 
fluctuation of intensity. In earlier music 
(c. 1650-1750; Purcell, Stamitz) the latter 
effect, which must be classified as a ♦trem- 
olo, was rather frequent, being indicated 
by a wavy line [see the table, p. 545]. See 
also ♦Bowing (o) and under ♦Vibrato. 

One-step. American dance of the ♦jazz 
period (c, 1910—20) in quick duple me- 
ter, similar to the ♦fox-trot. It was super- 
seded, around 1920, by the slower two- 
step (slow-fox). 


OPERA 

Ongarese, AlP [It,]. In Hungarian 

style. 

Onion-flute. Same as ♦Eunuch flute. 
See ♦Mirliton. 

Onzieme [F.]. The interval of the 
eleventh. 

Op. Abbreviation for opus. 

Open fifth, open triad. A triad with- 

out the third, e.g., c— g— c^. 

Open graces. See under ♦Grace. 

Open harmony. See ♦Spacing. 

Open notes, (i) On wind instruments, 
same as ♦natural notes. — (2) On 
stringed instruments, the tones which are 
produced on the ♦open strings. 

Open pipe. See ♦Wind instruments 

III. 

Open strings. The unstopped strings 
of violins, lutes, etc. Their use is some- 
times prescribed by the figure 0. 

Opera [from It. opera in musical a 
‘‘work in music”; F. opSra\ G. Oper], 
“A drama, either tragic or comic, sung 
throughout, with appropriate scenery and 
acting, to the accompaniment of an or- 
chestra” (GD), This definition requires 
modification in the case of ♦comic operas 
which (except for the Italian opera bu§a) 
usually have spoken dialogue; there are 
also a few serious operas (e.g., Mozart’s 
Magic Flute y Beethoven’s Fidelio, Weber’s 
Freischiitz) which admit spoken dia- 
logue. 

I. General, The opera is the most im- 
portant of the forms resulting from the 
combination of music and theatrical rep- 
resentation. It is a highly complex form, 
enlisting many different arts in its serv- 
ice: music (both instrumental and vo- 
cal), drama, poetry, acting, dance, stage- 
design, costuming, etc. — and this fact 
accounts in part for both its widespread 
appeal and for the equally widespread 
criticism directed against it on the score 
of its artistic impurity; the classic state- 
ment of this critical attitude being Saint- 
Evremondc’s definition of opera as “a 


[505] 



OPERA 


OPERA 

bizarre affair of poetry and. music in the art-work and the object which it rep- 
which the poet and the musician, each resents. 

equally obstructed by the other, give Another basic convention of opera is a 
themselves no end of trouble to produce consequence of the fact that a musical 

a wretched result.” The fact that opera idea usually takes longer for its develop- 

is, of all musical or dramatic forms, the ment than the time which would be re- 

most difficult and expensive to produce, quired merely to speak the words with 

has caused it almost always to be asso- which it is connected. This results in 

ciated with the upper strata of social life, either or both of the following devices: 

thus making it a “prestige symbol” for (i) a noticeable stretching-out, and con- 

the public as well as an object of particu- sequent slow pace of the action (as in 

lar attraction for many ambitious com- Wagner’s music dramas); or (2) alter- 

posers and singers. It is noteworthy that nating periods of action and repose: the 

most o^ras have been composed by spe- action being carried on in ^recitative 

cialists in this form. The number of com- (with a minimum of music) and being 

posers who have distinguished themselves periodically interrupted by musical “num- 

equally in opera and other branches of bers” (arias, ensembles, ballets, etc.; see 

music is exceedingly small: Monteverdi, *Number opera) all of which are, from 

Handel, Mozart, and R. Strauss are the dramatic standpoint, likely to be 

outstanding in this respect. On the merely episodic, or at best unnecessarily 

other hand, composers such as Bach, long elaborations of certain moments of 

Haydn, Schubert, Schumann, Mendels- the action. Such a slow tempo of the 

sohn, Brahms, and Bruckner either did drama, or such frequent interruptions, 

not venture into the operatic field at all, would be regarded as serious defects in a 

or did so without conspicuous success, spoken play; but in an opera they are 

while the achievements of Beethoven and hardly avoidable. From this basic neces- 

Debussy are limited to one work each, sity arise many of the features of opera 

albeit a masterpiece in both cases. which persons unaccustomed to the form 

Like all art forms, the opera is founded find difficult to accept, such as the fre- 
on certain conventions, the most impor- quent text-repetitions, the prolonged emo- 
tant of which is that the persons of the tional scenes, dying speeches, and so on. 
drama express their thoughts and feelings While it is true that many operas are 
by means of song rather than speech, cheaply emotional, silly, or melodramatic. 
Criticism of this feature as “unnatural” the same charge may be made against 
is, of course, beside the point, since no many plays. These faults are not inherent 
work of art is intended to be a mere imi- in the form, though the skillful use of 
tation of nature. While it is undeniable music may cause the ordinary listener to 
that people in real life do not continu- forgive their presence in opera more read- 
ously sing, it is equally undeniable that ily than in a play, 
th^y do not continuously speak in blank II. Prehistory. Although the first work 
verse, as do Shakespeare’s characters. In now known as an opera dates from 1597, 
both cases a conventional mode of expres- the combination of music with dramatic 
sion must be accepted as a basis for the performances is undoubtedly of very early 
form. Even the most “realistic” drama origin. The drama of the Greeks, as it 
has its conventions, and all movements developed out of the ceremonies of the 
toward realism in opera have resulted Bacchus cult, incorporated the choral 
only in substituting a different set of con- songs and dances of the earlier rites. The 
ventions for those to which objection tragedies of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and 
was made. Indeed, it may be questioned Euripides all give a large place to the 
whether attempts at closer imitation of chorus, and it is known from theoretical 
“real” life on the operatic stage do not treatises (e.g., Aristotle’s Poetics) that 
defeat their purpose by merely emphasiz- music was one of the essential elements of 
ing the inescapable distinction between the form, though unfortunately only a 

[506] 



OPERA 

single mutilated specimen of Greek dra- 
matic music has survived (fragment of 
a chorus from the Orestes of Euripi- 
des). 

In the Middle Ages the church fostered 
dramatic music in the *Liturgical Dramas 
(iith~i3th centuries) and the *Mysteries 
(i4th-i6th centuries). The medieval re- 
ligious drama had no direct historical 
connection with the earliest operas, but 
its tradition may still be traced in some 
of the operas on religious subjects at 
Rome and in Germany during the 17th 
century. 

The immediate predecessors of opera 
arc to be sought in the various types of 
secular dramatic entertainment with mu- 
sic which appeared during the sixteenth 
century. These may be grouped under 
two heads: (i) Works in which music 
served as an adjunct to scenery and danc- 
ing; the definitive form in this class is the 
^Ballet, which was brought from Italy 
into France where it later exercised a 
determining influence on the form of the 
French opera (see below). (2) Works in 
which music served as a diversion with 
spoken drama, i.e., in which the musical 
portions appeared usually as ^Intermezzi 
between the acts of a play. However, the 
creation of opera itself had to await the 
discovery of a kind of drama which 
should lend itself to the continuous use of 
music, and the discovery of a kind of mu- 
sic which should be capable of dramatic 
expression. The necessary poetic form 
was found in the Pastorale, which toward 
the end of the i6th century displaced 
practically all earlier dramatic types in 
Italy, and culminated in Tasso’s Aminta 
(1573) and Guarini’s Pastor fido (1581- 
90). The earliest opera poems are pas- 
torales on the model of these two works 
[see also ^Eclogue]. The development 
of a musical style suitable for opera was 
the work of the Florentine *Camerata 
[see also *Nuove musiche; *Monody]; 
the ^Madrigal comedies of Vecchi, how- 
ever, which are frequently mentioned as 
pre-operatic types, have no place in the 
history of the opera. 

The history of opera may be divided 
into five periods: 


[507 1 


OPERA 

1590-1680. Development of dramatic 
style in music and of apppropriate dra- 
matic and musical forms (III-VII). 
1680-1760. Utilization of established style 
and forms in operas of a standard type: 
the Neapolitan opera (VIII). 

1760-1850. Introduction of new subject- 
matter and loosening of traditional 
forms, in the interest of a more direct 
connection between dramatic content 
and musical expression (IX). 

1850-1920. Abandonment of set forms 
and formal divisions in favor of con- 
tinuous music, with recurrence of char- 
acteristic motifs: the music-drama (X). 
1920-the present. Reaction against sub- 
ject-matter, size, and musical amor- 
phousness of the music-drama; return 
to 18th-century forms (the “number” 
opera) in modern musical idioms (XI). 

III. Florentine and Roman Opera. 
The earliest operas, all performed at 
Florence, are: Dafne^ poem by Rinuccini, 
music by Peri (iS97; music lost); Euri- 
dicey poem by Rinuccini, music by Cac- 
cini (1600; in ^Editions XXVI, 10); 
EuridicCy music by Peri (1600; in *Edi- 
tions II, 6 and VI, 24). (A. Tirabassi, in 
MQ XXV, makes a claim for Domenico 
Belli’s Orjeo dolente as the earliest opera, 
but without convincing evidence). The 
music of the Florentine operas consists 
mostly of recitative over a thorough-bass, 
the somewhat colorless harmonies of 
which were realized by a small orchestra. 
Conformable to the ideal of imitation of 
Greek drama, the vocal line aims at close 
adherence to the natural rhythm and ac- 
cent of the spoken word; therefore, al- 
though flawless in declamation and occa- 
sionally expressive in detail, it is lacking 
in any distinct melodic character or any 
principle of musical organization. Excep- 
tions to this style occur in the occasional 
metrical songs and choruses, usually with 
dancing, which are placed at the end of 
the principal scenes; but the almost total 
exclusion of counterpoint and the neglect 
of instrumental music resulted, as soon as 
the novelty of the new “stile recitative” 
had worn off, in an unbearable monotony 
of effect. It was the achievement of Mon- 
teverdi to begin the practice of introduo 



OPERA 


OPERA 


ing into opera the full resources of the art tions XXVI, 12; 11 Porno d'oro^ i 66 y at 
of music. His Orfeo (Mantua, 1607; Vienna). The recitative of Monteverdi’s 
poem by Alessandro Striggio) is on the Incoronazione is the apotheosis of the 
same subject, and in the same general Florentine monodic style, and is corn- 
style, as the earlier Florentine Euridice bined with more regular aria forms to 
operas; but it shows notable advances both make one of the most beautiful operatic 
in dramatic characterization and in musi- scores of the entire 17th century. The 
cal form. Monteverdi’s harmony is in- works of Cavalli and Cesti show the in- 
comparably richer and more varied than fluence of public taste on the operatic 
that of Peri or Caccini. The recitative is form in their greater size, more lavish 
more expressive, and is frequently organ- staging (see especially Burnacini’s stage 

ized by means of repetitions, sequential designs for 11 Porno d'oro in DTOe 3.ii 

passages, etc., into distinct musical pat- and 4.ii), greater number of characters, 

terns. The remarkable aria “Possente plot-complications, and use of burlesque- 

spirto” in Act III consists of four strophes comic episodes. Musical effects become 

of elaborately “colored” solo, each with a less subtle than in earlier works. The 
different orchestral accompaniment. The virtuoso soloist begins to be featured, 
large orchestra is another feature of this Recitative and aria become completely 
work, as well as the number of instru- distinct and the latter crystallizes into 

mental pieces (26 in all), including the standard forms (strophic, ostinato-bass, 

introductory “toccata” (the earliest oper- da capo). There are many arias in light, 
atic ^overture) and the frequent ritor- popular, melodic style, as well as more 

nelli which by their recurrence serve to serious types. The use of an orchestral 

give musical unity to long sections of the introduction to the aria, repeated at the 

opera. close (“ritornello” principle), as well as 

With the third decade of the 17th cen- short orchestral interludes between the 

tury the center of operatic interest shifts sections, is established. There are impor- 

to Rome (chief composers: Stefano Lan- tant orchestral overtures and sinfonias, 

di, Domenico Mazzochi, Michelangelo but the chorus is much less prominent 

Rossi, Luigi Rossi). Landi’s 5 . Alessio than in the operas of the Roman school, 

(perf. 1632; cf. ’"‘Editions II, 5) shows a The course of Venetian op)era after 
stage in the differentiation between reci- Cesti is difficult to follow owing to the 

tativc and aria, with the use of tuneful unavailability of sources. There was a 

melodies in the latter, as well as contin- flourishing branch of comic-satirical op- 

ued progress toward formal clarity. In era, while serious works were composed 

this work also the “canzona” type of by Legrenzi (Eteocle e Polinice, 

overture appears, while the “sinfonia” be- C. Pallavicino {La Gerusalemme liberata, 

fore the second act is an early example of 1687 at Dresden; cf. DdT 55), and 

the three-movement arrangement (fast- Stradella. 

slow-fast) of the later Italian overture. The climax of the 17th-century Italian 
The Roman operas are distinguished by opera is seen in the works of Agostino 

extensive use of the chorus. This school Sleffani (Alarico, 1687; Henrico Leone ^ 

was also the first to produce ^comic 1689; cf. DTB ii.ii, iz.ii), a native of 

operas, Venice but whose musical activity took 

IV. Venetian Opera. The rise of the place entirely in Germany. In Steffani, 

Venetian school begins in 1637, with the perfect reconciliation of the monodic 

the opening of the first public opera and contrapuntal principles is achieved, 

house (“Teatro S. Cassiano”). The and the foundation firmly laid for the 

first composers are: Monteverdi {11 operatic style of Handel. 

Ritorno d'Ulisse^ 1641; U Incoronazione In the i8th century the Venetian 
di Poppea, 1642), Cavalli {GiasonCy school is represented by Lotti, C. F. Pol- 

1649, in "^Editions XXVI, 12; Serse^ larolo, Vivaldi, and Galuppi, the last be- 

1654), and Cesti {La Doriy 1662, in *Edi- ing distinguished for his “buffo” operas 

[508] 



OPERA 

The historical importance of Venice lies 
in the establishment of opera as a public 
spectacle, the development of an appro- 
priate musical style and forms, and fur- 
thermore in its widespread influence on 
the formation of opera in Germany and 
France. 

V. French Opera, French national 
opera was founded by Robert Cambert 
{Pomone, 1671) and Jean-Baptiste Lully 
{Cadmus et Hermione, 1673; Atys, 1676; 
Amadis de Gaule, 1684; Armide et Re- 
naud^ 1686). Although there had been 
performances of Italian opera in Paris 
between 1645 and 1662 (notably Luigi 
Rossi’s Orjeo in 1647), the French were 
slow to adopt the form, partly because in 
their own classical tragedy (Corneille, 
Racine) and in the Ballet they had al- 
ready perfected two types of stage pro- 
duction with which they were satisfied 
and which they did not believe could be 
successfully merged. It is a tribute to 
Lully’s skill that he was able to take cer- 
tain features of each of these established 
forms, along with some elements of the 
Pastorale, and combine them in the opera. 
As compared with contemporary Italian 
works, the French opera is distinguished 
by (i) the relatively greater importance 
of the drama in the total scheme, (2) the 
exceptionally large place given to ballets, 
choruses, and spectacular scenes in gen- 
eral, (3) the greater use of instrumental 
music, (4) the use of short and simple 
sonp, mostly of a dance-like character 
(*airs) rather than elaborate arias, (5) a 
special type of ^recitative, and (6) a spe- 
cial type of ^overture, known as French 
overture. This type of opera remained 
essentially unchanged in the works of 
Lully’s successors, including Rameau 
(Hippolyte et Aricie, 1733; Castor et Pol- 
luxy 1737), whose operas represent the 
high-point of this form in France before 
Gluck. For reprints of French operas see 
^Editions IV. 

VI. English Opera, As French opera 
grew out of the Ballet, so English opera 
developed from the ^Masque, though not 
without difficulty owing to the prejudice 
during the Commonwealth (1649-60) 
against stage entertainments. John Blow’s 


OPERA 

Venus and Adonis (c, 1685), although 
entitled ‘a masque,” is the first genuine 
opera to be produced in England. The 
only great figure of English opera is 
Henry Purcell, whose Dido and Aeneas 
(c, 1689) is a masterpiece in miniature. 
Though not free of French influence 
(form of overture, care for clear text-dec- 
lamation, certain rhythmic mannerisms, 
prominence of dancing, instrumental 
pieces, and choruses), it nevertheless com- 
bines these features with highly original 
and characteristically English melodies, 
rhythms, and harmonies, together with 
a degree of tragic expressiveness (Dido’s 
lament, “When I am laid in earth”) 
which has hardly been surpassed in op- 
era. These same qualities may be found 
in much of Purcell’s other theater music, 
which is in the form of incidental music 
to plays {Dioclesian^ 1690; King Arthur^ 
1691). With Purcell’s early death, the 
history of English serious opera may be 
said to end, so far as any works of first 
rank are concerned. 

VII. German Opera, With the excep- 
tion of Schiitz’s Daphne (1627 at Tor- 
gau; music lost), the early history of op- 
era in Germany is predominantly the 
history of Italian composers at German 
courts: Pallavicino at Dresden, A. Draghi 
at Vienna, Steflani at Munich and Han- 
over, and a host of others. Their influ- 
ence was such that for the next hundred 
years even native German masters were 
content to write in the Italian style, and 
to Italian texts (Fux, Hasse, Gluck, Mo- 
zart). The only important native Ger- 
man school was at Hamburg, where the 
titles of the first Singspiele (e.g., Theile’s 
Adam und Eva, 1678) show the connec- 
tion with the tradition of School-dramas 
on sacred themes. (An earlier example 
is Staden’s “Spiritual pastorale” Seelewigy 
Nuremberg, 1644; see MfM xiii; 
SchGMB, no. 195.) German operas on 
secular subjects, both serious and comic, 
soon made their appearance. The chief 
composer of the Hamburg school was 
Reinhard Keiser, of whose reputed 120 
operas but 18 have been preserved 
{Croesus y 1711, revised 1730; in DdT 
37/38; Octaviay 1706; in Handel Gesell- 

[509] 



OPERA 


OPERA 


schaft, Supplement; Prinz Jodelet, 1726; principal character, which are a conse- 
in ^Editions XXVI, 18). Reiser’s impor- quence of the action just preceding. Thus 
tance lies not only in his position as the the libretto presents a constant altcrna- 
best composer of early German opera, but tion of active and reflective portions, the 
also in his direct influence on Handel, former being interpreted musically as 
whose first four operatic works were pro- recitative (mostly recitativo secco) and 
duced at Hamburg in 1705-06. Reiser’s the latter as aria. Choruses are practi- 
style is essentially like that found in the cally non-existent. As for the orchestra, 
operas of Steffani and (to a higher degree its function (except for the overture [see 
of development) in Handel. An out- *Italian overture] and an occasional 
standing feature of his style is the skill of march or other incidental piece) is de- 
thc orchestral parts of the arias, and the cidedly subordinate, though in the hands 
variety of combinations of concertizing of an able composer the ritornellos and 
instruments which he employs. After accompaniments to the arias may be of 
Reiser, German opera degenerated and considerable interest and importance, 
by the middle of the i8th century had But the center of attention and the basic 
entirely disappeared. unit in the structure of these operas was 

VIII. Neapolitan Opera, The prevail- the aria, of which many different types 
ing type of 18th-century serious opera is existed {aria cantabile, aria parlante^ aria 
known as “Neapolitan,” from the name di bravura^ etc.), though practically all 
of the city where many of its early com- were in the Da Capo form. Fairly rigid 
posers chiefly worked [see ^Neapolitan conventions prevailed as to the number 
School]. This type was cultivated in all and order of the different types of aria 
countries (except France) by native and and their distribution among the mem- 
Italian composers alike, and the word bers of the cast, and the popularity of 
“Neapolitan” has been generally applied Metastasio (his 27 librettos were set to 
to operas which vary widely from one music over 1000 times in the i8th cen- 
another both in technical treatment and tury) is in large part attributable to his 
in artistic merit. By some historians the ability to meet the peculiar requirements 
term is restricted to operas the music of of the form without undue sacrifice of 
which is in a popular, tuneful style with dramatic force and continuity. Corollary 
simple harmonic accompaniments, char- to the conception of the aria as the es- 
acteristic of the period 1710-50 [see sential unit of form were two phenomena 
•Gallant style]. characteristic of 18th-century opera: (i) 

Much of the usual criticism of the Nea- The high development of vocal technique 
politan opera rises from lack of under- [see •Bel canto], particularly by the 
standing of the principles of the form or *ca 5 trati\ (2) The prevalent custom of 
from concentrating on its abuses while borrowing arias from one opera for use 
ignoring its virtues. Its foundation was a in another, whether or not by the same 
rationalistic ideal of drama, realized composer [cf. •Pasticcio]. Since there 
through the reforms of Zeno and his were no printed scores, and no copyright 
more famous successor Metastasio, who restrictions, an opera was seldom per- 
purged the chaotic 17th-century opera formed the same way in two different 
libretto of irrelevant elements (e.g., comic places or at two different times,^and the 
and fantastic episodes) and created a uni- changes were sometimes so extensive as 
fied, closely-knit three-act dramatic struc- to make it impossible any more to recon- 
ture, with characters and subjects drawn struct the original version, 
principally from classical history or leg- The reputed founder of the Neapolitan 
end (seldom from mythology). For- school is Alessandro Scarlatti, of whose 
mally, each scene consists of two distinct 114 operas not one exists complete in any 
parts, the first comprising the action and rnodern edition. The degree of styliza- 
thc second devoted to the expression of tion evident in later composers is not seen 
the reflections, feelings, or resolves of the in Scarlatti, though the works of his last 

[510] 



OPERA 

period clearly foreshadow the tendency. 
The chief representatives of the Neapol- 
itan school in the early i8th century arc 
Porpora, L. Vinci, Leo, and J. A. Hasse. 
But unquestionably the greatest composer 
of Italian opera in this period is Handel, 
who from 1711 to 1740 produced at Lon- 
don a scries of works some of which have 
never been surpassed for nobility of style 
or profundity of dramatic insight {Giulio 
Cesarcy 1724; TamerlanOy 1724; Rode- 
linduy 1725). Later composers of serious 
opera in the Neapolitan tradition include 
Latilla, Piccini, Sard, Sacchini, Salieri, 
Gluck (early works), and Mozart {Ido- 
meneOy 1781). Growing criticism of the 
rigidity of the form and of the abuses 
consequent on the overbearing vanity of 
the singers (cf. Marcello’s satire ll Teatro 
alia mo day c, 1720) led to efforts at re- 
form, in which Jomelli {FetontCy 1751; 
in DdT 32/33) and Traetta (in DTB 
I4.i, 17) were prominent. Credit for the 
final reform of the Neapolitan opera is 
generally given to Gluck, in spite of the 
fact that of his '^reform” operas only two 
(OrfeOy 1762; AlcestCy 1767) were com- 
posed originally to Italian librettos, and 
these were later revised and adapted to 
French texts at Paris; while the others 
{IphigSnie en Aulidcy 1772, Armidcy 
1777, I phi genie en Tauride, 1779) were 
on French poems, were designed for and 
performed at Paris, and moreover em- 
bodied many of the features which had 
been characteristic of French opera from 
the time of Rameau and Lully: compara- 
tive subordination of music to drama, 
avoidance of mere vocal display, flexibility 
of musical forms, closer approximation 
of style between recitative and aria, and 
general simplicity both of subject and 
treatment. (These are the points stressed 
in the famous dedicatory preface to Al- 
ceste.) To these may be added another 
detail which is common to Rameau and 
Gluck, and not common in Neapolitan 
opera: the use of large choral and ballet 
scenes connected with the action. In 
short, the direct reform of Gluck lay in 
his injection of renewed dramatic vigor 
into French opera; though indirectly, his 
success at Paris and the subsequent stead- 


OPERA 

ily growing influence of the French capi- 
tal in operatic affairs made later Italian 
composers more ready to adopt practices 
calculated to assure a favorable Parisian 
hearing of their works, and thus led to a 
closer rapprochement of the two national 
styles. Other influences working toward 
a reform of the Neapolitan opera in the 
later i8th century were the cult of natu- 
ralness as set forth in the writings of 
Rousseau, and the increasing significance 
of popular “comic” operas, which by the 
end of the century in all countries had 
attained artistic equality with serious op- 
era. See *Comic opera; ^Number opera. 

IX. From Mozart to Wagner, The 
climax of later i8th century Italian opera 
is in the works of Mozart (Le Nozze di 
FigarOy 1786; Don Giovanniy 1787; Cost 
fan tuttCy 1790), and it is significant that 
his three Italian masterpieces were of the 
“buffo” variety (the “opera seria” La 
Clemenza di TitOy 1791, is of less impor- 
tance), though the designation then no 
longer had the narrow significance which 
it possessed in the early part of the cen- 
tury. Mozart’s operas are outstanding in 
sharpness and subtlety of characteriza- 
tion, integration of vocal and instrumen- 
tal factors, and the adaptation of the 
classical symphonic style in their ensem- 
ble finales. His Entfiihrung aus dem 
Serail (1781) is one of the finest exam- 
ples of the *Singspiel, and Die Zauber- 
fiote (1791) is an important forerunner 
of 19th-century German Romantic opera. 

The influence of Gluck was evident in 
a school of large-scale “heroic” opera cen- 
tering ar Paris, represented by such works 
as Sacchini’s Dardanus (1784) and 
Oedipe d Colone (1786), Salieri’s Da- 
naides {i^^^)y Cherubini’s Medee (i797)> 
Spontini’s Vestale (1807), and Mehul’s 
Joseph (1807). The continuation of this 
school was the 19th-century “grand op- 
era” of which the most famous examples 
arc Rossini’s Guillaume Tell (1829), 
Halevy’s La Juive (1835), Meyerbeer’s 
Huguenots (1836) and Prophhte (1849), 
Wagner’s Rienzi (1842), and Berlioz’ 
Troyens (comp. 185^58; never per- 
formed in its entirety). In contrast to 
this style was the opera on more realistic, 


[511] 



OPERA 


OPERA 

often melodramatic, subjects, one charac- Life for the Tsar in 1836. Its chief com- 
teristic form of which was the “rescue poser was Moussorgsky, who in Boris 
opera” (Cherubini’s Deux journeeSy Godunov (perf. 1874) created a score 
1800; Beethoven’s FiVe//o, 1805, *06, ’14). which combined nationalistic subject- 
The works so far mentioned constitute matter and musical material with origi- 
what may he called the international op- nality and great dramatic power. Among 
era of the early 19th century. Less pre- the composers of Russian opera should 
tentious at first in scope and subject- also be mentioned Borodin {Prince Igor, 
matter, but of greater eventual impor- perf. 1890) and Rimsky-Korsakov (The 
tance historically were the various na- Snow Maideny 1SS2; Sad l{Oy iSgy),Tc\\ai- 
tional schools. kovsky’s works in operatic form (Eugen 

In Italy the leading composers were Oniegin, 1877; Queen of SpadeSy 

Rossini (best known for his comic opera 1890) are in the Romantic style, but do 
11 Barbiere di Siviglia, 1816); Bellini not belong in the nationalistic category. 
(NormUy 1831); Donizetti (Lucrezia The background of Romantic opera in 
BorgiUy 1833; Lucia di Lammermoor, Germany is to be found in the *Singspiel 
1835); and Verdi (RigolettOy 1851; ll of the late i8th and early 19th centuries. 
TrovatorCy La Traviatay 1853; Aiday An important early composer is Spohr 
1871; OtellOy 1887; Falstaff, 1893). (Fausty 1818; Jessonday 1823). Weber’s 

crowning-point of Italian opera with Freischutz (1S21) and Euryanthe (1^2^) 
melodramatic plots, popular type melo- established the fundamental charactcris- 
dies, and concentration on “effective” vo- tics of the school, which are: (i) the Ro- 
cal numbers [see ^Number opera] is mantic treatment of subjects derived 
reached in Verdi’s works of the i850*s. from national legend and folklore; (2) a 
Aiday a work in the '‘grand opera” tradi- deep feeling for nature and the use of 
tion, shows unmistakable signs of the natural phenomena as an essential ele- 
changes in style which were fully realized ment in the drama; (3) the acceptance of 
in Otello and Falstaff: better librettos, supernatural agencies as a means of dra- 
continuity of presentation, a more flexible matic development; and (4) the direct or 
rhythm, more expressive harmony, and implied glorification of the German land, 
closer approach to equality between vocal culture, and people. Musically, Der Frei- 
and instrumental elements — though schiitz marks an important stage in the 
still retaining the classical Italian quali- discovery of Romantic expressive effects 
tics of clarity, dramatic simplicity, and (introduction to the Overture, the Wolf’s 
profound comprehension of the expres- Glen scene), as well as in the use of folk- 
sivc possibilities of the solo voice. song-like melodies, side by side with 

In Franccy aside from “grand opera,” more conventional operatic arias. The 
the early 19th century was taken up with operas of Marschner (Der Vampyry 1828; 
the •op^ra-comique, a form and style in- Hans Heilingy 1833) continue the gen- 
herited from the preceding period, but cral type established by Weber, and the 
which gradually developed into the lyric latter’s influence is strongly evident in 
opera of Gounod (Fausty 1859) and s Der fliegende Hollander (i^^’^)y 

Thomas (Mignony 1866), in both of and even in Lohengrin, 
whom Italian influence is manifest. Later X. The Music Drama, Wagner’s next 
19th-century French opera is repre- two operas after Der fliegende Hollander 
sented by Bizet (Carmeny 1875), Delibes arc steps in the evolution toward the Mu- 
{Lal^m^y 1883), Chabrier (Gwendoliney sic Drama. Tannhduser (1845) still re- 
1886, obviously indebted to Wagner’s tains the old-fashioned division into 
Tristan) y Massenet (Manony 1884), “numbers,” and has some unessential dis- 
d’lndy (Fervaaly 1889-95), and other play scenes; but with Lohengrin (comp, 
composers (sec below). 1847) these irrelevancies are dismissed. 

A national school of opera began in Music and drama arc more closely uni- 
Russia with the performance of Glinka’s fied, greater continuity is achieved, and 

[512] 



OPERA 


OPERA 

the symbolic meaning of the drama is variation, or development of the corrc- 
made clearly evident. The vocal line be- spending object in the drama. Wagner’s 
comes emancipated from the older peri- music is the incarnation of the full, rich 
odic rhythm, approaching the free melo- sound-ideal of the late Romantic period, 
die style of the late works. Wagner em- deriving a peculiar intensity of expression 
ployed the early years of his exile (1849- from the skillful orchestration, the free- 
64) in completing the poem and part of dom and variety of the harmonic pro- 
the music of Der Ring des Nibelungen gressions, and the effective employment 
and in writing various essays, of which of suspensions and appoggiaturas. That 
the most important is Oper und Drama his works continue popular is undoubt- 
(1851). In this work he developed the edly due more to their musical qualities 
theoretical basis for the Music Drama, and their sheer dramatic effectiveness 
the practical application of which appears than to any general acceptance of the the- 
in the four dramas of the Ring (first com- ory of the Gesamtkunstwerk, with its 
plete performance at Bayreuth, 1876), manifold implications. 

Tristan und Isolde {comip. Die XI. The Modern Opera, Wagner’s 

Meister singer von Number g (comp, musical style and his ideal of “continuous 
1862—67), and Parsifal (comp. 1877—79)* melody” influenced all composers of op- 
These works are all based on a concep- era in the late 19th and early 20th cen- 
tion of the Music Drama as a super-art- turies, particularly Richard Strauss ( 5 iz- 
form (Gesamtkunstwerk) in which all lomey 1905; Der Rosen^avalier, 1911). 
the constituent arts are transfigured, sac- At the same time, the Music Drama pro- 
rificing their individual identity and voked reactions in favor of so-called “real- 
some of their special characteristics for ism” in subject-matter and compression 
the larger possibilities of development and simplicity of musical treatment, evi- 
opened up by the new association. The dent in the Italians Mascagni, Leonca- 
myth is held to be the ideal subject, not vallo, and Puccini (La Boh^mCy 1896; 
merely because it is entertaining but also Tosca^ 1900) and in the French Bru- 
because it is significant; its meaning is neau (Messidor, 1897) and Charpentier 
expressed in poetry (speech), but it is in- (LouisCy 1900). Debussy’s Pelleas et 
evitably impelled to song, since only mu- Melisande (1902) is a unique application 
sic is capable of conveying the intensity of the impressionist technique to opera, 
of feeling to which the ideas of the poem and comes closer than any other modern 
give rise. This song is flexible (non-peri- work to realizing the original Florentine 
odic rhythm) and free (no formal divi- ideal of music as an almost imperceptible 
sions into recitative, aria, etc.); it implies support and setting for the poetry, 
a polyphonic substructure which is real- Recent composers of opera, despite the 
ized by the orchestra, and which em- diversity of musical idioms, are united in 
bodies the “inner action” of the drama the search for objectivity of expression 
(i.e., the feelings) as the words embody and clarity of musical form. This is evi- 
its “outer action” (i.e., the precise ideas dent in three of the most significant op- 
with which the feelings are connected), cratic works of the period following the 
The orchestral music is continuous first World War: Berg’s Wozzec\ (perf. 
throughout an act, the technical concomi- 1925), with its deliberate employment of 
tant of this being the avoidance of double classical forms (suite, passacaglia, sonata, 
bars and perfect cadences and the con- etc.); Hindemith’s Cardillac (1926), a 
tinual shifting of the tonal center; it is straight “number” opera, in a style which 
unified by the use of “*leit-motifs,” mu- Slonimsky has aptly called “neo-Hande- 
sical themes each connected with a par- lian”; and Milhaud’s Christophe Colomb 
ticular person, thing, or idea (or all three, (1930), which in its use of large choral 
as in the case of Siegfried’s horn-call), and spectacular effects recalls the age of 
and recurring, varying, or developing Lully and Rameau. Other phenomena of 
musically in accord with the recurrence, the post war period are the jazz-operas 

[513] 



OPERA 


OPERA HOUSES 


(Weill, Krenck), topical operas (Hinde- 
mith’s Neues vom Tage, 1929) and 
Shostakovich’s propaganda-opera Lady 
Macbeth (perf. 1934). A recent develop- 
ment in England and the United States 
is the rise of interest in “chamber opera,” 
short works suitable for performance by 
small or semi-professional groups. 

See also *Comic opera; ^Operetta; 
♦Ballet in opera; ♦Singspiel; ♦Ballad op- 
era; *Libretto. 

Lit. (selected): A, Lexicons: H. Rie- 
mann, Opern-Handbuch (1893); 
ment and Larousse, Dictionnaire Lyrique 
(1905); Dassori, Opere operisti (1903); 
U. S. Library of Congress, Catalogue of 
opera librettos printed before 1800, 2 vols. 
(1914); W. Altmann, Katalog der thea~ 
tralischen Musil^ seit 186^ 0934 )*) 
Loewenberg, Annals of Opera 1597-/9^0 

(1943)- 

B. Plots of Operas: G. Kobbe, The 
Complete Opera Boo]{^ (1922, ’24); H. E. 
Krehbiel, A Boo\ of Operas (1919); O. 
Downes, The Home Book of the Opera 

(1937)- 

C. General History: E. Dent, History 
of the Opera (1942); W. Brockway and 
H. Weinstock, The Opera (1941); H. 
Kretzschmar, Geschichte der Oper (1919; 
useful for the period before 1800) ; O. Bie, 
Die Oper (1914); M. Graf, The Opera 
and its Future in America (1941). 

D. Special History: A. Solerti, Gli aU 
bori del melodramma, 3 vols. (1904^); 
H. Goldschmidt, Studien zur Geschichte 
der italienischen Oper im 77. fahrhun- 
derty 2 vols. (1901-04); R. Rolland, His- 
toire de VopSra en Europe avant Lully et 
Scarlatti (1895); H. Pruniires, V opera 
italien en France avant Lully (1914); id.y 
Cavalli et VopSra vSnetien au xviie sihcle 
(1931); P.-M. Masson, LopSra de Ra- 
meau (1930); E. Dent, Alessandro Scar- 
latti (1905); id,y Foundations of English 
opera (1928); ///., MozarVs Operas 
(1913); H. Schlctterer, Das deutsche 
Singspiel (1863); H. Leichtentritt, Rein- 
hard Keiser in seinen Opern (1901); H. 
Abert, Niccolo fommelli als Opernkpm- 
ponist (1908); F. Florimo, La fcuola mu- 
sicale di Napoli^ 4 vols. (1880-^83); A. B. 
Marx, Gluc\ und die Oper^ 2 vols. 


(1863); L. Schiedermair, Die deutsche 
Oper (1930); R. Newmarch, The Rus- 
sian Opera (1914); E. B, Hill, Modern 
French Music (1924); A. Lorenz, Das 
Geheimnis der Form bei Richard Wag- 
ner, 4 vols. (1924-33). 

E, Periodical Literature (grouped ac- 
cording to the paragraphs of the preced- 
ing article): II: A. Solerti, in RMl x. — 
III: O. G. Sonneck, in SIM xv (Dafne); 
A. Tirabassi, in MQ xxv (Orfeo dolente)\ 
W. J. Lawrence, in x (Monteverdi); 
P. Epstein, in ZMW x (Monteverdi); 
L. Torchi, in RMl i, ii (instrumental ac- 
companiment). — IV: A. Sandberger, in 
JMP xxxi; H. Kretzschmar, in VMW viii 
and in fMP xiv, xvii, xviii; H. C. Wolff, 
in ZMW xvi; A. Solerti, in RMl ix (1571- 
1605); H. Hess, in Beihefte der IMG ii.3 
(Stradella). — V: D. J. Grout, in ML 
xxii, no. i; Numero Special, RM 1925 
(Lully); P. Masson, in RdM xi (Ra- 
meau). — VI: E. J. Dent, in PM A lii; J. 
Mark, in ML v, no. 3 (Dryden). — VII: 
L. Schiedermaier, in JMP xvii; S. 
Schmidt, in ZMW v, vi (1627-1750); A. 
Sandberger, in AMW i (Niimberg, c, 
1700); A. Merbach, in AMW vi (Ham- 
burg); Kleefeld, in SIM i (Hamburg, 
1718-50). — VIII: W. Vetter, in AMW 
vi and in ZMW vii (Gluck); K. Worner, 
in ZMW xiii (Gluck); H. Welti, in 
VMW vii (Gluck); W. Vetter, in ZMW 
xiv (Vienna, 1750); M. Callegori, in 
RMl xxvi, xxviii (Metastasio). — IX: H. 
Abert, in ZMW i (Joh. Chr. Bach); H. 
Kretzschmar, in JMP xii (Mozart); H. 
Strobel, in ZMW vi (Mehul); H. Leich- 
tentritt, in MQ xiv (Schubert); W. Alt- 
mann, in SIM iv (Spontini); G. Schiine- 
mann, in ZMW v (Mendelssohn); S. 
Goddard, in ML x, no. 3 (Boras Godu- 
nov). D.J.G. 

Opera buffa. See ♦Comic opera. 

Opera comique. See ♦Comic opera. 

Opera houses. The first opera house 
was the Teatro San Cassiano in Venice, 
founded 1637; previously, opera perform- 
ances had been given in private rooms 
and for invited guests only. There fol- 
lowed foundations in London (1656), 

[514] 



OPERETTA 


ORAGEUX 


Paris (1669), Rome (1671), Hamburg 
(1678). After 1700, opera houses became 
common in all the musical centers of Eu- 
rope. The most important opera houses 
of the present day are listed below. 

I. America, United States. New York: 
Metropolitan Opera House, — Boston: 
Opera House. — Chicago: Opera House, 

II. Latin America. Buenos Aires: 
Opera\ Teatro Colon. — Rio de Janeiro: 
Teatro Municipal. 

III. Austria. Vienna: Staatsoper\ Volins- 
oper. 

IV. England. London: Royal Covent 
Garden. 

V. Germany. Berlin: Staatsoper\ 
Stddtische Oper (Charlottenburg). — 
Dresden: Sdchsisches Staatstheater . — 
Hamburg: Stadttheater. — Munich: Bay^ 
risches Staatstheater. — Bayreuth: Best- 
spielhaus (Wagner operas). — There ex- 
ist about 30 more opera houses in smaller 
German cities [cf. A. Einstein, Das Neue 
Musi]{lexi 1 {on (1926), p. 464]. 

VI. France. Paris: Theatre National 
de VOp 6 ra\ OpSra-Comique. 

VII. Italy. Rome: Teatro Costanzi\ 
Teatro Adriano. — Milan: Teatro alia 
Scala. — Venice: Teatro la Fenice . — 
Torino: Teatro Regio. — Bologna: Teatro 
Communale. — ^Naples: Teatro San Carlo. 
— Genoa: Teatro Carlo Felice. 

VIII. Spain. Madrid: Teatro Real. 

For more detailed information see 

Pierre Key’s Music Year Boof{. 

Operetta [It., little opera]. In the i8th 
century the term is used for a short opera. 
In the 19th and 20th centuries it denotes 
a theatrical piece of light and sentimental 
character in simple and popular style, 
containing spoken dialogue, music, danc- 
ing scenes, etc. The modern operetta 
originated in Vienna with Franz von 
Suppe (1819-95; 31 operettas between 
1834 1894) Paris with Jacques 

Offenbach (1819-80; c. 90 operettas be- 
tween 1855 1879)* The latter’s Or- 

phSe aux Enfers (“Orpheus in the Under- 
world”) and Lm Belle Helene are famous 
for their satirical treatment of Greek 
mythology. Johann Strauss, Jr. (1825- 
99), raised the Viennese operetta to inter- 


national fame with c. 30 operettas written 
between 1871 and 1895, among which 
Die Fledermaus (“The Bat,” 1874) has 
remained on the repertory to the present 
day. At the same time Arthur Sullivan 
(1842-1900) wrote English operettas 
(mostly on librettos by W. S. Gilbert) 
which represent the highest point at- 
tained in English dramatic music since 
Purcell. 

In the United States the operetta was 
cultivated mainly by Victor Herbert 
(1859-1924), composer of The Wizard of 
the Nile (1895) and many other oper- 
ettas, and by Reginald de Koven (1859- 
1920), remembered mainly from his first 
operetta Robin Hood (1890). Among the 
more recent contributions Firefly (1912), 
by Rudolf Friml (b. 1884), The Student 
Prince^ by Sigmund Romberg (b. 1887), 
and Show Boat (1929), by Jerome Kern, 
may be mentioned. 

Lit.: M. S. Mackinley, Light Opera 
(1926); A. F. Beach, Preparation and 
Presentation of the Operetta (for Public 
Schools); K. R. Umfleet, School Operettas 
and their Froduction \ O. Keller, Die Ope- 
rette in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwic]{- 
lung (1925). Cf. MoML, 583. 

Ophicleide. See *Brass instruments 
V(c). 

Opus [L., work; F. oeuvre\^ abbreviated 
op., indicates in conjunction with figures 
(op. I, op. 2) the chronological position 
of a composition within the entire output 
of a composer. The opus-numbers are 
not always reliable owing to the fact that 
they are usually applied in the order of 
publication, rather than of composition. 
One of the first composers to use opus- 
numbers was Biagio Marini (op. i, 1617). 
Bach never numbered his compositions, 
and with Haydn as well as with Mozart 
the opus-numbers are applied so incon- 
sistently and haphazardly (frequently by 
the publisher rather than by the com- 
poser) that they are practically valueless. 
Beethoven was the first to use opus-num- 
ber with a sufficient degree of consistency, 
at least for his greater works. 

Orageux [F.]. Stormy. 


[515] 



ORATIO ORATORIO 

Oratio [L.]. See *Mass A. acter — similar in a way to those of the 

Salvation Army — were held. These in- 
Oratoric. Oratorio rhythm [see eluded reading from the Scriptures, ser- 

♦Rhythm II (c)]. Oratoric(al) ncumes, mon, and the singing of *laude. A spe- 
same as staffless neumes [sec *Neumes cial type of the latter were the “dialogue- 
II]. laude,” i.e., religious poems in the form 

of a dialogue between God and the Soul, 
Oratorio. I. Definition, The composi- Heaven and Hell, etc. These were per- 
tion of an extended libretto of religious formed by different singers or, more ac- 
or contemplative character performed in curately — considering their polyphonic 

a concert hall or church, i.e., without style — by different groups of singers who 

scenery, costumes, or action, by solo might have dressed according to the char- 

voices, chorus, and orchestra. This ex- acters they represented. It is from these 

planation should be understood as a gen- presentations (called “rappresentazione,” 
eral description rather than a definition “storia,” “esempio,” “misterio”) that the 
which would cover every single example, oratorio proper developed. Palestrina as 

Especially in the early history of the well as other famous 16th-century corn- 

oratorio one encounters many exceptional posers is reputed to have written music 
features, e.g., the earliest oratorios were for such occasions, but nothing has been 
usually performed in an operatic manner, preserved prior to Emilio Cavalieri’s {c. 
with scenery and costumes. In such a 1550-1602) Rappresentazione di anima 
case, the more contemplative and less e di corpo (1600; see ^Editions VI, 10; 
dramatic character of the libretto is the also SchGMB, 169, 170; HAM, no. 182), 
chief mark of distinction. Characteristic a work which regarding both date and 
features of musical style distinguishing style is close to the earliest operas (Peri, 
the oratorio from the opera are the greater Caccini). In fact, some modern writers 
emphasis on the chorus, the absence of (Alaleone) have denied it a place in the 

quick dialogue (question and answer in history of the oratorio and, mainly on 

quick succession), and, frequently, the account of its elaborate stage production 
narrator [It. testo\ who introduces the (including the simultaneous [sic\ repre- 
personalities and connects their parts, sentation of Heaven, Earth, and Hell, 
Compositions of a similar character but splendid costumes and ballets; cf. GD 
based on a scriptural or liturgical text iii, 709), have placed it in the category of 
(Mass, Requiem, Passion) are usually not “sacred opera,” a later example of which 
included under the category oratorio, is Steffano Landi's // (1632). 
There exist, however. Passion oratorios, At any rate, it would seem as though this 
in which the story of the Passion is freely work were an isolated attempt which 
told. From the sacred cantata (Bach) failed to establish a tradition. More suc- 
the oratorio is distinguished by its cessful in this respect was the Teatro 
greater extension and by the more nar- Armonko Spirituale (1619) of Giov. 
rative and continuous character of the Francesco Anerio (1567-1620) in which 
libretto. a refined madrigal style is used for the 

11 . History to 16^0. Early types of dra- choral portions, alternating with monody 
matic music in the character of an ora- for the solistic parts among which we 
torio are the ^liturgical dramas of the already find the narrator. Steflano Landi 
later Middle Ages and the *mysteries of (e, 1590-1658) wrote an oratorio Daniel 
the I4th/i5th centuries. More properly, [see *Editions II, 5]. Another important 
the history of the oratorio began in the work, greatly celebrated in its day, was 
mid-i6th century when Filippo Neri in- Domenico Mazzocchi’s (1592-1665) 
augurated, in Rome, a special order called Querimonia di S. Maria Maddalena (c, 
“oratoriani” and founded jl building 1640?). It is an example of the oratorio 
called “oratorio” (oratory, chapel) in volgare, i.e., an oratorio written in the 
which regular services of a popular char- vernacular, not in Latin. 

[516] 



ORATORIO 


ORATORIO 


III. 16^0-1800, Around the middle of 
the 17th century the oratorio entered a 
new phase, owing to the activity of 
Giac. Carissimi (1605-74) who, in his 
Jephtha, Judicium Salomonis^ Jonas, Ex- 
tremum Judicium [see ^Editions VI, 5], 
etc., created the first oratorios which, ac- 
cording to their extension and diversity 
of treatment, would seem to be fully de- 
serving of this name [example in HAM, 
no. 207]. Carissimi’s successors in the 
field of the oratorio were Antonio Draghi 
(1635-1700; c, 40 oratorios), Alessandro 
Stradella (1645-82) with his oratorios 
S. Giovanno Battista and Susanna [cf. 
SchGMB, no. 230], and Alessandro Scar- 
latti (1659-1725) who wrote a great 
number of oratorios (eighteen are pre- 
served with the music) which approxi- 
mate rather closely the style of his operas 
but are, on the whole, much less success- 
ful than these. The oratorios of Antonio 
Lotti (1667-1740) and Antonio Caldara 
(1670-1736), both representatives of the 
Roman-Venetian tradition, are more re- 
served in style, combining a noble dignity 
with a slightly sentimental pathos, while 
Leonardo Leo (1694-1744), Johann 
Adolph Hasse (1699-1783; La Conver- 
sione di San Agostino, DdT 20), and Nic- 
colo Jommelli (1714-74; La Passione, 
see ^Editions VI, 15) continued the Nea- 
politan type of virtuosity and vocal dis- 
play, thus removing the oratorio even 
farther from its ideal. 

At the beginning of the German ora- 
torio stands Heinrich Schiitz with his 
Historia der Aujerstehung (1623) and 
his Christmas Oratorio {Historia von 
der . . . Geburt Christi, 1664), a work 
the artistic significance of which is no 
less than that of Bach's Christmas Ora- 
torio written one century later. Oratorios 
by Selle (1642), Theile (1672), and Sc- 
bastiani (1672) belong to the special cate- 
gory of the Passion [see *Passion B], and 
later composers such as Weekmann, Bux- 
tehude, Rosenmiiller preferred the smaller 
form of the cantata. Thus J. S. Bach 
would seem to have been the first to take 
up again the tradition of Schiitz in his 
great Christmas Oratorio (1733/34) 
in the less important Easter Oratorio 


(^ 73 ^ 0 * There followed Johann Ernst 
Eberlin with Der blutschwitzende Jesus 
(DTOe 28.i), Georg Ph. Telemann 
(1681-1767) with his highly dramatic 
Der Tag des Gerichts of 1761 {DdT 28), 
and Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach 
(1732-95) with Die Kindheit Jesu and 
Die Auferu/ec^ung des Lazarus {DdT 
56). This development came to a fitting 
close with the truly remarkable oratorios 
of C. P. E. Bach {Die Israeliten in der 
Wuste, 1775; Die Aujerstehung und 
Himmeljahrt Jesu, 1787) which, in a 
typical mixture of styles, look back to the 
works of his father as well as forward to 
Haydn [cf. the study by W. H. Hadow, 
in OH iv]. 

The English oratorio is represented by 
Handel who, after a few early works ( La 
Resurrezione, 1708), turned to oratorio 
writing mainly after his dissatisfaction 
with his operatic activity and whose 
Israel in Egypt (1737), Messiah (1742), 
Judas Maccabeus (1746), and Jephtha 
(1751) stand out as lasting monuments of 
his greatness. In contradistinction to 
Bach’s devotional attitude, Handel ap- 
proached the oratorio from a boldly sub- 
jective point of view, making it the expres- 
sion of his own dynamic personality and 
incorporating the elements of his dramatic 
opera style. It is interesting to note that 
Handel’s oratorios were designed to be 
performed during the period of Lent, at 
which period theatrical performances 
were forbidden by law. These Lenten 
oratorios were continued by John Chris- 
topher Smith (1712-95), Charles John 
Stanley (1713-86), and others. While 
Thomas Arne (1710-78), in his Abel 
(1744) and Judith (1764), succeeded in 
saving himself from complete submission 
to the Handelian domination, the Eng- 
lish oratorio entered, with Arne’s death 
in 1775, “on a century of artistic dark- 
ness, over which brooded from first to 
last the elephantine shadow of Handel, to 
which was added in the final thirty years 
the almost equally universal though less 
ostentatiously ponderous shadow of 
Mendelssriin. The composers of these 
tons of oratorios were ‘all honourable 
men’; but . . . their music is nothing 


[517] 



ORATORIO 


ORATORIO 


worse than intolerably dull” (GD ill, 
72lf). 

An important, though little known, 
development of the oratorio took place 
in France, beginning with Carissimi’s 
pupil Marc- Antoine Charpentier (1634- 
1704) whose oratorios (“Histoires sa- 
crees”: Judicium Salomonis; Filius prodi- 
gus, Le Reniement de St, Pierre, etc., all 
with Latin text) combine masterly tech- 
nique with depth of feeling and dramatic 
expression [cf. HAM, no. 226]. Unfor- 
tunately he found no successors in his 
country. 

IV. 1800-Present. Joseph Haydn 
(1732-1809), after his II Ritorno di Tobia 
(1775; said to be “the finest example of 
18th-century Italian oratorio that exists” 
[GD iii, 718]) and his highly expressive 
*Seven Words on the Cross (1797), 
wrote the two works which inaugurated 
a new era in oratorio writing, Die 
Schopfung (“The Creation,” 1797) and 
Die Jahreszeiten (“The Seasons,” 1801), 
the latter of which, though authentically 
named “Oratorio,” belongs to the secular 
rather than the religious field. Com- 
pared with these master works which 
stand at the summit of a long life of 
creative activity, Beethoven’s early 
Christus am Olberg (“Mount of Olives,” 
op. 85, composed 1800, publ. 1811) is in- 
significant. In the first half of the 19th 
century Germany was passing through a 
period of oratorio worship similar to that 
of England, and the works of Ludwig 
Spohr (1784-1859; Das letzte Gericht), 
Friedrich Schneider (1786-1853), and 
Karl Loewe (1796-1869; Hiob, 1848) 
enjoyed a popularity which is hardly jus- 
tified by their artistic merits but which 
lasted undiminished until Mendelssohn 
(1809-47) appeared with his St. Paul 
(1836) and Elijah (1846), oratorios 
which, with their romantically colored 
Bach-Handel style, have retained a last- 
ing place of honor, particularly in Eng- 
land. 

After Mendelssohn quite a number of 
composers have ventured into the field of 
the oratorio (Wagner, Das Liebesmahl 
der Apostel, 1844; Liszt, The Legend of 
St. Elizabeth, 1862, and Christus, 1866; 


Dvorak, St. Ludmila, 1886; Berlioz, 
UEnfance du Christ, 1854; Franck, Les 
BSatitudes, 1879; Rebecca, 1881, etc.; 
d’Indy, La Ugende de SainuChristophe, 
properly a stage work) but, on the whole, 
with conspicuous lack of success. The 
only great contribution of this period is 
Brahms’s Deutsches Requiem (op. 45, 
1857-68), a work which, although not an 
oratorio in the strict sense of the word (it 
is based, not on a free text, but on scrip- 
tural passages), cannot be omitted in a 
description of this form. In England 
there occurred, after more than a century 
of utter mediocrity, a notable revival, in 
oratorios such as Hubert Parry’s Judith 
(1888), Job (1892), and King Saul 
(1894); Elgar’s The Dream of Gerontius 
(1900), The Apostles (1903), and The 
Kingdom (1906); Walford Davies’ Ev- 
eryman (1904); and William Walton’s 
Belshazzar s Feast (1931), compositions 
practically all of which were written for 
and performed at one of the British 
Festivals. Among the American ora- 
torios Horatio Parker’s The Legend of 
St. Christopher and Hora novissima, as 
well as Paine’s St. Peter, must be men- 
tioned. 

Recently Arthur Honegger has opened 
new possibilities for the oratorio in his 
Le Roi David (1923) by abandoning the 
“lyrical emotionalism” of the romantic 
oratorio, and by incorporating archaic 
idioms which bestow upon the work an 
impressive touch of “biblical greatness.” 
Other living composers have cultivated 
the secular oratorio, e.g., Stravinsky in 
his Oedipus Rex (1927, with stage ac- 
tion), Hindemith in Das Unaufhorliche 
(1931), Hermann Reutter in Der grosse 
Kalender (1933). 

Lit.: A. Schering, Geschichte d^s Ora- 
toriums (1911); A. Patterson, The Story 
of the Oratorio (1909); LavE i.3, 1546]® 
(French oratorio); E. Vogl, Die Orato- 
rientechni\ Carissimts (Diss. Prague 
1928); D. Alaleone, Studi della storia dell 
oratorio musicale in Italia (1908); A. 
Schering, in JMP, 1903 and in SIM viii; 
K. Meyer, “Das Offizium und seine Be- 
zichung zum Oratorium” (AMW iii); 
M. Brenet, “Les Oratoircs de Carissimi” 


[518] 



ORCHfiSOGRAPHIE 

{RMl iv); H. Vogel, “Das Oratorium m 
Wien, 1725-40” ( 5 /A/xiv). 

Orch6sographie. See under *Dance 
music II. 

Orchestra and orchestration [Gr., 
literally “dancing place,” i.e., that por- 
tion of the Greek theater — situated be- 
tween the auditorium and the stage, as in 
the modern opera — which was reserved 
for the dancing of the chorus and also for 
the instrumentalists]. 

I. General, In the common meaning 
of the term, a large ensemble of instru- 
ments, as distinct from small ensembles 
(one player to the part) used for chamber 
music or from ensembles consisting of spe- 
cial instruments, called *band. The mod- 
ern orchestra (symphony orchestra) con- 
sists of about 100 instruments which are 
divided into four groups: strings {c. 60), 
wood winds {c, 15), brass {c, 15), and 
percussion {c, 10). To the first group be- 
long the violins, divided into first and 
second violin, the violas, the celli, and the 
double-basses — also the harp; to the 
second, the flutes, oboes, English horn, 
bassoons, and clarinets; to the third, the 
horns, trumpets, trombones, and tubas; 
to the fourth, the kettledrums, side 
drums, glockenspiel, celesta, xylophone, 
tambourin, triangle, cymbals, etc. The 
Boston Symphony Orchestra included in 
1944 the following: three flutes and pic- 
colo; three oboes and English horn; three 
clarinets and bass clarinet; three bassoons 
and double bassoon; seven horns, four 
trumpets, four trombones, tuba; two 
timpanists, three percussion players, 
eighteen first violins, sixteen second vio- 
lins, twelve violas, ten violoncellos, nine 
double basses, two harps. 

The strings are the backbone of the 
orchestra and, in general, are given the 
most important melodic parts of the 
score. Highly expressive, adaptable, and 
not too “individual,” they never become 
tiring and are, therefore, used through- 
out the composition with only short inter- 
ruptions. Next in importance as melody 
instruments are wood winds each of 
which has a very characteristic timbre 
and one which, although highly attrac- 


ORCHESTRA 

tive at first, tends to tire the listener’s ear 
if it continues too long. The wood winds 
must, therefore, be used sparingly as 
color effects imposed upon the basic 
drawing of the violins. In the brass 
group, the horns (French horn) are 
rather similar in character and in use to 
the wood winds. Particularly in early 
symphonies (Haydn, Mozart) they are 
usually combined with the oboes. The 
trumpets and trombones, the “heavy ar- 
tillery” of the orchestra, chiefly serve as a 
reinforcement for the climaxes of massed 
sound. They are, however, also valuable 
for soft effects and as soloist instruments, 
the trombones to express solemn gran- 
deur, the trumpets for brilliant passages 
of a military or similar character. The 
percussion group contributes rhythmic 
life to the orchestra and also special 
effects (triangle, cymbals, celesta) which 
are the more effective the more sparingly 
they are used. 

II. History up to lyoo. While instru- 
ments must have been played together 
ever since their invention, any systematic 
combination in larger groups which takes 
into consideration questions of balance, 
capabilities, and individual characteris- 
tics was but slowly realized. What music 
of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance 
can be identified as “instrumental” [see 
^Instrumental music; ^Instruments, his- 
tory] was chamber rather than orches- 
tral music. This does not mean to say 
that larger ensembles did not exist; they 
were, however, used mainly for ceremo- 
nial and festive purposes (fanfares, etc., 
for royal welcomes, banquets) which fell 
outside the scope of the composer. It is 
perhaps no coincidence that the first com- 
poser to utilize orchestral resources, Gio- 
vanni Gabrieli (1557-1612), worked in 
Venice, then the wealthiest and most cos- 
mopolitan city of Europe, where cere- 
monial receptions and other celebrations 
were the order of the day. His Sacrae 
symphoniacy written c, 1600, are the first 
compositions to use a specific instrument 
for each part, namely, in addition to 
voices, cornetti, trombones, bassoons, and 
violins [see ^Editions XIV, 2 (nos. 6, ii, 
12, 16); cf. also HAMy no. 173]. Little 


[519] 



ORCHESTRA 


ORCHESTRA 


distinction, however, is made between the 
capabilities of the various instruments. 
Claudio Monteverdi’s Orfeo (1607) ^ 

landmark of even greater interest in the 
early history of the orchestra, as it shows 
the attempts to treat the instruments in- 
dividually and to achieve special orches- 
tral effects. His orchestra consisted of: 
two harpsichords (gravicembano), two 
double bass viols (contrabasso de viola) y 
ten viols {viola da brazzo)^ one harp 
{arpa doppia)^ two violins {violino pic- 
colo alia Francese)y two bass lutes {chita- 
rone), two organs with wooden pipes 
{organo di legno), three bass viols (basso 
da gamba), four trombones, one ^regal, 
two *cornetts, one small recorder {flauto 
alia vigesima seconda), one high trumpet 
(clarino), and three “soft” trumpets 
{trombe sordine). Although, in confor- 
mity with the then novel practice of 
•thorough-bass, the score consists, in the 
main, of the vocal parts and the bass part 
only, written directions are supplied 
from which an idea of the desired orches- 
tral effects can be obtained. For instance, 
in Act III, Caron te (Charon) is always 
accompanied by the regal, Orfeo by the 
organo di legno [cf. HAM, no. 187]. 

While Monteverdi’s individual use of 
the instruments probably represents an 
innovation, his orchestra as such is not at 
all as novel as the modern viewer is in- 
clined to believe. In its emphasis on wind 
instruments and on strongly contrasting 
groups it is a Renaissance rather than a 
Baroque orchestra, and this interpreta- 
tion explains the fact that his precedence 
remained entirely without succession. 
The Baroque favored the bowed instru- 
ments with their expressive qualities [see 
♦Instruments, history], and it is only in 
the use of a relatively strong string sec- 
tion that Monteverdi’s orchestra is pro- 
gressive. 

The 17th-century emphasis on the 
bowed instruments and the prevailing 
practice of thorough-bass scoring (melody 
and bass only) were not conducive to 
progress in the use of orchestral resources. 
Lully’s famous orchestra was significant- 
ly called “les vingt-quatre violons du 
Roi,” but, around 1700, included a well- 


defined group of wind instruments, 
flutes, oboes, and horns in addition to the 
violins which, by this time, had replaced 
the earlier viols. 

III. j 8 th Century, By the time of Bach 
(1685-1750), instruments and the tech- 
nique of performance on them had been 
improved, and various effective combi- 
nations had been worked out. Bach’s 
Cantata no. 119 (1723) utilizes the fol- 
lowing: 4 voice parts, 4 trumpets, 2 tim- 
pani, 2 flutes, 3 oboes, 2 oboi da caccia, 
first violins, second violins, violas, and 
continuo, the last to be played by vio- 
loncelli and an organ (or harpsichord). 
An impartial distribution of interchange- 
able parts between string and wind in- 
struments is the sum of Bach’s method of 
orchestration; each of the four fundamen- 
tal parts — as opposed to the three or five 
of the 17th century — is independent, 
melodic, essential, and conceived in gen- 
eral, not individual, instrumental terms. 
Thus a part, whether for the voice, a 
flute, an oboe, violins, or even brass, can 
scarcely be identified save by range. 
Wholesale duplication of the fundamen- 
tal parts is common. In the arias, where 
smaller groups of instruments are used, 
these, as well as special effects such as 
pizzicato and con sordino, are carried 
through the entire number, the contrast 
being from number to number, rather 
than occurring within a piece, as in 19th- 
century practice. 

Handel, appealing to a wider public 
and possessing a keener sense for orches- 
tral effect, treated his instrumental forces 
in a more broadly contrasting style than 
does Bach, yet he did not depart from the 
“contrapuntal orchestration.” His occa- 
sional use of the small recorder, contra- 
bassoon, trombone, and harp in his operas 
and cantatas is exceptional for the period, 
while his purely instrumental composi- 
tions are often for groups much more re- 
stricted than those of Bach. For evidence 
of the fact that the make-up of the or- 
chestra was not as yet standardized, one 
has but to examine the four Orchestral 
Suites of Bach. 

While the orchestra as such remained 
largely unchanged throughout the i8th 


[520] 



ORCHESTRA 


ORCHESTRA 


century, important progress was made in 
its treatment. Perhaps the first composer 
to give each instrument a distinct part of 
its own was Rameau (1683-1764). He 
introduced interesting and unexpected 
passages on the flutes, oboes, and bassoons 
and thus opened the path to the coloristic 
treatment of the modern orchestra. Jo- 
hann Stamitz (1717-57), the leader of 
the famous Mannheim orchestra [see 
^Mannheim School], developed the dra- 
matic resources of the orchestra, chiefly 
the string section, by the use of dynamic 
varieties such as sudden ff and pp, sus- 
tained crescendos, etc. C. P. E. Bach’s 
four symphonies, written about 1776, 
may be said to represent the final phase of 
orchestration prior to the masterworks of 
Haydn and Mozart. They are scored for 
two flutes, two oboes, one or two bas- 
soons, two horns, and the usual group of 
strings. The strings give melodic activity 
and figuration while the winds provide 
harmony and body. The interchangeable 
instrumental part of the past gives way 
to a part characteristic of the instrument 
for which it is written, though features 
of the older style remain in the frequent 
unison of the first and second violins and 
the near identity of viola, cello, and bass 
parts including the harpsichord [cf. the 
example in GD v, 207]. 

IV. From Haydn to the Present, Dur- 
ing the period of Haydn and Mozart the 
stringed instruments assumed their posi- 
tion as the foundation of the orchestra, 
and their numbers grew larger in propor- 
tion to the number of performers in the 
entire group. Each wind instrument is 
regarded as capable of assuming the main 
melodic line if the occasion demands, as 
well as aiding in the supplying of the 
harmonic background, since the keyboard 
instrument is no longer used for that pur- 
pose. Instruments are no longer omitted 
from entire movements of a work, except 
in the trio of the minuet, and the orches- 
tral color changes on a moment to mo- 
ment basis, emphasizing the changes of 
subjects and the alternation of motifs. 
The instrumental group has become 
standardized: late symphonic works by 


the majority of those by Beethoven call 
for two flutes, two oboes, two clarinets, 
two bassoons, two horns, two trumpets, 
two timpani, and the standard group of 
strings, consisting of first violins, second 
violins, violas, violoncellos, and double- 
basses. 

The 19th century owes much to Berlioz 
regarding the use of instruments for their 
particular tonal quality, and his ambi- 
tious and imaginative compositions have 
greatly influenced later composers such 
as Liszt, Wagner, and Strauss. Berlioz 
seems to rise suddenly as an innovator 
during the 1830’s, but if one considers 
the works of earlier composers, largely of 
the French School, one will realize that 
his apparently original work is well 
founded on the coloristic efforts of Gluck, 
Cherubini, Mehul, Spontini, Boieldieu, 
and Weber. 

For an example of the extreme in the 
development of the orchestra which took 
place prior to approximately 1914 it will 
be interesting to consider the resources 
demanded by Gustav Mahler (1860- 
1911) in his Eighth Symphony: piccolo, 
four flutes, four oboes, English horn, E- 
flat clarinet, three B-flat clarinets, bass 
clarinet, four bassoons, contrabassoon; 
eight horns, four trumpets, four trom- 
bones, tuba, timpani, bass drum, cymbals, 
tam-tam, triangle, chimes, glockenspiel, 
celesta; piano, harmonium, organ, two 
harps, mandolin; four trumpets and three 
trombones as a fanfare group; first and 
second soprano, first and second alto, 
tenor, baritone, and bass soloists, two 
mixed choruses, boys’ choir; first violins, 
second violins, violas, violoncellos, and 
double-basses. While such methods rep- 
resent the acme as well as the end of the 
19th-century development, there have 
been, in the past forty years, important 
tendencies towards new goals. Debussy 
introduced into the orchestra new meth- 
ods of utter refinement and a highly de- 
veloped coloristic technique for which 
the characteristic name “orchestral pa- 
lette” has been widely adopted [see *Im- 
pressionismj. The musical revolution 
known as *New music has naturally 
brought with it many changes in the or- 


Haydn, Mozart (with exceptions), and 

[ 5 «] 



ORCHESTRA 

chestral technique. The giant orchestra 
of the Mahler period is replaced by 
small groups, frequently approaching the 
size of a chamber orchestra, a change 
which may be illustrated by comparing 
two works of Stravinsky (b. 1882): the 
one, his Rite of Spring (1911-13), util- 
izes an instrumental group even larger 
than the above list (though without vo- 
calists), while his Histoire du Soldat 
(1918) is scored for one violin, one dou- 
ble-bass, one clarinet, one bassoon, one 
cornet, one trombone, and eight percus- 
sion instruments handled by one player. 
While this may be an extreme case, the 
tendency has been to score for the instru- 
ments on the basis of musical require- 
ments, rather than of availability in the 
so-called standard orchestra. The reac- 
tion against the 19th-century principles 
of orchestration appears also in the cur- 
rent method, frequent in Stravinsky, of 
“perverted orchestration,” e.g., giving the 
melody to the brass and using the strings 
for percussive effects. Although this 
method was originally devised for paro- 
distic purposes, it has become fairly gen- 
erally accepted into the present orchestral 
technique. 

V. The Reading of Orchestral Scores. 
From early in the 19th century it has 
been the practice to lay out an orches- 
tral score in the following order, starting 
at the top of the page: wood wind, brass, 
percussion, strings. If a harp is used it is 
placed immediately above the strings, but 
should voices and organ be also used, 
these are written between the harp and 
the strings. In general, the instruments 
of each group are arranged in the order 
of from high to low pitch, though this is 
not always the case. The accurate read- 
ing of a modern orchestral score is ren- 
dered extremely difficult — unnecessarily 
difficult, indeed — by the use of two spe- 
cial notational devices, viz., the “ancient” 
clefs (alto and tenor) and the transposed 
writing for numerous wind instruments, 
devices both of which go back to earlier 
practice but have persisted to the present 
day with a reactionary tenacity which has 
but few counterparts in modern life 
[see •Clefs; •Transposing instruments]. 


ORCHESTRAS 

While these difficulties can be mastered 
only by long study, the musical amateur 
who merely wishes to “follow” a perform- 
ance with a score may well disregard 
them and content himself with acquiring 
facility in glancing quickly over the 
page and catching the momentarily lead- 
ing melody from its general melodic con- 
tour and rhythm. 

Sec also the special articles for the dif- 
ferent instruments as well as those on 
•Conducting; •Score. Numerous exam- 
ples illustrating the history of the orches- 
tral score are contained in the article 
“Strumentazione” of the Enciclopedia 
Italiana. 

Lit.: P. Bekker, The Story of the Or- 
chestra (1936); A. Elson, Orchestral In- 
struments and Their Use (1923); John- 
stone and Stringham, Instruments of the 
Modern Symphony Orchestra (1928); K. 
Schlesinger, Instruments of the Modern 
Orchestra (1910); V. Bakaleinikoff, The 
Instruments of the Band and Orchestra 
(1940) ; C. Forsyth, Orchestration ( 1935) ; 
S. Lockwood, Elementary Orchestration 
(1926); E. Wellesz, Die neue Instrumen- 
tation (1928); N. Rimsky-Korsakov, 
Principles of Orchestration (1922); M. 
Bernstein, Introduction to Orchestration 
(1942); A. Carse, The History of Orches- 
tration (1925); L. A. Coerne, The Evo- 
lution of Modern Orchestration (1908); 
C. S. Terry, Bach's Orchestration (1932); 
W. Kleefeld, “Die Orchester der Ham- 
burger Oper, 1678-1738” {SIM i); H. 
Goldschmidt, “Das Orchester der italie- 
nischen Oper im 17. Jahrhundert” {SIM 
ii); K. Nef, “Zur Instrumentation im 17. 
Jahrhundert” {JMP xxxv); J. Lawrence, 
“The English Theatre Orchestra . . .” 
(MQ iii); A. Carse, “17th Century Or- 
chestral Instruments” (ML i, no. 4); R. 
Haas, “Zur Frage der Orchesterbesetzung 
in der zweiten Halfte dcs 18. Jahrhun- 
derts” {KIM, 1909, p. 159); A. Carse, 
“Brass Instruments in the Orchestra, His- 
torical Sketch” {ML iii, no. 4); G. F. 
Malipiero, in RMI xxiii, xxiv. W. D. D. 

(II and III with additions by W. A.) 

Orchestras. Following is a selected 
list of important orchestras (with date of 


[522] 



ORCHESTRAS 

foundation and present conductor): I. 
United States: Los Angeles Philharmonic 
O. (1919; Alfred Wallenstein). — Balti- 
more Symphony O. (1916; Reginald 
Stewart). — Boston Symphony O. (1881; 
Serge Kousse vitzky ) . — Ch icago Sym- 
phony O. (1891; Desire Defauw). — 
Cincinnati Symphony O. (1895; Eugene 
Goossens). — Cleveland Symphony O. 
(1918; Erich Leinsdorf). — Detroit Sym- 
phony O. (1913; Karl Krueger). — ^Indian- 
apolis Symphony O. (1930; Fabien Sevit- 
zky. — Minneapolis Symphony O. (1903; 
Dmitri Mitropoulos). — New York, Phil- 
harmonic-Symphony O. (1842; Arthur 
Rodzinski). — Philadelphia O. (1900; 
Eugene Ormandy). — Pittsburgh Sym- 
phony O. (1895; Fritz Reiner). — 
Rochester Philharmonic O. (1922; Jose 
Iturbi). — St. Louis Symphony O. (1880; 
Vladimir Golschmann). — San Francisco 
Symphony O. (1909; Pierre Monteux). 

— Washington, National Symphony O. 
(1931; Hans Kindler). 

II. Latin America: Bogota (Colom- 
bia), Orquesta Sinfonica Nacional (1936, 
Guillermo Espinosa) . — Buenos Aires 
(Argentina), Orguesta del Teatro Colon 
(1908, Juan Jose Castro). — Caracas 
(Venezuela), Orquesta Sinfonica (1935, 
Emilio Sojo). — Guatemala, Orquesta 
Progesista (1936, Gaston Pellegrini). — 
Havana (Cuba), Orquesta Filarmonica 
(1924, Massimo Freccia). — Lima (Peru), 
Orquesta Sinfonica Nacional (1938, Theo 
Buchwald). — Mexico, Orquesta Sinfonica 
de Mexico (1928; Carlos Chavez). — 
Montevideo (Uruguay), Orquesta Sin- 
fonica del Servicio Oficial de Dufusion 
Radio Electrica, abbr. Ossodre (1931, 
Laml^rto Baldi). — Rio de Janeiro (Bra- 
zil), Orquestra del Teatro Municipal (va- 
rious conductors); Orquestra Brasileira 
(1940, Eugene Szenkaz). — Santiago 
(Chile), Orquesta Sinfdnica de Chile 
(1922, Armando Carvajal). 

III. Europe: Amsterdam, Concertge- 
bouw Orchestra (1883; Willem Mengel- 
berg). — Berlin, Philharmonisches Or- 
chester (1882; Wilhelm Furtwangler). 

— Dresden, Orchester der Staatsoper 
(Karl Bohm). — Leipzig, Gewandhaus- 
konzerte (1781; Wilhelm Furtwangler). 

[523] 


ORGAN 

— London, Philharmonic Orchestra 
(1932; Sir Thomas Beecham); British 
Broadcasting Company Orchestra, B. B. 
,C. O. (1930; Sir Adrian C. Boult). 

— Munich, Bayrisches Staatsorchester 
(1911; Clemens Kraus). — Munich, Kon- 
zertverein or Philharmoniker (Oswald 
Kabasta). — Paris, Concerts du Conser- 
vatoire (1792; Charles Munch); Con- 
certs Colonne (1874; Paul Paray); Con- 
certs Pasdeloup (1918; Albert Wolf). — 
Rome, Concert! dell Augusteo (1908; 
Bernardo Molinari). — Vienna, Wiener 
Philharmonische Konzerte (1842; guest 
conductors). 

Lit.: M. Grant and H. S. Hettinger, 
American Symphony Orchestras (1940); 
Pierre Key’s Music Year Boo\\ A. Eagle^ 
field-Hull, Dictionary of Modern Music 
(1924), article “Orchestras”; A. Einstein, 
Das Neue Musil(lexi\on (1926), article 
“Orchester.” 

Orchestrion. See ^Mechanical instru- 
ments III. 

Ordinary (Ordinarium), and Prop- 
er (Proprium). In the Catholic rites, 
the Ordinary (also called Common^ is 
that portion of the service which remains 
the same for the different days, whereas 
the Proper includes all the variable texts 
and chants. The distinction is particu- 
larly important with the Mass [see ♦Mass 
A]. Other services, however, also com- 
prise invariable and variable portions. 
For instance, the ♦Magnificat forms a 
part of the Ordinary of Vespers. For an- 
other application of the terms, see ♦Gre- 
gorian chant 1. 

Ordo [L., pi. ordines]. See ♦Modes, 
rhythmic. 

Ordre [F.J. In F. Couperin’s Pieces de 
Clavecin (i7i3-“3o), name for his suite- 
like collections of pieces in the same key. 
An ordre usually begins with a few 
pieces in the style of an allemande, cou- 
rante, and sarabande, but also includes a 
great many other pieces with fanciful or 
descriptive titles. See ♦Suite III. 

Organ. I. General Description, The 
organ is a keyboard instrument consist- 



ORGAN 

ing of a series of pipes placed on a *wind 
chest supplied with valves operated by 
the keys through the medium of a purely 
mechanical apparatus or through the 
agency of pneumatics or electrical inter- 
mediaries. Means are also provided for 
delivering a constant supply of com- 
pressed air at a steady pressure. This is 
accomplished by bellows having manu- 
ally operated ^feeders, or they may be 
worked by hydraulic or electrical means. 
In recent years the feeders have been re- 
placed by a suitably designed rotary 
blower, in which case the bellows consist 
of a reservoir, the top of which is 
weighted or sprung to ensure a steady 
pressure being supplied to the pipes 
through a wind pipe connecting the res- 
ervoir with the wind chest. The simplest 
organ consists of one set of pipes, there 
being but one pipe per note of the key- 
board. To enable a variety of tone color 
to be available for use by the performer 
organs usually have several sets (ranks) 
of pipes, technically known as stops, 
which can be brought into play or retired 
at will. 

II. Mechanism, In the older organs 
the sounding of a desired pipe, say, the 
pipe c of the *rank (^register, *stop) 
Principal, or, in other words, the admis- 
sion of wind to this particular pipe, was 
effected by a combination of two mecha- 
nisms operating crosswise, the sliders and 
the pallets. Assuming a miniature organ 
with three ranks and seven keys, there 
will be twenty-one pipes and, conse- 
quently, twenty-one holes arranged in 
three lines of seven each, in the upper 
board of the wind chest. To each rank 
there corresponds an oblong board 
(slider) bored with seven holes which 
can be moved sideways by drawing or 
pushing a knob (stop, draw stop) lo- 
cated at the sides of the keyboard. 
To each key there belongs a hinged lid 
(pallet) crossing the sliders, which is 
operated by the key through the “action” 
(corresponding in a way to the action of 
the pianoforte; older organs have a me- 
chanical action consisting of a series of 
rods called trackers and stickers, while in 
modern organs this is usually replaced by 


ORGAN 

a pneumatic or electric action). In order 
to obtain the desired tone, the player 
draws the knob Principal, thus causing 
the corresponding slider to move side- 
ways so that its holes come to coincide 
with those of the chest board. He then 
depresses the key C thus causing the cor- 
responding pallet to move downward in 
its hinge. The hole “C on Principal” is 
now open to the wind and the pipe 
sounds. In the modern organ the sliders 
are dispensed with and an individual 
valve is provided for each pipe on the 
chest. In this case the stop control is by 
means of electrical switches or some form 
of pneumatic action, and the drawing 
stops are replaced by balanced slips of 
ivory which are simply tipped over. 

III. Keyboards and Divisions, An or- 
gan which can be considered as having 
the minimum requirement for a proper 
rendition of the liteiature of the in- 
strument will comprise two keyboards 
(^manuals) each controlling a separate 
division with five or six stops each, and a 
clavier for the feet (pedal) command- 
ing two to five stops. Organs having four 
manuals and a pedal with fifty to one 
hundred stops, however, are common, 
and even five to seven keyboards have 
been employed. The divisions or “or- 
gans” connected with the various key- 
boards are called: Pedal Organ, Great 
Organ, Swell Organ, Choir Organ, Solo 
Organ, and Echo Organ. Their allot- 
ment to the various manuals varies a great 
deal (except, of course, for the Pedal Or- 
gan), and so does the selection of pipes 
connected with each of them. The latter 
statement is particularly true if organs of 
different periods are considered. The 
specification given in section XI of this 
article may be studied for additional in- 
formation on this point. Some of these 
divisions, particularly the* Swell organ, 
are included in a swell box^[see VII]. 

IV. Couplers^ etc. Practically every 
organ possesses devices which make the 
various divisions available on other key- 
boards than their own. These are the 
so-called couplers. For instance. Coupler 
Swell-to-Great makes the Swell Organ 
available on the manual for the Great 


[524] 



ORGAN 


ORGAN 


Organ, so that stops from the former can called mutation stops the pitch of which 
be sounded together with stops from the corresponds to one of the harmonics of 
latter. Similarly, any manual can be the unison pitch. For instance, a muta- 
coupled to the Pedal and the Pedal can tion stop 2%' is tuned to the third har- 
be coupled to the main manuals or to all monic (twelfth), hence will sound g' if 
of them. Sub-octave couplers and super- the key of c is depressed [see explanation 
octave couplers connect one manual with under *Foot (2)]. The purpose of such 
the lower or higher octave of another stops is not to be played alone (which 
manual. See also ^Divided stops. would result in transposition) or with a 

Modern organ playing requires many unison stop of about the same loudness 
changes of ^registration within a compo- (which would result in parallel fifths), 
sition, frequently at places where the but together with a unison stop of con- 
hands of the player are too occupied on siderably greater force, in which case the 
the keyboard to manipulate a number of mutation stop ceases to be heard indi- 
stops. To facilitate such changes, special vidually and merely serves as an artificial 
stops, usually in the shape of small round harmonic, thus modifying the timbre of 
buttons (called pistons), are provided, the unison stop. Finally there arc mix- 
the so-called combination stops (compo- ture stops (also called compound stops), 
sition stops). Each of these controls an i.e., stops which combine a selection of 
ad libitum selection of ranks which the unison and mutation ranks. These serve 
player can arrange in advance and which the same purpose and must also be drawn 
arc brought into play by merely touching together with a sufficiently strong unison 
the button. These can also be made avail- stop. Mutation and mixture stops, il 
able on stops operated by the feet, the properly used, are among the most valu- 
combination (or composition) pedals. able resources of the organ player. In 

V. Compass, The compass of the or- early organs (i5th-i7th centuries) they 

gan manual is sixty-one notes or five com- were particularly prominent, a fact which 
plete octaves extending from C to c'". has given considerable encouragement to 
That of the pedal clavier is thirty-two the view, generally held in the 19th cen- 
notes or two and one-half octaves extend- tury, that the music of these periods 
ing from Ci to g'. Actually, the compass must have been “crude and primitive.” 
of the organ is much larger than that of Their function was completely misunder- 
its keyboards, owing to the fact that there stood by 19th-century musicians (Berlioz) 
exist, in addition to the pipes of normal and writers who objected to the par- 
pitch (comparable to that of the piano- allel fifths and “unbearable dissonances” 
forte), others the pitch of which is one or which resulted from “playing in C and 
two octaves lower or higher. The normal in G simultaneously.” On their behalf it 
pitch is called unison and is indicated by may be said that 19th-century organ 
the symbol 8' [read eight-foot; see *Foot builders and organ players also misunder- 
(2) ] , the sub-octave pitch is 16', and three stood these devices, so that Percy C. Buck 
super-octave pitches exist, designated 4', was perhaps justified in saying, as late 
2', and i'. On the pedal the normal pitch, as 1927, “the effect is distressing in the 
being an octave below than of the manual, extreme to all but hardened organists.” 
is known as 16' pitch, its sub-octave being Early organists, including those of the 
32'. The frequency of 32' C is approxi- Bach period, clearly visualized and judi- 
mately 16 vibrations per second while ciously exploited the potentialities of 
that of the top.C of a manual 2' stop is mixtures and mutation stops, and the re- 
over 8000. It will, therefore, be realized turn to the organ ideal of the Baroque 
that the real compass of the instrument has brought with it a new cultivation of 
extends over nine complete octaves. these stops which are particularly useful 

VI. Mutation and Mixture Stops, In in the performance of contrapuntal mu- 
addition to the various octave pitches, sic [see IX (e) and (f)]. 

called foundation stops, there arc the so- VII. Expression. The organ pipe 

[525] 



ORGAN 


ORGAN 

speaks on a steady air pressure; this can- The front edge is beveled and arranged 

not be varied because to increase the so as to form a narrow slit through which 

pressure would sharpen and to lower it the wind sheet issues. The slit is known 

would flatten the pitch. It, therefore, fol- as the “flue.” Lugs soldered to the pipe 

lows that when a pipe is sounding it at the sides of the mouth are known as 

speaks at a constant dynamic level and a “ears” and assist in controlling the wind 

crescendo or diminuendo is impossible, sheet. 

Expression in the organ is thus limited Flue pipes are tuned by lengthening 
to (i) adding or retiring stops progres- or shortening the pipe. In the modern 
sively (a mechanical device for this is the organ this is usually accomplished by pro- 
Crescendo pedal), or (2) by using a viding a sliding sleeve situated at the top 
device known as the swell box or expres- of the pipe. 

sion chamber. The swell box is a large The type of reed pipe used almost ex- 
room built around one or more divisions clusively in the organ is known as the 

of the instrument, the front of the box beating reed, and must not be confused 

being provided with a series of shutters with the free reed employed in the har- 

similar to a Venetian blind. By means of monium and reed organ [see *Reed]. 

a pedal (Swell pedal) the player can open The beating reed comprises a vibrating 
or close the shutters, and thus obtain ex- curved tongue which rolls down the flat- 

pressive control over the pipes contained tened surface of a brass tube called a 

therein. While the affair is somewhat “shallot.” In this flattened surface an 

crude, very fine musical effects can be ob- opening is cut communicating with the 

tained which are peculiar to the instru- interior of the tube so that, as the tongue 

ment. It would seem obvious that the vibrates, it opens and closes this opening 

complete instrument should be provided and thus sets up a sympathetic disturh- 

with this method of control, but there are ance of the air column contained within 

musical reasons discussed more fully later a conical or cylindrical resonator which 

[see under XI] why it is highly desirable communicates with the upper end of the 
to limit the expression boxes to certain shallot. The shallot, tongue, and reso- 
divisions and to leave the rest in the open, nator are all held firmly by a heavy block 
VIII. Organ Pipes in General, The of metal and the shallot and tongue are 
pipes of the organ fall into two distinct enclosed in a socket which has the func- 
classes — Flue and Reed, The flue pipe tion of conveying wind from the chest, 
closely resembles the ordinary tin ^whistle Tuning is obtained at two points, first by 
in which a vibrating air sheet sets up lengthening or shortening the resonator 
vibrations in the column of air sur- at its upper end, and secondly, by means 
rounded by the pipe. The complete flue of a tuning wire which can be adjusted 
pipe comprises the following component to control the free vibrating length of the 
parts: The cylindrical portion which en- tongue. 

closes the column of air just mentioned IX. Flue Pipes, Flue pipes may be 
and which is known as the “body”; the cither open or stopped [G. gedacl{t]y 
“foot” which is usually a tapered cone that is to say, the top of the body may be 
connecting the body to the wind supply completely open to the surrounding air 
from the chest; the “mouth” which con- or a stopper or plug may be inserted at 
sists of a rectangular opening cut from the top of the pipe. The stopping of the 
the body at the point where the foot joins open end causes the pipe to speak a note 
it. At the location of the mouth the body one octave lower than it would if left 
of the pipe and the conical foot are flat- open; that is to say, a pipe having a nor- 
tened and the straight edge thus formed mal speaking length of 4' C would sound 
at the top of the mouth is called the “lip.” 8^ C if closed or stopped. The stopping 
The “languard” consists of a flat piece of also causes the even-numbered harmonics 
metal located internally at the top of the of the tone to be suppressed [see *Acous- 
foot at the point where it joins the body, tics V], 

[526] 



ORGAN 


ORGAN 


All flue pipes fall into one of the fol- Stopped Diapason is sometimes em- 
lowingclassesof tone: Principal or Diapa- ployed. The Quintaten (properly, Quin- 
son; Flute; String. There is one other tadena) falls into this class of pipe and is 
class which may be termed a hybrid since characterized by having the third har- 
the tone may lie midway between that of monic developed equally with the funda- 
Principal and Flute, or Flute and String, mental. A quaint tone results which has 

a. Principal or Diapason. Principal considerable value in combinational use. 

tone is characteristic of the organ, and The Rohr Flute and Koppel Flute be- 
does not exist in any other instrument. It long to a family of Flutes that are half 
is produced by open cylindrical pipes of stopped, a small cylindrical chimney or 
medium to large scale [sec ♦Scale, Seal- cone-shaped extension open at the top 
ing], and the tone has a strong funda- being inserted in the stopper. Such pipes 
mental accompanied by a chord of at least have a high harmonic development in re- 
eight easily audible upper partials. In the lation to the fundamental, imparting con- 
best examples the unison harmonics (oc- siderable brightness to the tone. They 
taves) are prominent, while the 2d, 5th, are valuable for use as mutation ranks in 
6th, and 7th are much less assertive and addition to being employed at unison and 
diminish in strength successively. Prin- octave pitches. All Flutes are found at 
cipals are used in manual and Pedal divi- various pitches in the modern organ, 
sions at sub-unison, unison, octave, and c. String Tone. String toned stops, 
super-octave pitches. They are also em- such as the Cello, Viola, Gamba, Dulci- 
ployed to furnish a mutation rank at 5%' ana, and Viole d^Orchestre, have an ex- 
or 2%' pitches and to form the individual tremely high harmonic development 
ranks of mixture stops [see d, e]. causing the tone to be thin and cutting. 

There are many varieties of Principal Many varieties arc now in use, varying 
tone, that is to say, the harmonics may be from quite a broad string tone to a highly 
developed strongly or may be suppressed, pungent quality. String toned pipes are 
causing the tone to have a flavor of string much smaller scale than other varieties 
tone or flute tone as the case may be. of pipes; e.g., the low 8' C may be as little 
Thus a Violin Diapason will tend towards as 2" in diameter, whereas an 8' Diapason 
the string side, while a Diapason phonon pipe may be from 6" to 6%". String 
will possess a tone more fluty in character, toned stops arc usually employed to form 

b. Flute T one. Flutes fall into two sub-unison, unison, and octave ranks only 
main classes — open and stopped. The on manual and Pedal. 

open Flutes, such as the Melodia, Claribcl d. Hybrids. The hybrids already rc- 
Flute, and Concert Flute, usually made ferred to are stops such as the Spitzflute 
of wood and rectangular in cross section, and Gemshorn. The body of these pipes 
are characterized by a broad mellow flute takes the form of an inverted cone. This 
tone. The open metal Flute inclines construction brings into prominence the 
toward Principal tone in the bass and second harmonic, and according to the 
tenor. The treble portion may have har- amount of taper employed the tone lies 
monic pipes, i.e., pipes in which the body cither between the Diapason and Flute or 
is double the normal length, and a hole is the String and Flute. This class of tone 
bored below the center to assist the pipe besides being useful in sub-unison, uni- 
in speaking its octave. Such pipes (called son, and octave pitches is particularly 
Harmonic Flute) have a tone closely re- valuable to form mutation stops of 2%', 
sembling the flute of the orchestra. 1%', and 1%' pitches. 

Stopped Flutes may be of wood or metal, c. Mutation Stops. The mutation stop 
and owing to the fact that only the odd- is characteristic of the organ, its chief 
numbered upper partials arc present the office being for use with a unison or oc- 
tone is often light and transparent in tavc rank or a combination of such stops 
texture. Typical examples arc called to change the tonal character by artifi- 
Bourdon or Gcdackt, and the term cially bringing into prominence a particu- 

[5^7] 



ORGAN 

lar overtone. These ranks greatly increase 
the tonal variety of the instrument since 
a wide range of synthetic qualities is pos- 
sible. The most common examples em- 
ployed comprise the Nazard 2%', Tierce 
1%', Larigot 1%', and the Septiemc 
1%'. Sometimes three or five ranks of 
mutations are drawn together by a single 
drawstop to form a powerful synthetic 
horn-like tone called a Cornet [see under 
f]. The ranks employed in a five rank 
Cornet would be a unison 8', octave 4', 
Nazard 2%', Blockflotc 2', and a Tierce 
1%'. The Sesquialtera (II Ranks) com- 
prises a Nazard 2%' and a Tierce 1%'. 

f. Mixture Stops. Mixtures, also known 
as compound stops, comprise from two 
to seven ranks of principal pipes to each 
note arranged to speak harmonics of the 
fundamental of the note. There are a 
great many varieties of Mixtures, but 
usually the intervals employed are con- 
fined to unison and fifth sounding ranks. 
The Mixtures in common use are the 
Fourniture, Plein Jcu, and the Cymbel. 

An important feature of Mixtures is 
the "‘breaks,” i.e., changes of the arrange- 
ment of harmonics occurring at certain 
points of the keyboard. E.g., a rank 
which, at the lower end, starts out two 
octaves above normal, will break back at 
some higher point to the twelfth, and at 
still higher points to the octave, fifth, and 
finally unison. Corresponding breaks oc- 
cur in the other ranks, and the result is 
that point and definition arc added to the 
bass and tenor sections, breadth and full- 
ness to the middle and treble. A typical 
layout of the ranks of a Fourniture IV 
Rks. with breaks is as follows: 



I 

II 

Ill 

IV 

Cl to f: 

15 

19 

22 

26 

f# to f': 

12 

15 

19 

22 

fr to f": 

8 

12 

15 

19 

f#" to c"": 

I 

8 

12 

15 

The numbers 

i5> 

19, etc. 

, refer 

to dia- 


tonic tones counted from the fundamen- 
tal; e.g., 15 is the second octave, 22 the 
third octave. The accompanying exam- 
ple serves as a further illustration; the 
white notes indicate the keys; the black 
notes the pitches of the first rank (I). 


ORGAN 

High Mixtures such as Cymbel may 
be used as a secondary Mixture to the 
Fourniture or may appear as the only 





Mixture of a Positive division. They are 
useful musically not only as an ensemble 
register, but as a means of adding color 
to an 8' Flute or Flutes 8' and 4'. A 
sparkling effect can be produced in this 
way which is of distinct value for rapidly 
moving passages. In two-part playing on 
the same manual the combination just 
described helps to differentiate the tone 
color of the two parts due to the many 
breaks in the ranks. 

The Cornet and like stops, such as the 
Sesquialtera, have already been referred 
to under “Mutation Stops.” They are, 
strictly speaking, compound registers, but 
as a synthetic tone quality is aimed at in 
the voicing and owing to the fact that the 
ranks run through the compass without 
breaks, they are employed in a similar 
manner to mutations. 

X. Reed Pipes. Reeds are of three cat- 
egories: Chorus reeds. Semi-chorus reeds, 
and Solo or orchestral reeds. Chorus 
reeds belong chiefly to the Trumpet fam- 
ily, and appear in the modern organ on 
both Manual and Pedal divisions at sub- 
unison, unison, and octave pitches. Posau- 
nes. Trombone, Trumpets, Cornopeans, 
and Clarions fall within this class. While 
the names employed suggest orchestral 
tones, they differ in quality considerably 
from their orchestral prototypes. They 
are purely organ voices and are used to 
add power and vigor to the 6isemble. 
They may also be employed for solo 
work. The Trumpet family have coni- 
cal resonators of full length, i.e., 8' C has 
a resonator of approximately 8' length. 

Semi-chorus reeds come to us largely 
from the Baroque period, and are not 
imitative, although their names may 
suggest an orchestral background. The 
Cromorne, Schalmei, and the Rankett 


[528] 



ORGAN 


ORGAN 


may be taken as typical examples. The 
term semi-chorus is used because they 
may function as chorus reeds, solo stops, 
or merely timbre creators in combination 
with other voices. The resonators of this 
class of reed are often cylindrical and of 
short length. They may be half, quarter, 
or even an eighth length. 

The Solo or orchestral reeds are largely 
imitative of various orchestral instru- 
ments, such as the Bassoon, English 
Horn, Clarinet, and Orchestral Oboes. 
They are used largely as solo stops, and 
modern voicers have used considerable 
skill in producing faithful imitations of 
the real thing. 

XL Tonal Structure of the Organ. 
Owing to the mechanical perfection of 
the instrument by the use of electricity 
around the turn of the present century, 
the organ passed through a period of 
rapid development. Its size in regard to 
both numbers of manuals and stops in- 
creased greatly, and efforts were made to 
imitate as closely as possible the tonal 
effect of the symphony orchestra. 

While many new voices were devel- 
oped during this period, particularly in 
regard to orchestral and string timbres, 
the characteristic tone of the organ was 
badly neglected and the general effect 
became hard and overbearing. The in- 
strument was no longer suited for the 
proper rendition of the best music from 
the organ literature, clarity, transparency, 
and purity of tone having given way to 
powerful and dull effects together with 
some fine solo voices and sentimental 
qualities nice enough in themselves but 
of limited usefulness. 

Happily in recent years there has been 
a strong reaction, and the organ of the 
Bach period (Baroque organ) has been 
re-created with fine results. While some 
purely classical designs have been pro- 
duced which have created great interest, 
such instruments are far from ideal for 
playing the organ literature of the Ro- 
mantic and modern periods. The real 
solution of the problem is to combine the 
best of the classical and modern tonal 
ideals in one instrument, each being mod- 
ified to fit into a perfect whole. This has 


been accomplished very successfully in 
recent years, and the idea is being devel- 
oped further, and a very fruitful era of 
organ building may be expected. 

Organs of the Bach period were usu- 
ally small — two or sometimes three 
manuals with a pedal organ and about 12 
to 35 stops were considered sufficient. 
The pipes were voiced on light wind 
pressure imparting a delightful mellow- 
ness to the tone. It was a chorus instru- 
ment in which the blending of the vari- 
ous stops one with another and into a 
clear ringing ensemble was considered 
essential. The Pedal was not merely 
looked upon as a bass to the whole but 
was designed to be capable of carrying a 
melodic line independent of the manuals. 
The manual divisions were contrasted 
tonally, as was necessary for polyphonic 
music which demanded independence 
and clarity from all sections. Therefore, 
it is not surprising to find in these in- 
struments an abundance of delightful 
(principals and flutes, together with a 
good sprinkling of mutations and mix- 
ture stops. Of course, there was no swell 
'box. 

In reproducing these qualities in the 
modern organ it was found undesirable 
to enclose all divisions in a swell box for 
not only was the type of expression ob- 
tained by this means unnecessary, but the 
enclosure marred the clarity and intimacy 
of the tonal effect of these light pressure 
voices when heard singly or combined. 

The most important divisions for the 
classical literature comprise a Pedal, 
Great, and Positive, and in the case of 
the music of the Romantic period it is 
necessary to have the modern Swell con- 
taining strings and reeds, and a second 
organ under separate expressive control 
to form an accompanimental Choir de- 
partment. Modern music with its com- 
plex harmony is admirably suited to the 
transparency of the classical toned or- 
gan, and provided the Swell and Choir 
are present, we have an ideal arrange- 
ment for its rendition. 

The following specification for a mod- 
erate sized instrument may be of help to 
the student in understanding how the 


[529] 



ORGAN 


ORGAN 


best tonal features both classical and mod- 
ern can be combined to make an ade- 
quate and complete whole suited to the 
musical requirements of all periods: 

GREAT ORGAN (Unenclosed) 

Middle Manual 
1 6' Quintaten 
8' Principal 
8' Spitz Flute 
8' Bourdon 
4' Principal 
4' Rohr Flute 

2%' Quint (Principal tone) 

2' Super Octave (Principal tone) 
Fourniture (III to V Ranks) 

SWELL ORGAN (Enclosed) 

Top Manual 
8' Viole-de-Gambe 
8' Viole Celeste 
8' Stopped Diapason 
4' Principal 
4' Lieblich Flute 
2' Fifteenth 
Plein Jeu (IV Ranks) 

16' Contra Hautbois 
8' Trompette 
4' Clarion 

POSITIVE (Unenclosed) 

Lower Manual 
8' Gcdackt 
4' Koppcl Flute 
2 %' Nazard 
2' Nachthorn 
I %' Tierce 
i' Octave 
1%' Larigot 

Cymbel (HI Ranks) 

CHOIR ORGAN (Enclosed) 

Played from Positive Manual 
8 ' Viola 
8' Melodia 
8' Dulciana 
8' Unda Maris 
4' Flute Harmonique 
8' Cromorne 

PEDAL ORGAN 
16' Principal 
16' Rohr Bourdon 

16' Quintaten (derived from Great) 

8' Principal 
8' Gcdackt 
5%' QJuint 
4' Choral Bass 
4' Nachthorn 
2' Block Flute 
Mixture (III Ranks) 
i6'Posaune 
8' Trompette 
if Schalmei 


XII. History, Legend traces the origin 
of the organ back to the “Syrinx” (pan- 
pipes) of the god Pan, or to Jubal “the 
father of all such as handle the harp and 
the organ,” and up to the present day 
writers repeat these naive stories more or 
less credulously. Factual evidence, how- 
ever, points to a much more recent origin 
of the instrument. The invention of the 
Greek organ, the *hydraults^ is ascribed 
(in Heron’s Pneumati\a, c, 120 B.C.) to 
the engineer Ktesibios who worked in 
Alexandria around 250 B.C., and it has 
been pointed out [SaHMI, 144] that this 
ascription is credible because Alexandria 
was at that time a center of engineering 
art and because the hydraulis with its 
complicated and amazingly perfect mech- 
anism actually presupposes a high de- 
gree of technical skill and experience. 
This does not rule out the possibility that 
it had primitive ancestors, such as pan- 
pipes combined with arm-operated bel- 
lows [cf. SaHMIy pi. VIII, opp. p. 144], 
but these can hardly be considered as 
organs, since the mechanical wind sup- 
ply as well as its mechanical admission to 
the pipes — by means of keys — is miss- 
ing. The magrepha of the Jews was, no 
doubt, an imitation of the hydraulis and 
certainly was not used until near the end 
of Israel’s national existence. 

The hydraulis had a loud and pene- 
trating tone, noisy rather than musical, 
and was therefore used chiefly in Rome 
as an accompaniment for popular enter- 
tainments (gladiator fights) and, quite 
significantly, for orgiastic cults. In the 
first centuries of the Christian era these 
instruments apparently still increased in 
size. They required not only several men 
to work at the wind supply (which, as 
early as the 4th century, was provided 
pneumatically, by bellows), but also sev- 
eral performers working with their arms 
at the heavy slides. St. Hieronymus (d. 
A.D. 420) tells of an organ at Jerusalem 
which could be heard at the Mount of 
Olives, nearly a mile distant. Such costly 
and elaborate machines were frequently 
sent as gifts by potentates and high church 
dignitaries (c.g., in 757 by the Byzantine 
Emperor Copronymus to the Frankish 

[530I 



ORGAN 


ORGAN 

King Pippin). This development culmi- 97; see ♦Italian music), the blind master 
nated in monster organs such as that whose playing on his beloved organctto 

erected in the loth century at Winchester is most vividly and touchingly described 

in England. It had, we are told by the in Giovanni da Prato’s Paradiso degli 
monk Wulstan, 26 bellows which were Alberti, Fourteenth-century painters fre- 
worked by 70 strong men '‘labouring with quently show it in the hands of angels 

their arms, covered with perspiration, [cf. SaHMI, pi. XVIII, opp. p. 304]. 

each inciting his companions to drive the Still better known is the positive organ, 

wind up with all its strength, that the a stationary chamber organ of moderate 

full-bosomed box may speak with its 400 size, from the famous painting of van 

pipes.” It was played by two organists on Eyck (Altar of Ghent). It is probably 

two keyboards each of which consisted of the latter type which must be considered 

twenty slides, and its effect was such that as having l^en instrumental in the dc- 

“everyone stops with his hands his gap- velopmcnt of polyphonic organ music, 

ing ears, being in no wise able to draw In the 15th century solo stops were grad- 

near and bear the sound.” ually added to the basic mixture tone: 

Organs of this period and up to the flutes, stopped diapasons, and reeds. Si- 

13th century had several ranks of pipes multaneously the pedal was developed as 

(up to twenty) forming a powerful mix- a more or less complete keyboard and, 

ture, but lacked any means of registra- around 1500, an instrument emerged 

tion, such as stops. On the other hand, a which had all the basic contrivances of a 

certain variety of timbre resulted from real organ. A detailed description of this 

the fact that the pipes of any rank all had type of organ (Gothic organ) is given in 

the same width, hence, a scale [see A. Schlick’s Spiegel der Orgelmacher und 

♦Scale, scaling] varying from narrow in Organisten (1511). It seems that the de- 

the low registers (long pipes) to wide in velopment of this “polyphonic” organ 

the high registers (small pipes) so that with contrasting timbres of strongly in- 

the bass possessed a somewhat harsh dividual sonorities, several manuals, and 

String tone, the upper octaves a soft Flute a p)edal took place mainly in Germany, 

tone. In the 13th century the former while Italy and England developed a 

slides {linguae^ i.c., tongues) were sup- more “homophonic” type of organ, of a 

planted by keys controlling pallets. At less varied and much softer tonal struc- 

this time the organs had a keyboard of ture and without pedal (Renaissance or- 

three octaves with a number of semitones, gan), apparently a continuation of the 

particularly in the middle range. The 15th-century portative organ. A special 

earliest preserved examples of ♦organ type of 16th-century organ, utilizing 

music, dating from about 1325, require a reeds only, is the *rcgal. 

complete chromatic middle-octave. In the 17th century there developed 

After 1300 the development of the or- that type of organ which, owing mainly 

gan made rapid strides, not only towards to its association with the work of Bach, 

increased size (in 1429, the organ of the has become a model for contemporary 

cathedral of Amiens had 2500 pipes, the tendencies in progressive organ building, 

lowest of which were of a truly gigantic the Baroque organ or Praetorius organ, 

size), but also towards refinement of as it is called after Michael Praetorius 

sound and technique. In addition to the who, in his Syntagma musicum of 1615/ 

monster instruments which necessarily 20, described it in detail. It retained the 

remained somewhat crude, small organs contrasting qualities of the Gothic organ 

were developed, the ♦portative organ and of Schlick, but in softer and lighter 

the ♦positive organ. The portative organ timbres. The great achievement of this 

(called organetto in Italy) was a small period was a tonal structure which corn- 

portable instrument used for processions, bined individuality with homogeneity or, 

but also cultivated by outstanding musi- as wc might say, the “horizontal” and the 

cians, notably Francesco Landini (1325- “vertical” aspects of the texture, as did the 

[ 531 1 



ORGAN 


ORGAN CHORALE 

organ music of the Baroque, above all will certainly not be expected in a book 
that of Bach. Small wonder, then, that dealing with music. Under these circum- 
organ building is now turning back to stances the progressive trend back to the 
this instrument in order to make possible organ of earlier days, which is outlined 
the proper performance of the greatest in section XI, must be highly welcomed, 
organ music ever written. The climax of the more so as it is accompanied by a 
Baroque organ building is represented by new rise in the quality of the music writ- 
Gottfried Silbermann (organs in Frei- ten for this instrument, 
berg, Dresden) whose instruments. Lit.: W. H. Barnes, The Contemporary 
though still retaining the essential quali- American Organ (1937); Walter and 
ties of the true Baroque organ, fore- Thomas Lewis, Modern Organ Building 
shadow the trend towards increased ex- (1939); G. A. Audsley, The Art of Or- 
pressiveness which characterizes the pe- gan Buildings 2 vols. (1905); E. J. Hop- 
riod from 1750 to 1900. kins, The Organ . . . (1887); E. M. 

In this period the efforts of organ Skinner, The Modern Organ (1917); 
builders were governed by two ideals R. Foort, T/re (1932); A. 

both of which are essentially extraneous Gray, “The Modern Development of the 
to the organ, i.e,. Romantic expressive- Organ” (PM A xxxix); G. D. Harrison, 
ness and 19th-century orchestra. Abbe “The Classical Organ in the Germanic 
Vogler’s organ of c, 1800 had various Museum” (Harvard University, Germ, 
crescendo devices and was designed to Mus. Bull, i); C. F. A. Williams, The 
give “a true picture of a well-organized Story of the Organ (1903); N. Dufourq, 
orchestra.” It made ample use of *differ- Esquisse d'une histoire de I'orgue (1935); 
ential tones, a method which resulted in G. Frotscher, Orgeldispositionen aus 5 
a considerable reduction in the number Jahrhunderten (1939); Ch. Mahrenholz, 
of pipes but also in a very unsatisfactory Die Berechnung der Orgelmensuren , , , 
tonal quality (for a similar attempt of re- (1938); C. F. A. Williams, “Evolution of 
cent date, see *Unit organ). During the the Organ” (ML v, no. 3); M. Raghib, 
19th century there ensued the develop- “Description d’orgues pas des auteurs 
ment leading to the admirable technical turcs et persans” (RdM, nos. 30, 36, 45, 
achievements, the stupendous sizes, and 46); A. G. Hill, “Mediaeval Organs in 
the questionable (to put it mildly) artis- Spain” (SIM xiv). See also ♦Organ mu- 
tic merits of the modern organ. Organ- sic; ♦Organ playing, 
ists naturally boast of, and revel in, that For additional literature see J. H. Burn, 
multiplicity of devices: couplers, swells. Dictionary of Organs and Organists 
pistons, crescendo pedal, combination (1923); MoMLy 59if; N. Dufourq, “Es- 
pedals, etc., which, in connection with sai d'une bibliographic de Thistoirc dc 
overpowering or sentimental stops Torgue cn France” (RdM, 1934). 
(Trumpet, Stentorphonc, Tuba mirabilis, G. D. H. 

Vox angelica, Unda maris, Tremulant), (XII by W. A.) 

enable them to pass instantly from the 

softest whisper to a roar far surpassing Organ chorale. Polyphonic composi- 
the fff-effects of the biggest orchestra, to tions for the organ based upon the mel- 
imitate all conceivable colors of the or- ody of a ♦chorale (excluding simple har- 
chestra, and to produce a great variety of monizations such as arc used for the ac- 
sensational effects. Musicians and ama- companiment of congregational singing), 
teurs of cultivated taste frequently take Although the term is commonly used for 
a somewhat different view and consider the polyphonic settings of the German 
this instrument as one which is at its best Protestant chorales only, a complete study 
with the poorest type of organ music, of the field must necessarily include the 
and vice versa. The 19th-century devel- preceding development which took place 
opment of the organ has been topped by under the auspices of the Catholic church 
the cinema organ a description of which and which is represented by a highly re- 

[532] 



ORGAN CHORALE 

markable repertory of organ settings of 
Latin hymns (including the four *anti- 
phons B.M.V.). 

L The Catholic Organ Hymn, Around 
1500, numerous items of the service 
which theretofore were performed in the 
traditional plainsong were replaced by 
organ pieces. To these belong psalm- 
verses [see *Verset], the ^Magnificat, 
and large portions of the mass [see *Or- 
gan mass]. The hymns also were in- 
cluded in this process which, although it 
contributed to the rapid decline of Gre- 
gorian chant, was the chief impulse to the 
development of organ music. After a 
somewhat obscure starting period, repre- 
sented by a few primitive examples in 
15th-century German organ tablatures 
(Paumann, 1452), we find the organ 
hymn fully developed with Hofhaimer 
(1459-1537) and, particularly, in Arnolt 
Schlick’s Tabulaturen (1512). Their set- 
tings all belong to that type which is usu- 
ally referred to as cantus-firmus chorale, 
i.e., with the hymn melody in long notes 
(one or two to the measure, usually in 
the tenor) as the basis of a contrapuntal 
weave — a treatment which had a long 
ancestry reaching back to the *clausulae 
and ’••'motets of the 13th century and 
which, on the other hand, was to become 
one of the standard procedures of the 
Protestant organ chorale. Schlick’s com- 
position of the verse “Eya ergo” from the 
“Salve regina” already shows the *Vor- 
imitation so frequent in Bach’s organ 
chorales, whilst his “Maria zart” (the 
only hymn with a German text) is a 
uniquely early example of what may be 
called the “Protestant approach,” in that 
it has the melody, expressively designed 
and beautifully ornamented, standing 
out throughout the entire piece in the 
soprano [cf. HAMy nos. 100, loi]. The 
cantus-firmus treatment with Vorimita- 
tion is more clearly represented in the 
numerous settings of Buchner (MS tab- 
lature from c, 1525) who also has exam- 
ples of the chorale canon (cantus firmus 
in canon). In this connection, an anony- 
mous “In dulci jubilo” from Sicher’s tab- 
lature [in Moser, Fruhmeister (1930)] 
may be mentioned, because its canonic 


ORGAN CHORALE 

treatment is remarkably similar to that in 
Bach’s setting of the same hymn. 

The hymns in Cavazzoni’s Intavola- 
tura (1542) already make deliberate use 
of the Flemish motet-style (imitation of 
the hymn melody in all the voices), usu- 
ally in alternation with cantus-firmus 
treatment. Fully developed chorale-mo- 
tets (imitative treatment of all the lines 
of the hymn in succession) are found in 
the compositions of John Bedford {c. 
1485-1545; cf. HAM, no. 120). Such 
pieces have frequently been interpreted as 
organ transcriptions of vocal motets. Ac- 
tually, however, they are original organ 
pieces in the style of a motet (the ex- 
tiemely wide range of Bedford’s pieces 
clearly excludes vocal performance). The 
later English composers, including the 
Virginalists, cultivated particularly the 
figured chorale (contrapuntal parts in 
stereotyped keyboard figures), a treat- 
ment which remained rather barren and 
monotonous under their hands. A peak 
of outstanding artistic significance is 
reached in the organ hymns of Antonio 
de Cabezon (1510-66), most of which 
use the cantus-firmus technique. 

In the early 17th century the develop- 
ment of the organ hymn came to fitting 
climax in the extended works of John 
Bull (1563-1628), Sweelinck (1562- 
1621), Jean Titelouze (1563-1633; cf. 
HAM, no. 180), Michael Praetorius 
(1571-1621), and Samuel Scheldt (1587- 
1654), among which those of Praetorius 
stand out as great, but almost unknown, 
masterworks of musical art. 

II. The Protestant Organ Chorale, In 
the Protestant church the organ chorale 
held a position quite different from that 
which it occupied in the Boman service. 
In the latter, it served as a substitute for 
the plainsong from which it inherited its 
liturgical function as well as that spirit of 
mystic aloofness and transcendentality 
which pervades the whole Catholic ritual 
and its music. In the Protestant church 
the singing of the chorale became the 
cherished privilege of the congregation, 
and it was the organist’s duty, not only 
to accompany this singing, but also to play 
the chorale beforehand on the organ as an 


[533I 



ORGAN CHORALE 


ORGANISTA 


introduction: hence the name chorale 
prelude by which the Gernqtan organ 
chorales are usually designated. This 
novel function of the organ chorale nat- 
urally allowed for a greater freedom of 
treatment and stimulated the fancy of 
the composers towards the development 
of new methods of composition. No 
longer had the chorale to be mysteriously 
concealed as a tenor in incomprehensibly 
long notes, but it was made to stand out 
as a real melody in the soprano, recog- 
nizable to every member of the congrega- 
tion. It must be noted, however, that the 
older methods of treatment, the cantus- 
firmus chorale and the chorale motet, 
were coptinued alongside the more recent 
methods, and that in Bach these two 
types still represent the most elaborate 
methods of composition. 

At the outset of the development of 
the Protestant organ chorale stands 
Scheldt whose Fantasia (actually a cho- 
rale motet) “Ich ruf zu Dir,’’ one of the 
greatest works of the entire literature, 
anticipates in form, style, and expression 
such works as Bach’s chorale motet 
“Jesus Christus unser Heiland” (Ed. 
Peters vi, no. 31). The historical devel- 
opment between Scheldt and Bach fol- 
lowed along two lines, a North-German 
and a Middle-German [for the compos- 
ers, see *Organ music II (a); the South- 
German organ composers, being Cath- 
olics, naturally made no contribution to 
the repertory of the organ chorale]. In 
North Germany we find a distinct pref- 
erence for extended treatment and for a 
free, rhapsodic type known as ^chorale 
fantasia. The choral preludes of the Mid- 
dle-German masters are in shorter forms 
and in simpler style, chiefly melody 
chorales or chorale variations (partitas) 
[cf. HAM, no. 190]. 

Bach utilized all the forms of the past 
and, needless to assert, bestowed on them 
new qualities of expression and artistic 
perfection. The following types can be 
clearly distinguished: (a) Cantus-firmus 
chorale: the chorale melody in long notes 
usually in the bass (Ed. Peters, nos. 17, 
30, 36); (b) *Chorale motet: each line of 
the chorale is treated in imitation thus 


resulting in a succession of “fugues” (nos. 
31, 58); (c) Chorale fugue: the first line 
or the initial phrase of the chorale is 
treated as a fugue (nos. 10, 33, 41); (d) 
Melody chorale or Figured chorale: the 
chorale appears as a continuous melody 
in the soprano, accompanied by contra- 
puntal parts which usually proceed in 
definite figures (most of the chorales 
from the Orgelbuchlein)\ (e) Orna- 
mented chorale: the chorale is used in the 
soprano with elaborate and expressive 
ornamentations (nos. 45; Orgelh. no. 51); 

(f) Chorale canon (Orgelh. nOs. 15, 35); 

(g) *Chorale fantasia: free, “North-Ger- 
man” treatment (nos. 15, 22); (h) Cho- 
rale variations (partitas) \ a number of 
variations (corresponding to the number 
of stanzas of the text) of the chorale mel- 
ody (no. 48; also the Partitas, vol. v). 
Naturally, the above methods of treat- 
ment frequently overlap, e.g., the chorale 
prelude “Nun komm der Heiden Hei- 
land” (no. 45) and many others combine 
the principle of imitation, as in the motet, 
with the ornamented treatment for the 
final statement of the “subject.” 

Among recent contributions to the 
repertory the chorale preludes of Brahms 
(op. 122) must be mentioned particularly. 

Lit.: G. Kittler, Geschichte des Protes- 
tantischen Orgelchorals (1931); F. Die- 
trich, Geschichte des deutschen Orgel- 
chorals im ly. fahrhundert (1932); A. 
Scheide, Zur Geschichte des Choralvor- 
spiels (1930); W. H. Frere, “Bach’s 
Vorspiele of 1739” (ML i, no. 3); Ch. 
Maepherson, “Choral-Preludes” (PM A 
xxxix); E. Fischer, “Johann Criigers 
Choralbearbeitungen” (ZMW xiv). Also 
under *Organ music. 

Organetto. Fourteenth-century name 
for a small portable organ (^portative 
organ); see *Organ XII. 

Organ hymn. See *Organ chorale I. 

Organicen, organoedus [from L. 
canere^ Gr. oidein, to sing] . Humanistic 
names for organ player, organist. 

Organista [L.]. Organ player, organ- 
ist. However, the designation “optimus 


[534I 



ORGANISTRUM ORGAN MUSIC 

organista,” conferred on Leonirtus (c. xvii); A ffcssier, “Lcs Messes dorguc de 
1200; see *Ars Antiqua) by the late 13th- Coupcrii^ ’ (RM vi, no. i). 
century Anonymous IV of CS i, charac- 
terizes this master as a “great composer Organ : nusic. I. Middle Ages and 

of organa'' [see *Organum], not as a Renaissif ce. Prior to 1300, organ play- 

“very able organist," a misinterpretation ing was probably restricted to a mono- 

frequently encountered in modern writ- phonic ( uplication of plainsong and, 

ings. perhaps, .0 the performance of the long- 

held not|s of the tenor in ^organa. The 
Organistrum [L.]. Medieval Latin fact that|thc organs of this period had 
name for the ’•‘‘hurdy-gurdy. the sonofity of a mixture-stop with very 

prominei|t harmonics practically rules out 
Organ Mass [G. Orgelmesse], Poly- polyphonfic music, perhaps with the ex- 
phonic compositions of the Ordinary of ception of the note-against-note organum 
the *Mass for the organ. Crude two-part of the to the nth century. The 
settings of the Kyrie, Sanctus, Patrem, earliest preserved examples of organ mu- 
are contained in the tablature of Ludolf sic (r. 131^5) are *intabulations of motets 
Wilkin from 1432 [cf. W. Apel, in MQ and *estampics contained in the MS Add. 
xxiii]. More advanced examples, usu- 28550, the so-called Robertsbridge Codex, 

ally in motet-style, occur in Attaingnant's of the British Museum [cf. WoHN ii, 

books of 1528/29 [new ed. by Y. Rok- 5!!; ApMZ ii; ApNPM 37!?]. They are 

seth], in Buchner’s tablature of r. 1525 usually assumed to be of English origin, 
[cf. VMW v], in Bedford [cf. C. Pfat- although certain features, particularly the 
teicher, John Redford (1934)]. Com- notation, would seem to point to Italy. A 
plcte organ Masses are contained in gap of more than 100 years separates 
Cavazzoni’s Intavolatura of 1542 (Missa these pieces from the next-oldest sources, 

Apostolorum, Missa de Beata Virgine, various German tablatures of the mid- 

etc.; cf. HAM, no. 117). Similar compo- 15th century [cf. L. Schrade, Die dltes- 

sitions, though of lesser artistic perfection, ten Den\mdler der Orgelmusi\ (1927); 
were published by Claudio Merulo in his W. Apel, in MQ xxiii}, among which the 
Misse d'organo (1590.^). Bach wrote Ileborgh tablature of 1448 [cf. W. Apelf 
what one might call a “German organ in ZMW xvi] is remarkable for its free 
Mass," in his Clavierubung, part III. ^preludes, Paumann's Fundamentum or- 

Mention must be made here of a theory ganisandi of 1452 for its elaborations of 
advanced by A. Schering {Die Nieder- German songs and for its instructive 
Idndische Orgelmesse, 1912) according pieces [see ‘‘^Counterpoint III], and the 
to which numerous Masses of the Flem- *Buxhcim organ book of c, 1470 for its 
ish masters, which are commonly re- numerous intabulations of ^Burgundian 
garded as vocal compositions, were actu- chansons [Ex. in ApMZ ij. Towards 
ally meant as organ music. That this the end of the 15th century Paul us Hof- 
theory is untenable appears from a glance haimer was famous for his organ playing 
at Schering’s renditions for organ [cf. and improvisation, but only two or three 
his Alte Meister der Fruhzeit des OrgeU pieces of his have come down to us, along 
spiels (1913); also SchGMB, no. 57] the with compositions of his pupils Kotter, 
highly complex texture of which is in an Sicher, Buchner, Kleber [cf. H. J. Moser, 
irreconcilable contradiction to the genu- Fruhmeister des deutschen Orgelspiels 
ine organ style of the 15th century (Pau- (1930)]* German organ music reaches its 
mann, *Buxheim organ book). first culmination point in the great master 

Lit.: L. Schrade, “The Organ in the ArnoltSchlick whose 
Mass of the 15th Century" {MQ xxviii); Lobgesang\ . . . (1512; new ed. by G. 
iW., “Die Messe in der Orgclmusik des 15. Harms, 1924) contain chiefly *organ 
Jahrhunderts" {AMF i); A. Schering, chorales. The German tradition of this 
“Zur alternicrenden Orgelmesse” {ZMW period is continued in some extensive 

[535] 



ORGAN MUSIC 


ORGAN MUSIC 


tablaturcs of Polish origin, written iound 
1550, which show particularly tlj influ- 
ence of Buchner [see *Polish musl]. 

In the 1 6th century other imArtant 
developments take place in Italy, ^pain, 
England, and France. Cavazzoni^l Inta- 
volatura cioh ricercariy canzoni^ \imniy 
magnificati (1542; see ^Editions II13 and 
VI, 6) contain genuine organ *ricercares 
of high perfection, as well as the earliest 
organ canzonas [see *Canzonai (5)]. 
Andrea Gabrieli (1510-86) cont|ibuted 
the first ^toccatas, a form the artistic pos- 
sibilities of which were more fi4ly ex- 
ploited by Claudio Merulo (1533-41604). 
For other Italian composers of thistperiod 
cf. Torchi’s volume [^Editions II, |] . The 
Spanish organ music is known to fis only 
by the works of the great master Antonio 
de Cabezon (1510-66), contained in the 
posthumous publication Ohras de musica 
( 1577; ^Editions XIII, 3, 4, 7, 8), in which 
we find organ hymns, ^tientos, ’•^varia- 
tions, and instructive pieces of rare ex- 
cellence. In England there flourished be- 
fore 1550 a very remarkable, but little 
known, school of organ composers, rep- 
resented chiefly by John Bedford {c. 
1485-1545; cf. C. Pfatteicher, John Red- 
fordy 1934) whose numerous liturgical 
pieces (organ hymns) include some out- 
standing pieces in motet-style, compared 
with which the hymn settings, etc., of 
Tallis, Byrd, Bull [see *Virginalists], 
are a step backward rather than forward. 
Finally, two French publications of 1530 
(Attaingnant; new ed. by Y. Rokseth, 
Deux livres d'orgue . . . , 1925) give 
evidence of an early activity the later 
traces of which are unfortunately lost for 
nearly 100 years, the next-oldest docu- 
ment of French organ music preserved 
being the organ books by Titelouze 
(1563—1633) issued in 1623 and 1626 
[•Editions I, i; also in E. Kaller, Liber 
Organiy vols. i, ii] . 

II. Baroque. While Titelouze’s organ 
hymns, together with the grandiose 
pieces of Michael Praetorius (1571- 
1621), represent the acme of the organ 
music of the Renaissance, the works of 
another composer of the 1560-gencration, 
Jan Pieters Swcelinck (1562-1621), lead 


to the organ music of the Baroque, owing 
particularly to its new stylistic resources 
in the field of figuration and variation 
which Swcelinck borrowed from the 
virginalists. 

a. Germany. Among Swcelinck’s nu- 
merous pupils Samuel Scheldt (1587- 
1654) is the most outstanding \ycihula- 
tura nova of 1624; ^^w ed. DdT i]. Al- 
though somewhat less imaginative than 
his teacher, particularly in the field of 
variation, his fugal compositions, liturgi- 
cal pieces (Magnificats, etc.), and, par- 
ticularly, organ chorales mark the begin- 
ning of a new development in German 
organ music which was to last and grow 
until the death of Bach, 100 years his 
junior. The ensuing development of 
German organ music may be divided into 
three branches, a North-German, a Mid- 
dle-German, and a South-German. In 
the first, we find Sweelinck’s pupil 
Melchior Schildt (1593-1667), Delphin 
Strungk (1601-94), Franz Tunder 
(1614-67), Matthias Weekmann (1621- 
74), Adam Reinken (1623-1722), Die- 
trich Buxtehude (1637-1707), Vincent 
Liibeck (1654-1740), Georg Bohm 
(1661-1733), and Nicolas Bruhns (1665- 
97) — composers who cultivated particu- 
larly the large and free forms of organ 
music — toccata, chorale fantasia, prelude, 
and fugue — and developed a free and 
highly imaginative style which has been 
termed *Gothic. The Middle-German 
composers, Thuringians and North Ba- 
varians, worked with more modest and 
intimate means and contributed chiefly 
to the development of the melodic chorale 
prelude and of the variation [see •Par- 
tita]. This line is fittingly opened by 
Bach’s grandfather Heinrich Bach (1615- 
92) and uncles Joh. Christof (1642—1703) 
and Johann Michael (1648-94; organ 
chorales in Ritter), and continues with 
Johann Krieger (1651-1735; DTB 18), 
Joh. Pachelbel (1653-1706; DTB 4.!), Joh. 
Kuhnau (1660—1722), Johann Heinrich 
Buttstedt (1666-1727), and Joh. Walther 
(1684-1748; DdT 26/27). 
South-German School of organ music is 
represented by Hans Leo Hassler (1564- 
1612; DTB 4.ii), Christian Erbach 



ORGAN MUSIC 


ORGAN MUSIC 


(1570-1635; DTB 4.ii), Jonann 1^11 lUil 
Steigleder (1593-1635; interesting varia- 
tions on the Vaterunser, new ed. by Ems- 
heimer, 1928), Wolfgang Ebner (1610- 
65), and Johann Erasmus Kindcrmann 
(1616-55; 23). Italian contrapuntal 

style and Italian forms such as the ricer- 
care and the canzona figure largely in 
their works. A new development started 
with Johann Jacob Froberger (1616-67) 
who, as a pupil of Frescobaldi and a 
friend of French lutenists and clavccinists 
(Gaultier, Chambonnieres), instilled into 
the German organ music many new ideas 
derived from Frescobaldi’s novel forms 
(toccata, variation canzona, *capriccio) 
and free, idiomatic keyboard style [see 
^Freistimmig], while the French influ- 
ence benefited chiefly the development of 
his harpsichord music (*'suite). The 
repertory of the later South-German com- 
posers, such as Johann Kaspar Kerll 
(1627-93; DTB 2.ii), Georg Muffat 
(1645-1704), Georg Reutter (1656- 
1738), Franz Xaver Murschhauser 
(1663-1738; DTB 18), Johann Kaspar 
Ferdinand Fischer {c, 1670-^*. 1740; 
new ed. by E. v. Werra, 1901), and Gott- 
lieb Muffat (1690—1770; DTOe 29.ii), 
also falls into an “Italian” division of 
ricercares, canzonas, toccatas, versets, and 
a “French” division of harpsichord music. 

b. Italy, The Italian organ music of 
the Baroque started with the ’••'Neapoli- 
tans Giov. Maria Trabaci and Ascanio 
May one who are important links between 
Cabezon and Frescobaldi [cf. W. Apel, 
in MQ xxiv]. The latter, a unique com- 
bination of intellectual scholar and high- 
ly imaginative artist, is one of the great- 
est and most fascinating figures of organ 
music. Unfortunately, he did not inau- 
gurate an Italian school worthy of his 
merits. His pupil Michelangelo Rossi is 
only a mediocre imitator [cf. his toccatas 
in TaAM vi; an “Andante” in Rococo 
style which has been reprinted under his 
name in numerous collections of early 
keyboard music is the work of an 18th- 
century Lorenzo de Rossi]. Domenico 
Zipoli (c, 1675—.?) is practically the only 
Italian organ composer after Frescobaldi 
worthy of note [see ^Editions VI, 36]. 


c. rnnee, 1 he French organ music of 
the lytl century is represented by Henry 
Dumon (1610-84), Guillaume Nivers 
{c, i6]7-.after 1701), Nicolas Gigault 
(1625-^, 1707), Nicolas Le Begue (1630- 
1702), \ndre Raison (publ. in 1687, 
1714), and Louis Marchand (1669- 
1732) -whose compositions are much 
better tian his inglorious encounter with 
Bach vould make one expect — Jean- 
Fran^oh Dandrieu {c, 1684-1740), and 
Louis Claude Daquin (1694-1772). 
Most of their compositions are liturgical 
pieces in a style which grew increasingly 
secular arjjd “operatic” during the course 
of the peHod. They are noteworthy for 
their em^jhasis on registration which is 
usually carefully indicated [see ^Editions 

I]. 

d. Other Countries, While the Eng- 
lish organ music of the 17th century, 
represented by ^voluntaries and similar 
pieces of John Blow (1648-1708), H. 
Purcell (1658-95), Jeremiah Clarke {c, 
1659-1707), and William Croft (1678- 
1727), is rather insignificant, the Iberian 
peninsula produced a number of impor- 
tant, though little known, organ compos- 
ers. Manuel Coelho (b. 1583; Flores de 
tnusica, 1620), Correa de Araujo {Libro 
de tientoSy ^626), and Aguilera de Here- 
dia (b. 1570?) wrote impressive organ 
pieces, mostly ♦tientos, in the style of 
Cabezon, intermingled with figurations 
borrowed from Sweelinck. A “Spanish 
Frescobaldi” arose in Juan Jose Cabanillcs 
(1644-1712) whose several hundred or- 
gan compositions display a fascinating 
command of a great variety of forms and 
of styles [new ed. by H. Angles, 3 vols., 
1927-36; cf. also LavE i.4, 20911!]. Later 
organ composers such as Pablo Bruna, 
Francisco Llissa, and Josep Elias are 
known only through a few pieces (re- 
produced in collections by Pedrell and 
Villalba). 

e. Bach, In the field of organ music 
even more than in others Bach represents 
the consummate peak of Baroque music 
and, for that matter, of organ music in 
general. Here, as well as elsewhere, his 
achievements were in the direction of ar- 
tistic perfection rather than of innovation. 


[537I 



ORGAN MUSIC 


ORGAN PLAYING 


Building upon the forms and methods of Music (1935); G. Frotscher, Gcschichte 
his predecessors, he bestowed up^n the des Orgelspiels und der Orgel){omposi- 
chorale preludes an incomparable ex- tion, 2 vols. (1934/5); ii.2, 1181- 

pressiveness, on the toccatas and fugues a I 374 > Ritter, Zur Gcschichte des Or- 
unique greatness of architectural struc- gelspiels (1884); O. Kinkeldey, Or gel 
ture, while his organ sonatas represent the und Klavier im 16. Jahrhundert ( 1910); 
most perfect realization — as well as Y. Roksethy La Musique d'orgue au XVe 
idealization — of three-voice counterpoint, siecle . . . (1930); M. Fischer, Die or- 

III. From ly^o to Present, After Bach, ganistische Improvisation im ij, Jahr- 
organ music suffered a collapse from hundert (Diss. Kassel 1929); H. Grace, 
which it did not recuperate until around The Organ Wor{s of Bach (1922); H. 
1840. The low ebb of organ music around Kelletat, Zur Gcschichte der Orgelmusi\ 
1800 is beyond description (for exam- in der FruhJ{lassi\ (Diss. Konigsberg 
pies, cf. an article by H. Muller, in K], 1933); J* Wolf, “Zur Gcschichte der Or- 

1901). Mendelssohn was one of the gelmusik im 14. Jahrhundert” (KJ, 
first to again write organ music of artistic 1899, p. 14); W. Apel, “Du nouveau sur 
significance. However, his six Sonatas la musique fran^aise pour I’orgue au 
(1839-44), although incorporating ele- XVIe siMe” (RM xviii); E. West, “Old 
ments of Bach’s style (fugues, chorales), English Organ Music” (PM A xxxvii); 
clearly show the deteriorating influence F. Raugel, “The Ancient French Organ 
which the Romantic thought had on or- School” (MQ xi); K. G. Fellerer, “Zur 
gan composition. Franz Liszt’s organ italienischen Orgelmusik des 17/18. Jahr- 
works opened a new period of organ hunderts” (JMP xlv); O. Mansfield, 

composition, owing to their exploitation “Mozart’s Organ Sonatas” (MQ viii); H. 

of the orchestral and coloristic resources Grace, “Modern French Organ Music” 

of the instrument. This path was pur- (PM /4 xliv); N. Dufourq, “Panorama de 

sued further by the French Alexandre la musique d’orgue fran^aise au XXe 
Guilmant (1837-1911), Charles-Marie siMe” (PM xix, xx). 

Widor (1845-1937), and Louis Vierne Collections of Old Organ Music: H. f. 
(1870-1937), outstanding organ virtu- Mostly Friihmeister der deutschen Orgel- 
osos who wrote veritable symphonies for \unst (1930); O. Gauss, Orgelhomposi- 
the organ. Cesar Franck’s organ pieces, tioneny 4 vols. (i9i3ff); H. Redlich, 
particularly his Three Chorales of 1890, Meister des Orgelbaroc\ (new ed. of F. 

are in a similar style, modified by the Commer’s Musica Sacra)\ K. Straube, 

spiritual influence of Bach. Much closer Alte Meister des Orgelspiels i, ii (1906; 

to Bach in style and spirit are Brahms’s Neue Folge i, ii, 1929); M. Seiffert, Or- 

Chorale Preludes of 1896. With Max ganum\ W. Stahl, /50 Choralvorspiele 

Reger (1873-1916) Romantic organ mu- alter Meister\ John E. West, Old English 
sic came to an imposing close. Cyclopic Organ Music\ E. Kaller, Liber Organi 

forms are filled with an exuberance of (selected from A. Guilmant’s Archives^ 

ideas and a profusion of technical display, see ^Editions I); F. Raugel, Les Maitres 
but bound by a tremendous contrapuntal frangais de VorguCy 2 vols.; F. Pedrell, 
skill steeped in the tradition of Bach. Antologia de organistas cldsicos espanoles; 

The neo-classical tendencies of the 1920’s L. Villalba Munoz, Antologia de organis- 

brought along a more sincere revival of tas cldsicos espanoles (1914). See also 

the polyphonic tradition of the Baroque. *Organ chorale; *Organ Mass. 

Heinrich Kaminski’s (b. 1886) composi- 
tions are pervaded by a truly Gothic Organ playing (registration, accom- 
mysticism, while Kurt Thomas (b. 1904) paniment, etc.). The literature on this 

and Hindemith (two organ sonatas, subject is extensive, but not up-to-date 

1937) represent the present-day tenden- [see the remarks under *Organ XII 
cics toward objectivism and linear design, (near end)] . A selected list follows. 

Lit.: A. De Brisay, The Organ and its Lit.; G. A. Audsley, Organ Stops and 

[538] 



ORGAN POINT 

their Artistic Registration (1921); Ch. N. 
Boyd, Organ Registration and Accom- 
paniment, 2 vols. (1932); Cl. Dickin- 
son, The Technique and Art of Organ 
Playing (1922); H. F. Ellingford, The 
Art of Transcribing for the Organ 
(1922); H. Grace, The Complete Organ- 
ist (1920); A. Eaglefield-Hull, Organ 
Playing (1912); N. A. B. Hunt, Modern 
Organ Stops (1923); C. Locher, An Ex- 
planation of the Organ Stops (1888); 
G. B. Nevin, A Primer of Organ Regis- 
tration (1920); E. E. Truett, Organ Reg- 
istration (1919); J. I. Wedgwood, Dic- 
tionary of Organ Stops . . . (1905); H. 
Westerby, The Complete Organ Recitalist 
(1927); H. Gleason, “Organ Instruction 
before Bach” (BAMS iv). See also the 
literature under *Organ. 

Organ point. See *Pedal point. 

Organ stops. See *Organ VIII-XI. For 
literature see under ^Organ and *Organ 
playing. 

Organ tablature. (i) The various no- 
tational systems which were used for the 
writing down of early organ music (prior 
to 1600). They are usually distinguished 
as Italian, Spanish, etc., organ tablature. 
However, in Italy, as well as in France 
and England, organ music was notated in 
virtually the same way as it is today, ex- 
cept for minor details, such as variations 
in the number of the staff lines. Only in 
Germany and in Spain was organ music 
(more generally, keyboard music) writ- 
ten in systems which deserve the name 
tablature. See *Tablatures. — (2) The 
manuscripts and printed books of early 
organ music. As under (i), the name 
should properly be restricted to the Ger- 
man and the Spanish sources. Practically 
complete lists of organ tablatures 
(French, Italian, English, German, and 
Spanish) are given in WoHN ii, 32!!, 
27off, 278. Cf. also the article “Orgeltabu- 
laturbuch” in RiML, where the name is re- 
stricted to the sources written in German 
tablature. 

Organum. (i) Latin for organ. 

(2) The earliest type of polyphonic 


ORGANUM 

music, :rom the 9th till the mid-i3th 
century In spite of the identity of names, 
the orgmum has no connection with the 
organ. Possibly, the word organare was 
used in the meaning of “to organize,” 
i.e., different parts, a meaning which 
still persists in Paumann’s ^Fundamen- 
tum or^anisandi (1452). In the broadest 
sense of the word, organum is a composi- 
tion consisting of a liturgical (plainsong) 
tenor to which one or more contrapuntal 
parts {iuplum, triplum, quadruplum) 
are added. In the earlier period of or- 
ganum (prior to 1150) there was (judg- 
ing from the relatively few preserved ex- 
amples) no restriction as to the type of 
plainsong chosen as the basis for or- 
ganum; simple syllabic hymns seem to 
have been preferred. Therefore, in this 
period, organum denotes a general tech- 
nique of composition. In the School of 
Notre Dame, organum treatment became 
restricted to a few types of plainsong, 
mainly graduals, alleluias, and respon- 
soria, resulting in a much narrower sig- 
nificance of the term [see V]. The fol- 
lowing phases of the development can be 
distinguished: 

I. Parallel Organum (9th and loth 
centuries). The duplum (or vox organa- 
lis) accompanies the tenor (vox princi- 
palis) in the lower fifth or fourth, note 
against note. However, particularly in 
the organum at the fourth, the parallel- 
ism of the parts is strictly observed only 
in the middle of a phrase, while for the 
beginning and the close oblique motion 
may be ased, starting and ending in uni- 
son [sec under ^Tritone]. Both voices 
could be duplicated at the octave, thus 
leading to a performance in four parts, 
probably by men’s and boys’ voices. The 
chief source for this type of organum is 
the Musica Enchiriadis (9th century; Ex. 
I and 2). A somewhat later type of 
parallel organum is that known as “or- 
ganum in thirds,” more properly called 
*gymel. 

II. Free Organum (nth and early 12th 
centuries). The duplum still follows the 
tenor note against note, but without being 
restricted to parallel motion. There is an 
increasing emphasis on contrary motion 


1 539] 



ORGANUM 


ORGANUM 


(occursus). The two parts frequently 
cross, and the tenor now becomes gen- 
erally the lower part. Occasionajly we 


, yet vrlncioaMi ^ 


E3QS|aiij±i: 


i5it gio* rt • S' Do-iru-m -in 




Rev coe-ll Oo-nfl-ne nui-nsuiiHU-so>ttt 


,5 , 1’^ * •*• » fe* 


— 5av^rii^t^TktkA ' 

Al-l« — — - lit — id. 





find a group of notes (two to four) in 
the duplum against a single note of the 
tenor, an important foreshadowing of the 
next phase. The main treatises for this 
period are Guido’s Micrologus {c. 1040; 
Ex. 3), Cotton’s Musica (c, 1100), and 
the treatise Ad organum faciendum {c, 
1150). A musical source is the 11th-cen- 
tury Winchester troper which, being 
written in neumes, makes exact reading 
of the intervals impossible but, neverthe- 
less, shows clear evidence of contrary mo- 
tion. A unique example of 11th-century 
free organum, notated in letters, is the 
two-voice “Ut tuo propitiatus” [cf. 
ApNPM, 205ff]. 

III. Melismatic Organum (12th cen- 
tury). The duplum, now regularly 
above the tenor, consists of groups of 
notes sung against a single note of the 
tenor, the extension of such a group vary- 
ing from a few notes to long melismatic 
passages. This procedure, of course, 
greatly lengthens the compositions. A 


Benedicamus domino composed in this 
style may easily be ten or twenty times as 
long as if sung in plainsong. Some of the 
pieces of this period have sections in note- 
against-note style interspersed between 
the melismatic sections [cf., e.g., ApNPM, 
209!!]. A great number of compositions 
of this type arc preserved in the MSS from 
Compostela [Ex. 4] and St. Martial (c. 
1150) as well as in the sources of the 
School of *Notre Dame (c. 1200). Theo- 
rists of the 13th century refer to this type 
of organum as “organum duplum” or 
“organum purum” and emphasize the 
rhythmically free character of the upper 
part, in contradistinction to the measured 
performance of the organa tripla and 
quadrupla of the ensuing period [cf. 
ApNPM, 266fi]. 

IV. Measured Organum (before and 
after 1200). Around 1175, the rhyth- 
mically free dupla of the St. Martial style 
were supplanted by others written in 
strict rhythm, according to the rhythmic 
*modes. This epochal innovation is the 
work of Leoninus, the “optimus *orga- 
nista,” whose organa [see *Magnus liber 
organ i] combine sections in melismatic 
style alongside with others in measured 
style [Ex. 5]. The latter style was ex- 
clusively adopted by Perotinus, the “op- 
timus discantor” [see *Discant]. This 
procedure was necessitated (or, at least, 
accompanied) by his introduction of one 
or two additional contrapuntal parts, the 
triplum and quadruplum, moving in the 
same rhythm as the duplum above the 
longer notes of the tenor [for an example 
see ^Notation, Ex. 2]. In addition to 
numerous organa tripla Perotinus com- 
posed three gigantic organa quadrupla 
which represent the acme as well as the 
end of the history of organum [cf. the 
beginning of his “Viderunt omnes” in 
AdHM i, 229; complete transcription of 
his “Sederunt principes” by R. v. Picker 
(1930); various organa tripla in OH i, 

209ff]. 

V. In the School of Notre Dame 
(partly already in the earlier schools) 
polyphonic treatment and, therefore, the 
term organum, was restricted to certain 
types of plainsong, mainly graduals, al- 





ORGAN VERS 

leluias, responsoria, and the *Benedi- 
camus domino [see ^Magnus liber or- 
gani]. It is important to notice that the 
liturgical melody of such a chant was 
never used in its entirety as a basis of 
polyphonic composition, but only those 
sections which, in Gregorian chant, arc 
given to the soloist. E.g., in a gradual 
only the incipit and the entire vers, except 
for its conclusion, were composed poly- 
phonically, the remaining portions being 
supplied, of course, by the choir in plain- 
song [for the structure of the graduals, 
see ’•‘'Psalmody II ] . This practice strongly 
suggests that the organum (i.c., poly- 
phonic) sections were performed by a 
small number of soloists, not by a full 
chorus. The subsequent scheme illus- 
trates the performance of Perotin’s Christ- 
mas-Gradual “Viderunt” in the Cathedral 
of Notre Dame, around 1200 (S = solo- 
ists; Ch = choir). 


Organum (S) Plainsong (Ch) 



The history of organum is illustrated 
by examples in HAM, nos. 25-31. 

Lit.: OH i, throughout; ReMMA, pas- 
sim, bibl. 451-456; H. Husmann, Die 
dreistimmigen Organa der Notre Dame 
Schule . . . (1935); H. Schmidt, Die 
drei- und vierstimmigen Organa (1933); 
F. Ludwig, in Riemann Festschrift 
(1909); J. Handschin, in ZMW viii; H. 
Husmann, in ]MP xlii. See also *Ars 
antiqua. 

Organ vers. See *Verset. 

Orgatron. See ^Electronic musical in- 
struments 1. 

Orgel- [G.]. Organ. Orgelmesse, (i) 
name of two masses by Haydn in which 


ORIENTAL MUSIC 

the organ plays an important solo role, 
one in E-flat, 1766 (Grosse 0 ,M.), the 
other in B-flat, 1770 {Kleine O.M.); — 
(2) see *Organ mass. Orgelpun\t, pedal 
point. Orgelwalze, barrel organ [see 
♦Mechanical instruments I]. 

Orgue [F.]. Organ. Orgue de bar- 
barie, the street organ of the Italian organ- 
grinder, consisting of one or two rows of 
small organ pipes in a small portable case, 
operated by turning a handle. The word 
barbaric is a corruption of the name of an 
18th-century Italian instrument-maker, 
Barbieri. Orgue expressif, ♦Harmonium. 
Orgue plain, full organ. Orgue positif, 
choir organ. 

Oriental music. The music of the 
Orient: China, Japan, Indo-China, Poly- 
nesia, India, Arabia, North Africa, repre- 
sents a vast treasure of musical art the 
significance and artistic values of which 
arc just becoming apparent to the West- 
ern mind. We begin to see that the music 
of these nations, far from being primitive 
[see ♦Exotic music], represents a stage of 
cultural development which is entirely 
comparable to that of our music, the basic 
difference being that their efforts were al- 
most exclusively directed towards melody 
and rhythm, while Western music has 
been interested primarily in the develop- 
ment of counterpoint and harmony. It is 
but natural, then, that the East should 
have developed subtleties of melody, 
rhythm, ornamentation, and tonal nu- 
ances (niicrotones) in comparison with 
which the Western achievements in these 
fields seem trifling and pedantic. “Poly- 
phonic” traits are not rare in Oriental 
music, but are limited to rhythmic accom- 
paniment, drones, and ♦heterophonic ele- 
ments. 

The chief difficulty encountered in the 
study of Oriental music is the lack of 
written sources, a lack which, in turn, is 
explained by the lack of adequate nota- 
tional systems. It must be understood, 
however, that this lack is an intrinsic 
feature of Oriental music whose irrational 
character forestalls recording in exact 
symbols. In this respect, as in others also. 
Oriental music can be compared only to 


[541 1 





ORNAMENTATION 


ORNAMENTATION 


the ancient tradition of Gregoriai chant, 
which was essentially dependet^ upon 
oral tradition and which began toj decline 
at the time when the first attempts 
towards a more accurate fixation were 
made. 

Oriental music has influenced V^estern 
music chiefly through two channels: via 
the Jews and the early Christian church, 
and via the Arabs in Spain. The former 
influence persists in the particular char- 
acter of Gregorian chant (which is basi- 
cally “un-European”) ; the latter in many 
musical instruments and in certain ele- 
ments of theory and acoustics [see * Ara- 
bian music] . 

See the entries for the various nations 
mentioned above. 

Lit.: Endo Hirosi, Bibliography of Ori- 
ental and Primitive Music (Tokyo, 1929); 
R. Lachmann, Musi\ des Orients (1929); 
id.y Ausser-Europdische Musi\ (in Buc\- 
en*s Handbuch^ 1929); separate articles 
in LavE. See also the special entries 
(♦Arabic, *Chinese, etc.). 

Ornamentation. Musical ornamenta- 
tion arose as a spontaneous act on the part 
of the interpreter who, in performing a 
written or traditional melody, enlivened 
it, expanded it, or varied it through his 
technique of improvisation. The more or 
less stereotyped melodic figures which, in 
this process, have been substituted for or 
added to the original notes of the melody 
are known as ornaments. Throughout 
the history of music three kinds of orna- 
mentation have existed: I. that which is 
left entirely to the improvisation of the 
interpreter; II. that in which definite 
ornaments are indicated by some sort of 
stenographic sign; and III. that in which 
the ornaments are written out in notes. 
^ I. Historic Survey, There is evidence 
that the early singers of Gregorian chant 
indulged in extemporary ornamentation 
of the traditional melodies, and that some 
of the variations created in this manner 
were eventually incorporated in the MSS 
[cf. A. Gastou^, UOrigine du chant ro- 
main]. In connection with polyphonic 
music improvised ornamentation oc- 
curred first in the *discantus supra librum 


of the r4th century. In the i6th century 
improvised ornamentation, known as 
* diminution had its center at the Papal 
Chapel in Rome, where the singers orna- 
mented and completely transformed 
works by Willaert, Lassus, Palestrina, 
etc. The technique of this practice was 
taught methodically in the theoretical 
works of the period [cf. M. Kuhn, Die 
Verzierungs\unst in der Gesangmusik^ 
des 16, -ly ]ahrh,]. All the voices of a 
polyphonic composition were susceptible 
to ornamentation. Hermann Finck, in 
his Practica Musica (1556), states that 
“the character of the coloratura depends 
upon the skill and the individuality of 
the executant. My own view is that all 
voices must be ornamented, but not sim- 
ultaneously, so that each voice will be 
brought out in turn.” Zacconi {Pratica 
di musica, 1592) writes that the art of 
diminution, also known as ♦gorgia, 
“charms the listener, especially when in 
4, 5, or 6-part pieces two voices stand out 
and sing solos together. It is a delight 
when one part of the piece is sung with 
improvised diminutions and the rest 
played upon instruments.” The accom- 
panying example, showing diminutions 


r 



y 

V — w-m 

M=i 


rrr 


} Jj 

" r— - 

i 1 





; j j J 

4 i 



by dalla Casa to Palestrina’s madrigal 
“Vestiva i colli,” illustrates the latter 
treatment [Ex. i]. Diminutions (known 
in Spain as *glosas, in England as *divi- 
sions) were also used in purely instru- 


[542] 





ORNAMENTATION 


ORNAMENTATION 

mental performance. The fame of Me- written parts of sonatas for strings mere 
rulo, the two Gabrielis, and Cabezon sketches of what the player should do. 
rested largely upon the free and vivid The accompanying fragments from Han- 
manner of improvising with which they del’s Messiah [Ex. 3] and a flute sonata 
inspired seemingly dry pieces. 

In many of the 16th-century treatises 
on improvised ornamentation specific 
names are attached to certain small me- 
lodic formulas which are made up cither 
of the repetition of a single note or of the 
rapid alternation of two (or at most 
three) adjacent notes. To the former 
type belongs the Italian trillo (an acceler- 
ated ^tremolo); to the latter (^trills), the 
tremolo^ groppo^ and ribattuta^ as well as 
the Spanish redoble and quiebro^ and the 


by Quantz [Ex. 4] illustrate typical 18th- 
century practice. 

Beginning with Gluck, composers 
gradually suppressed most improvised 
ornamentation except the agrements and 
English ^relish [see Ex. 2]. Caccini, ^cadenzas. One important relic of the 

Cavalieri, and other 17th-century Italian earlier practice, which persists even in 

musicians urged the cultivation of these the operas of Mozart and Gluck, is the 

small ornaments, which they call e§€tti, appoggiatura in recitative. From the 

as a special means of expression. It was time of Alessandro Scarlatti it was cus- 

in France, however, and under the name tomary lor composers to write the ap- 

of agrementSy that these ornaments finally poggiatura which appears at the end of 

became stereotyped and were systema- almost e\ery phrase of recitative as a har- 

tized to the extent that it was possible to mony note, in order to make the under- 
indicate them in the music by signs or lying harmony clear to the accompanist, 

abbreviations and to establish definite as in Ex. 5 the upper system of which 

rules for introducing them extemporane- shows the customary notation, the lower, 

ously. the correct performance. 

Improvised ornamentation and divi- 
sions continued to play a large part in 
musical performance throughout the 17th 
and 1 8th centuries. During this period 
singers probably never executed a solo 
part as it was written. The individual 
qualities of operatic virtuosi led to “cus- 
tom-composed” roles, written by the com- 
poser expressly for the range and style 
of a certain singer who was engaged 
for the part. Many composer-conductors 
sketched out the ornamentation in ad- 
vance and practiced it with the singers, 
although no hint of this interpretation II. Ornamentation as Indicated by 
appears in the published scores that have Signs. Some musical ornaments are so 

come down to us. Corelli, Handel, Tar- subtle and flexible in rhythm and pitch 

tini, and their contemporaries made their that they defy expression in ordinary 

[543] 








ORNAMENTATION 

musical notation and can only y repre- 
sented by signs. The MSS of Grigorian 
chant contain certain special signs i some- 
times appearing as modifications |of the 
neumes), which indicate stresseej notes 
{pressus)^ vibratos {vinnula)^ poj^amen- 
tos {quilisma)y and smothered^ notes 
(liquescent neumes; see *NeumesI). Ac- 
cording to the early theoretical writers 
the Gauls and Germans were incapable 
of performing some of these ornaments. 
Guido d’Arezzo (loth cent.) reconlmends 
that those who cannot execute ‘‘these 
sounds that the Italians produce natu- 
rally” should sing the simple note. The 
only frequently recurring sign for an 
ornament in the music of the later Middle 
Ages is the *plicay which was derived 
from the liquescent notes. 

During the i6th century the indication 
of ornaments by sign was restricted al- 
most entirely to keyboard music. The 
Germans used special signs for the ’’^mor- 
dent, and in the English ^virginal books 
there is a profusion of single and double 
oblique strokes through the stem of the 
note, denoting ornaments the exact nature 
of which has not been established. The 
Italian groppo and tremolo are some- 
times indicated by abbreviations (the let- 
ters g and /) in the keyboard pieces of 
Valente [cf. ApNPM, facs. no. i6], 
Mayone, Trabaci, and Frescobaldi. Since 
the melodic forms of these ornaments 
were not yet definitely stereotyped the 
composers always wrote out the tremolo 
or groppo in notes the first time it oc- 
curred in a given piece or section, using 
the abbreviation only when the same me- 
lodic form was desired again. 

By far the most important of all steno- 
graphic signs for ornaments arc those of 
the French ^agrements which were sys- 
tematized during the 17th century and 
remained in continuous use by all Euro- 
pean musicians until the beginning of 
the Romantic period. The correct inter- 
pretation of these signs constitutes a con- 
siderable problem in the execution of 
music of this period owing to the fact 
that the nomenclature and signs used for 
the individual agr^ments lacked uniform- 
ity and consistency. Identical ornaments 


ORNAMENTATION 

were often called by different names and 
represented by different signs, while the 
same name and sign were sometimes 
given to different agrements. The agre- 
ments, in general, may be divided into 
the following categories: i. Appoggia- 
turas (also Double Appoggiaturas); 
2. Trills; 3. Turns; 4. Mordents; 5. Nach- 
schlage; 6. Arpeggios; 7. Vibratos. Each 
of these seven types of agrement receives 
fuller treatment under its own heading. 
The first three categories (Appoggia- 
turas, Trills, and Turns) were regarded 
as essential agrements, in the sense that 
their use was obligatory in certain posi- 
tions of the musical phrase whether their 
signs appeared in the score or not. The 
others were arbitrary, and were often left 
to the discretion of the performer. It is 
significant that the only signs to be found 
in the works of Mozart and Beethoven 
are the tiny note representing the appog- 
giatura, the ^ for the turn, and the tr or 
t with a wavy line, indicating the trill. 
The other agrements had by that time 
become absorbed in the ordinary notation. 
Rossini was probably the first composer 
who — much to the indignation of Sten- 
dhal — deliberately abandoned the signs 
for agrements, writing out what he con- 
sidered necessary in notes (in his opera 
ElisabettUy 1815). 

For a detailed study of the Baroque 
ornaments the tables of signs given with 
a number of publications are indispen- 
sable [e.g., d’Anglebert, in TaAM vii, 
in; F. Couperin, in TaAM x, 78; 
Kuhnau, in TaAM x, 2; Georg Muffat, 
in DTOe 2.ii, p. 52; Gottlieb Muffat, 
in DTOe 3.iii, p. 89]. Very helpful also 
arc the realizations given in the modern 
edition of Loeillet [^Editions XVII, i] 
and in an article by F. Dolmetsch (theme 
of Bach’s Goldberg Variations, ci. BSIM 
viii, no. 2, p. 27). The accompanying 
table shows (without claim to complete- 
ness) a variety of signs used for the differ- 
ent types of ornamentations. 

III. Written-out Ornamentation, The 
embellishment of a simple melody took 
its place, at an early date, among the regu- 
lar procedures of composition. Frequent- 
ly melismatic chants of the Gregorian 


[544] 



ORNAMENTATION 


ORNAMENTATION 


repertory have been interpreted as orna- 
mented versions of simpler skeleton melo- 
dies, e.g., of monotones [cf. GD iv, 369]. 
Definite evidence of ornamentation tech- 
nique has been found in the music, mono- 

I. Dashes. 



Appoggiatura; Nachschlag 
Mordent; Double mordent 
Double appoggiatura 
Trill 

Appoggiatura 

Trill; Mordent; Appoggiatura 
Arpeggio 


II. ZigzagLines. 


p Trill; Schncllcr 


r 

/vvvUav Cwv 

T 

f 


Double appoggiatura 
Mordent 

Trill 

Trill (beginning with lower auxil- 
iary note) 

Double mordent 


r 

r 

</r^> 

r- 

CSJ CO 

r-r 

(II 

T 

f 


III. Curved Lines. 
Appoggiatura 
Mordent 

Double appoggiatura 
Nachschlag 
Turn; Inverted turn 
Arpeggio 

Bebung (Clavichord) 
Ondule (Violin) 

IV. Letters. 

Trill; Schneller 


tr W Trill 


phonic or polyphonic, of the I2th/i4^1i 
centuries [cf. J. Handschin, “Zur Frage 
dcr melodischen Paraphrasierung im 
Mittclalter” (ZMW x)]. The upper 
voice of a 15th-century *discant Mass 
(by Dunstable, Dufay, Liebert, etc.) is 
usually an ornamented version of a Gre- 
gorian chorale or a folk tune [cf. R« 
Picker, Die Kolorierungstechni\ der Tri‘ 
enter Messen, wherein an example of this 


technique dating as early as the 13th 
century is cited]. This practice reached 
its culmination in J. S. Bach’s treatment 
of the Protestant chorale in his Organ 
Preludes (for example: “Wenn wir im 
hochsten Nbthen sein”). 

The transcription of vocal works for 
instrumental performance upon the key- 
board, lute, or ensembles of melodic in- 
struments is another field in which writ- 
ten-out ornamentation played an impor- 
tant role, especially during the i6th and 
17th centuries [see *Intabulierung] . 
Furthermore, almost every 16th-century 
piece destined for keyboard or lute per- 
formance (whether transcription or inde- 
pendent composition) contains groppiy 
tremoliy minutey ^tiratCy etc. — orna- 
ments which were customarily impro- 
vised by singers and by players of melodic 
instruments but which, in the case of key- 
board and lute music, were written out 
in groups of rapid notes, as in the accom- 
panying example from Sweelinck’s Chro- 



matic Fantasia. Some of these formulas 
gradually became more and more stereo- 
typed in melodic form until finally they 
were incorporated in the system of agr6- 
ments as trillsy relisheSy double cadenceSy 
turns, mor dents y etc., and were henceforth 
indicated by means of stenographic signs 
or left to the improvisation of the per- 
former. 

Between 1650 and 1750 the practice of 
writing ornaments in notes was frowned 
upon as detrimental to the visual clarity 
of the melodic lines. J. S. Bach, for in- 
stance, was severely criticized by at least 
one contemporary musician, on the 
ground that “he writes down in actual 
notes the ornaments and embellishments 
that performers are accustomed to supply 
instinctively, a habit which not only sacri- 
fices the harmonic beauty of his music 
but also makes the melody totally indis- 
tinct” (J. A. Scheibe, in Der Critische 
Musicus for May 14, 1737). The example 
here given shows how a passage from the 
Andante of the Italian Concerto would 


[545] 



ORNAMENTATION 


OSTINATO 


appear had it been written in th 
conventional notation of Bach’ 
[(a) Doppclschlag (turn); (b) & 

a b b a a d c 

j more 

1 time 
jhleifer 

h rN 




A 


(double appoggiatura); (c) mbrdent; 
(d) passaggio; (c) tirata]. It niust be 
noted, however, that Bach did not! invari- 
ably adhere to this unorthodox pi-actice; 
his keyboard suites, for instance, ire pro- 
vided with a goodly number of the tradi- 
tional signs for agrements. 

Since the late i8th century the pendu- 
lum has swung in the other direction, 
and composers have endeavored to indi- 
cate their intentions as precisely as pos- 
sible on paper, using a minimum of signs 
and expressing all complex ornaments in 
such a way that there can be no doubt as 
to what notes are to be performed, even 
though, in certain cases, the rhythm of 
those notes be free, as in the so-called 
‘‘cadenzas’’ written in tiny grace notes by 
Chopin and other Romantic composers. 

Lit.: E. Dannreuther, Musical Orna- 
mentation^ 2 vols. (1893); A. DeJmetsch, 
The Interpretation of the Music of the 
lyth and i8th Centuries, 2 vols. (1915); 
E. Fowles, Studies in Musical Graces 
(1907); J. P. Dunn, Ornamentation in 
the Wor\s of Frederic^ Chopin (1921); 
G. C. Hamilton, Ornaments in Classical 
and Modern Music (1930); M. Kuhn, 
Die Verzierung in der Gesangsmusi\ des 
]ahrhunderts (1902); H. Gold- 
schmidt, Die Lehre der vo\alen Orna- 
menti\ (1907); H. Ehrlich, Die Orna- 
menti\ in Beethovens Klaviersonaten 
(1896); P. Brunold, Traiti des signes et 
agriments employes par les clavecinistes 
fran^ais des ij, and 18. sibcles (1935); 
Jane Arger, Les agrSments . . . dans la 
musique vocale fran^aise du i8e sihcle 
^1920). — A. Dechevrens, in SIM xiv 
(Gregorian chant); J. Handschin, in 
ZMW X (Middle Ages); R. von Picker, 
in StM vii (Trent Codices); J. Dodge, in 
SIM ix (lute tablatures); A. Moser, in 


ZMW i (Corelli); H. Prunieres, in RM 
xiii (Baroque, vocal); P. Aldrich, in The 
Inchoirer, Sept. 1939-Feb. 1940 (Bach’s 
organ works); S. Salter, in MQ vi 
(same); E. Lockspeiser, in ML xvi, no. 4 
(Bach-French); A. Schering, in SIM vii 
(i8th century); H. Lungershausen, in 
ZMW xvi (same); M. Seiflert, in SIM 
viii (Messiah); F. Salzer, in ZMW xii 
(C. P. E. Bach); H. Mersmann, in AMW 
ii (pre-classical). P. A. 

Orpheon, French male choral societies, 
similar in character to the American 
*Apollo clubs or the German *Manner- 
gesangverein. The members consist 
chiefly of farmers, workers, and middle- 
class people. The movement started 
around 1835 and spread rapidly. By 1910 
there were about 1200 orpheons in France. 
A system of public competitions, called 
“Concours Orph&niques,” was inaugu- 
rated by Bocquillon-Wilhelm in 1842. 
Gounod conducted the Orph&n of Paris 
from 1852 to i860. 

Orpheus and Euridice. The touch- 
ing fable of the “inventor of music” re- 
covering his beloved Euridice from Hades 
and losing her again in the moment of 
their reunion has been used more fre- 
quently than any other subject as an oper- 
atic libretto. Among the numerous operas 
based on this story, Monteverdi’s Orfeo 
( 1607), Gluck’s Orfeo ed Euridice (1762; 
French version OrphSe, 1774), and Offen- 
bach’s parody Orphee aux Enfers (1858) 
are immortal. It is interesting to note the 
difference between the tragic, but heroic, 
close of Monteverdi’s opera and the 
“happy ending” of Gluck’s. In the former, 
Orpheus loses Euridice, but, as a reward 
of his great love, is transferred to the stars 
by Apollo; in the latter. Amor appears 
and restores Euridice to life once more 
and for good. 

Osanna. See *Hosanna. 

Ossia [It., or] indicates an alternative 
version, usually one of easier execution. 

Ostinato [It., obstinate], A clearly de- 
fined melodic phrase which is repeated 
persistently, usually in immediate sue- 


[546] 



OSTINATO 

cession, throughout a composition or a 
section thereof. From other devices of 
repetition, such as ^imitation and *se- 
quence [see ^Repetition ] , the ostinato is 
distinguished by the fact that it is reiter- 
ated in the same voice and at the same 
pitch. It is this feature which bestows 
upon the ostinato that peculiar character 
which is expressed in its name. 

The earliest examples of ostinato occur 
in compositions of the 13th century, e.g., 
in the tenor of the motet Amor potest 
conqueri (Montpellier, no. 328) [Ex. i]. 



A much better-known example from the 
same period is the *pes of the *Sumer 
canon. That the ostinato-technique is by 
no means restricted to the bass is shown 
in several organ pieces by John Redford 
(1485-1545) in which a short ostinato 
motive keeps recurring in the soprano 
[cf. C. Pfatteicher, John Redford (1934), 
p. 40; HAM, no. 120 b]. Another exam- 
ple of “soprano ostinato” is Frescobaldi's 
Capriccio sopra il cucco [TaAM iv, 64]. 
See also ^Romanesca. 

In the 1 6th century the ostinato tech- 
nique received a fresh impulse from 
dance music, possibly from Oriental 
dances in which it is still prominent to- 
day. The Oriental element is particularly 
conspicuous in a Fantasia for two lutes 
by Valderrabano in which the second lute 
plays a one-measure ostinato throughout 
the entire composition [Ex. 2; cf. W. 
Apel, in MQ xx, 300]. Another early ex- 
ample of a dance-like ostinato occurs in 
“Mylady Carey’s Dompe” of the Brit. 
Mus. Roy, App. §8 {c, 1525; Ex. 3; sec 
♦Dump), while Hugh Aston’s ♦Horne- 
pype from the same MS utilizes the alter- 
nation of tonic and dominant as a har- 
monic basis without strict ostinato; thus 
the Dump and the Hornepype are early 
representatives of those two types of con- 
tinuous variation [sec ♦Variation] which 
arc commonly distinguished as passaca- 


OTTAVA 

glia and chaconne. The Tratado de glosas 
of the Spaniard Diego Ortiz (1553; new 
ed. by M. Schneider, 1912) contains the 
first examples of more extended bass mel- 
odies, in the character of the 17th-century 
♦ground [Ex. 4]. 

The *New music of the 20th century 
has brought about an interesting and sig- 
nificant revival of the ostinato. Modern 
composers such as Hindemith and Bartok 
have been attracted by its polyphonic and 
rhythmic possibilities as well as by its 
anti-Romantic precision and straightfor- 
wardness [Ex. 5, Hindemith, Konzert, 
op. 38]. Ostinato technique has also been 
introduced into modern jazz under the 
name “riff” [see ♦Jazz IV]. For litera- 
ture see ♦Ground. 

Otello (“Othello”). Opera in four acts 
by Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901), text by 
A. Boito after Shakespeare, produced 
1887. The scene is 16th-century Cyprus 
where the Moor Otello rules as governor. 
The crafty lago (Baritone), his secret 
enemy, devises a plot to convince Othello 
that his beloved and loving wife Desde- 
mona (Soprano) is in love with the young 
officer Cassio (Tenor), a plot in which 
Desdemona’s handkerchief, stolen from 
her and craftily slipped into Cassio’s 
hand, serves as “convincing” evidence. 
In the last act, Othello strangles Desde- 
mona who in vain pleads her innocence, 
and stabs himself after Emilia (Mezzo- 
Soprano), lago’s wife, has revealed the 
latter’s treachery. 

Otello, together with *Falstaff (1893), 
represents the climax of Verdi’s operatic 
work. In these operas Verdi abandoned 
the aria-style of his earlier operas (*Aida, 
etc.; see *Number opera) and adopted 
something like Wagner’s principle of 
continuous composition without, how- 
ever, sacrificing the “Italian” peculiarities 
of his personal style. 

6tez [F.]. Take off (a stop). 

Ottava [It.]. Octave, frequently ab- 
breviated 8 t^a ( 8 ), Air ottava, ottava alta, 
ottava sopra, or simply 8 va written above 
the notes, indicates playing one octave 
higher than it is written; ottava bassa. 


[547I 




OTTAVINO 


OVERTURE 


ottava sottay or iva written below the 
notes (usually in the bass part), calls for 
the lower octave. ColVottava means 
doubling in the higher (or lower) octave. 

Ottavino [It.]. The piccolo flute. 

Ottoni, or stromenti d’ottone [It.]. 
Brass instruments. 

Ouvert [F., open], (i) French term 
for the open strings of violins, etc. — (2) 
In the ^ballades, *estampics, *virelais of 
the 14th century, ouvert and clos [L. 
apertumy clausum\ It. apertOy chiuso] in- 
dicate different endings for repeated sec- 
tions, corresponding to the modern prima 
volta, seconda volta. Cf. ApNPM, 349. 

Ouverture [F.]. See ^Overture. 

Overblowing. See *Wind instruments 
II, III. 

Overtones. See ^Acoustics IV. 

Overture. I. The Operatic Overture. 
Instrumental music composed as an in- 
troduction to an opera, oratorio, or simi- 
lar work. The earliest operas, which usu- 
ally began with a ^prologue, had no over- 
ture or, at most, a flourish of instruments 
such as the “Toccata” of Monteverdi’s 
Orjeo (1607). One of the first overtures 
of a more complex nature is that of Stef- 
fano Landi’s II SanAlessio (1632) which 
consists of a “Preambulum” in slow, 
pompous style followed by a “Canzona” 
in three sections. This opera also has 
elaborate ^“Sinfonias” before the second 
and third acts, each in three-movement 
form (fast, slow, fast), like the later 
“Italian” overture [cf. H. Goldschmidt, 
Studien zur Geschichte der italienischen 
Oper i, pp. 23off; HAMy no. 208]. The 
“canzona”-overture [see *Canzona (5)] 
was a favorite type in the Venetian opera, 
where it usually occurs in the form of an 
introductory slow movement in duple 
rhythm followed by a fast movement in 
triple rhythm (Cavalli, Giasone, 1649). 
Other overtures, hardly different in form, 
are called Sonata (e.g., Cesti, II Porno 
d'oroy 1667). There can be no doubt that 
the Venetian type of overture was the 
model for Lully’s famous French overture 


(earliest example in his ballet Alcidiancy 
1658) which became the first standard 
type of overture. It consists of a slow in- 
troduction in pompous style with dotted 
rhythm, followed by an allegro in imi- 
tative style on a short canzona-like sub- 
ject, though the imitative treatment is not 
strictly maintained and the “fugal” char- 
acter of this movement is more illusory 
than real [cf. HAMy no. 224]. Some- 
times the second movement of the French 
overture ends with a broad adagio passage 
which has led to the erroneous statement 
that this is a three-movement form; this 
statement is not in accordance with the 
actual examples in which the closing sec- 
tion (if present at all) is an “allargando” 
coda to the allegro rather than a separate 
movement. There exist, however, later 
examples of French overture in which the 
closing passage is extended into a “third 
movement,” i.e., that which opens Bach’s 
so-called French Overture (really, a 
French overture followed by a suite; sec 
II). Handel’s overture to Rinaldo (1711; 
cf. SchGMBy no. 278) illustrates other 
methods of amplification, merging with 
the sonata da chiesa. 

In the late 17th century Al. Scarlatti 
introduced another type of overture, the 
“Italian overture” (earliest example in 
Dal malo i bene, 1681 or 1686), consisting 
of three sections, allegro, adagio, and al- 
legro, an early adumbration of the three 
movements of the sonata. These sections 
are all in simple homophonic style except 
the first which introduces some imitative 
treatment for the entrances of the voices. 
The usual name for this type is “sinfonia” 
[see ’"‘Sinfonia; Ex. in HAMy no. 259]. 
During the first half of the i8th century 
both the French and the Italian types ex- 
isted side by side. Cases of Italian operas 
and oratorios having a French overture 
— which excelled the other as regards ar- 
tistic quality — arc not rare (e.g., Han- 
del). The French overture disappeared 
around 1750, as a result of the rapidly 
growing importance of the symphony and 
the sonata as standard forms. 

An important feature of the ensuing 
development was the emphasis on a closer 
connection of the overture with the opera 


[548] 



if 

itself, mainly by incorporation into the 
overture of material from the opera. Ex- 
amples of such a procedure occurred in 
Cesti’s II Porno d'oro and in Rameau’s 
Castor et Pollux (1735), but did not lead 
to an accepted practice until after 1750. 
Of still greater significance is the tend- 
ency to use the overture as an expression 
of mood preparatory to the first scene of 
the play. Perhaps the first example is the 
overture to Gluck’s IphigSnie en Tauride 
(1778) in which the overture announces 
the approaching thunderstorm of the 
opening scene. Famous examples of an 
overture as a piece designed to set the 
emotional background for the plot are 
those to Haydn’s Creation^ Mozart’s Don 
Giovanni and The Magic FlutCy Beetho- 
ven’s * Leonora -0 vertures (not the final 
Fidelio-Overture), Weber’s FreischiitZy 
and practically all the overtures by Wag- 
ner and his successors. Wagner aban- 
doned the sonata-like structure of the 
overture in favor of a free “Vorspiel” di- 
rectly leading into the first scene. His 
precedent is followed in most of the re- 
cent operas. In a strong contrast to this 
Romantic type is the overture to the 19th 
century “grand opera” of French deriva- 
tion (Rossini, Boildieu, Auber, Meyer- 
beer), which usually is merely a potpourri 
of the most important melodies of the 
opera. 

II. The French Overture as a Suite, 
See * Suite V. 

III. The Concert-Overture of the 19th 
century is an independent orchestral com- 
position written along the same lines as 
the operatic overture, either as a single 
movement in sonata-form, or as a free 


PADOVANA 

‘‘Vorspicl,” Well-known examples are 
Mendelssohn’s Hebrides OverturCy Ber- 
lioz’ Le Carnaval Romainy Brahms’s 
Academic Festival Overture, Under this 
category may also be included the over- 
tures written as an introduction to spoken 
plays and frequently performed as con- 
cert pieces, such as Beethoven’s overture 
to Goethe’s Coriolan and Mendelssohn’s 
overture to the Midsummer-Night's 
Dream, 

Lit.; H. Botstiber, Geschichte der 
Ouverture (1913); A. Heuss, “Die Ve- 
netianischen Opernsinfonien” {SIM iv); 
H. Prunieres, “Notes sur I’origine de 
I’ouverture fran^aise” {SIM xii). 

Oxford Symphony. Haydn’s Sym- 
phony no. 92 in G, composed in 1788. It 
was performed in Oxford in 1791 when 
Haydn was there to receive his honorary 
doctor’s degree from the university. 

Oxyrynchos hymn. The earliest 
Christian hymn {c, A.D. 300) for which 
the music is preserved. It takes its name 
from the place Oxyrynchos in Middle 
Egypt, where the papyrus was found on 
which it is written. The text is in Greek, 
and the melody is written in the Greek 
vocal notation [see ^Notation]. The 
melody [cf. BeMMRy 45] shows certain 
traits of ancient Greek music (large in- 
tervals, rhythmic accentuation) as well as 
others of Oriental character (numerous 
small coloraturas) which on the whole 
would seem to predominate. 

Lit.: A. S. Hunt, The Oxyrynchos 
Papyri (1928); H. Abert, in ZMW iv; 
O. Ursprung, in BUM iii (1923); id.y in 
Theologie und Glaube xviii (1926). 


p 


P. Abbreviation for piano; for pedal (in 
organ and piano music); or for [F.] 
positify i.e., choir organ. 

Pacato [It.]. Peaceful, placid. 

Padiglione [It.]. The bell of a wind 
instrument. Padiglione cinesey i.e., Chi- 
nese ^crescent. 


Padovana, paduana. A 16th-century 
term which it is difficult to distinguish 
from the contemporary term *pavane. 
Etymologically, pavana may be a deterio- 
ration of paduana (dance from Padua), 
or paduana may be a corruption of pavana 
(peacock dance). The earliest source for 
both terms, Dalza’s Tabulatura de lauto 


[549] 



PAEAN 


PANDIATONICISM 


of 1508, contains four dances inscribed 
“Pavana,” while the book title mentions 
‘‘Padoane diverse.” Similarly, in G. Mor- 
laye’s Premier livre de tabelature (1553), 
pieces inscribed “Paduanes” are listed 
under this name in the index, while the 
book title mentions “Pavanes.” In Rotta’s 
Intabolatura de lauto ( 1546) and in Wais- 
selius’s Tabulatura ( 1573) the name pado- 
vana appears in connection with dances 
in quick 6/8-meter. In the interest of 
clarity, it is recommended that this name 
be reserved for such dances, and the name 
pavane for dances in slow duple (or, occa- 
sionally, triple) meter. Dalza’s dances are 
pavanes. 

Paean [Gr., the healing]. Originally a 
name of Apollo, the term denotes a song 
in praise of this god, or a song of praise 
in general. 

Pagan Poem, A, See ^Symphonic 
poem IV. 

Pagliacci (i.e.. The Players; G. Der 
Bajazzo), Opera in two acts and pro- 
logue by Ruggiero Leoncavallo, to his 
own libretto, produced 1892. The scene 
is in a village in Calabria, 1865, where a 
comedy troupe consisting of Canio 
(Tenor), his wife Nedda (Soprano), 
Tonio (Baritone), and Beppe (Tenor) 
arrive to give a performance. Nedda, in 
love with the handsome villager Silvio 
(Baritone), refuses the urgent attentions 
of the ugly Tonio who, swearing revenge, 
calls Canio to surprise the lovers, but 
Silvio escapes unrecognized. In the sec- 
ond act the performance takes place. 
Canio, in terrible excitement, confuses 
play and reality, demands in vain from 
his wife the name of her lover, and losing 
all control, stabs Nedda to death as well 
as Silvio who rushes to her aid. 

Together with Mascagni’s ^Cavalleria 
rusticana^ Pagliacci is the outstanding ex- 
ample of the movement known as *Ve- 
rismo. Large portions of the text are 
composed in a speech-like recitation 
which contributes to making the opera a 
dramatic and exciting representation of 
“true life.” Particularly famous is the 
prologue in which Tonio explains the 


idea of the plot — a conscious revival of 
the ^prologue of 17th-century opera. 

P’ai hsiao. See *Panpipes. 

Paleographic musicale. See ’’^Edi- 
tions, Historical, XXIII. 

Palestrina style. A polyphonic a-cap- 
pella style based upon the principles of 
counterpoint, imitation, melodic move- 
ment, consonance and dissonance, such as 
are shown in the music of Palestrina. As 
early as the 17th century this style, under 
names such as stile antico^ stile osservato 
[see *Stile], had become “classical” in 
the ’’‘Roman school. In the early 19th 
century it was revived by Baini (1775- 
1844) and, later, by the protagonists of 
the *Cecilian movement. Pope Pius X, 
through his *motu proprio, raised it to 
new authority in the field of church com- 
position, and in the recent teaching of 
counterpoint there is a tendency to make 
the Palestrina style, rather than that of 
Bach, the point of departure [cf. K. 
Jeppesen, Counterpoint (1939); A. T. 
Merritt, Sixteenth-Century Polyphony 
(1940)]. 

Lit.: K. Jeppesen, The Palestrina Style 
and the Dissonance ( 1927); O. Ursprung, 
Restauration und Palestrina-renaissance 
in der \atholischen Kirchenmusif^ der 
letzten zwei Jahrhunderte (1924); K. G. 
Fellerer, Der Palestrinastil und seine Be- 
deutung in der vo\alen Kirchenmusi\ des 
18. Jahrhunderts (1929); H. J. Moser, in 
KJy 1930. 

Pallet. See *Organ II. 

Palotache, palotas. See *Hungarian 
music II. 

Pandean pipes. See ^Panpipes. 

Pandiatonicism. A recent term intro- 
duced by N. Slonimsky to denote an im- 
portant trend in contemporary music, 
namely, the return to the diatonic scale 
as the basic tonal material, though with- 
out the harmonic restrictions implied in 
the common practice of such composers 
as Haydn and Mozart. The accompany- 
ing example [Stravinsky, Piano Con- 
certo] illustrates this style in which usu- 


[550] 



PANDORA 


ally the absence of functional harmony 
results in a certain tonal staticity, offset 



by a greater interest in counterpoint, 
rhythm, and chord spacing. From a 
methodical point of view, pandiatonicism 
might be considered as the “diatonic” 
counterpart of *atonality which applies 
the same principle of “harmonically un- 
restricted combination” to the chromatic 
scale. Historically, however, pandiatoni- 
cism represents a reaction against the 
“pan-chromaticism” of atonality as well 
as against the “harmonic chromaticism” 
of the late 19th century. In fact, a page 
from, e.g., Stravinsky’s Serenade (1925) 
or Poulenc’s Suite (1920) with their C 
major appearance offers a most striking 
contrast to the piling up of sharps and 
flats in a page from Ravel or Schonberg. 

Pandiatonic style is clearly present in 
many of the whimsical pieces by Satie, 
written around 1910 (e.g., Embry ons 
desseches), and in portions of Stravin- 
sky’s Petrouchka (1911). It became more 
fully established around 1925 as a con- 
comitant of the *neo-classical movement. 
Cf. N. Slonimsky, Music Since igoo 
(i937),p.xxii. 

Pandora, pandore, pandura, ban- 
dora, etc. These terms are used with- 
out clear distinction for several instru- 
ments: (i) A long-necked lute of ancient 
Greece (pandura) [see *Lute II]. — (2) 
A small bottle-shaped fiddle used in the 
Caucasus (panduri, jandur). — (3) A 
queer-shaped guitar of the 17th century 
(pandora^ pandore, also bandura) [sec 
^Guitar family]. 

Panharmonicon. See ^Mechanical in- 
struments III. 


Panorgue. See ^Harmonium. 


PANTOMIME 

her of pipes (vertical flutes; see *Instru- 
ments III) of different size which are 
bound or glued together, usually in the 
form of a raft. It is played by moving it 
in front of the mouth, similar to the 
mouth-harmonica. See illustration on 
p. 272. The panpipes is one of the most 
ancient instruments. It occurs in ancient 
Greece where it was called syrinx and 
attributed to the god Pan, as well as in 
China, Rumania, and South America. 
The Peruvian panpipes is called antaras, 
that of Ecuador (made of 33 pipes of 
cane) rondador. 

The Chinese panpipes, called pai hsiao, 
consists of sixteen (formerly twelve) 
pipes which are arranged in two whole- 
tone scales [see Ex.]. It is a ritualistic 



and symbolic instrument representing, by 
its sha|)e, the outspread wings of the 
mystic bird phoenix, and by the arrange- 
ment of its pipes in two groups, the male 
and female element (the tones of the left 
half are the “y^^g lii,” i.e., masculine 
tones; those of the right half, the “yin 
lii,” i.e., feminine tones). See ^Chinese 
music. Cf. A. H. Fox-Strangways, in 
ML X, no. i; J. Tregenna, The Pipes of 
Pan (1926); E. M. von Hornbostel, in 
Festschrift fur P, W. Schmidt (1928). 

Pantaleon, pantalon. An enlarged 
^dulcimer invented around 1690 by Pan- 
taleon Hebenstreit who also was a virtu- 
oso on this instrument. It had 185 strings 
in all, and was played by means of two 
small hammers. The frequently-told 
story that the pantalon led to the inven- 
tion of the pianoforte is only partly true 
[see ^Pianoforte II]. The last virtuoso 
on the instrument was one Georg Nolli 
(Noel) who gave performances in Eng- 
land (1767) on an instrument with 276 
strings. Towards the end of the i8th 
century the name was transferred to a 
variety of the pianoforte in which the 
hammers struck from above. 


Panpipes, pandean pipes. A primi- Pantomime [Gr., everything imi- 
tive wind instrument consisting of a num- tated]. A dramatic performance with- 

[551 ] 




PAPADIKE 


PARALLEL CHORDS 


out words, the action being revealed 
merely by gestures, to the accompaniment 
of music. From the ^ballet the panto- 
mime is distinguished by its emphasis on 
dramatic movements, rather than on 
stylized dancing; however, the ballet 
d' action is much the same thing as panto- 
mime. Pantomimic representations played 
an important part in ancient Greece. 
Towards the end of the pre-Christian era 
they developed into a virtuoso show, in 
which a single actor performed entire 
plays, representing different personages 
in masques. Throughout the i8th cen- 
tury, pantomimes were extremely popu- 
lar. At first they were of a mythological 
character, but soon changed into come- 
dies, acted by Harlequin, Pantaloon, 
Clown, the Old Man and his Pretty 
Daughter, and similar characters. To 
such popular entertainments music was 
occasionally written by composers of 
some renown, such as the two Arnes, 
Dibdib, etc. [for more details, cf. the 
article in GD]. A revival of greater sig- 
nificance from the musical point of view 
was inaugurated by Andre Wormser’s 
L* Enfant pro digue (1890). More recent 
examples are R. Strauss’s Josephslegende 
(1914) and Schlagobers (1924), as well 
as Bartok’s Der wunderbare Mandarin 
(1926). Cf. R. J. Broadbent, A History 
of Pantomime (1901). 

Papadike. See ^Byzantine chant III. 

Papillons [F., butterflies]. A fancy 
title used by R. Schumann for his op. 2, 
a collection of twelve short piano pieces, 
“butterflies of different colors,” as it 
were. 

Parallel chords. The successive sound- 
ing of a fixed chordal combination, con- 
sonant or dissonant, through various de- 
grees of the scale. In classical harmony 
this device is admissible only for the sixth- 
chord [see *Fauxbourdon (i)], and 
strictly prohibited in connection with tri- 
ads, seventh-chords, etc., on account of 
the parallel fifths which would result in 
these cases. In deliberate violation of 
these principles, French composers, par- 
ticularly Debussy, introduced parallelism 


for triads and seventh-chords as well as 
for any dissonant combination involving 
seconds, fourths, etc. [Ex. i. Danse 
saerSey 1904; Ex. 2, Et la lune descend^ 



1907]. This technique, which is one of 
the most characteristic features of * im- 
pressionistic music, is in opposition to 
traditional harmony not only because it 
violates the rule of parallel fifths or be- 
cause it introduces unresolved dissonances, 
but chiefly because it rejects the funda- 
mental concept of traditional harmony, 
namely, the functional character of the 
chords. Instead, it establishes the chord 
as a mere sensuous and sonorous factor. 
Recent composers such as Stravinsky, 
Bartok, Casella, have exploited the per- 
cussive quality of parallel chords, by using 
them in rapid succession and in pro- 
nounced rhythm [Ex. 3, Petrouch\a\. 

Although Debussy’s name is rightfully 
connected with the establishment of par- 
allelism as a technique, occasional ex- 
amples are to be found with numerous 
19th-century composers (Rossini, Mous- 
sorgsky, Lalo, Delibes; cf. havE ii.i, yzff, 
632!!). Parallel ^fourth-chords occur in 
Satie’s he Fils des itoiles of 1891 [Ex. 4], 
and “percussive” parallelism prevails in 


[552] 



PARALLEL FIFTHS 


PARAPHONIA 


the introduction to Act II of Puccini’s 
La Boheme, 1896 [Ex. 5]. In the i6th 
century, parallel triads were used paro- 
distically in the ^villanella, and a “seri- 
ous” example of remarkable boldness 
occurs in Monteverdi [cf. H. Leichten- 
tritt, in MM v, 16]. The aesthetic and 
technical connection of the modern paral- 
lelism with the parallel fifths of the 10th- 
century ’"'organum (writers frequently 
speak of an “organum technique”) is 
very slight, the historical connection is nil. 

Parallel (consecutive) fifths, oc- 
taves. These result if the melodic pro- 
gression of a part (e.g., c-d) is duplicated 
by another part at the distance of a fifth 
(g-a) or octave (c'-d'). Such voice- 
leading [see Ex. i] is considered faulty. 



and is strictly prohibited in classical 
counterpoint. Its avoidance is a basic 
feature of the contrapuntal style from the 
15th to the 19th century. 

Naturally, a study of the music of this 
period reveals numerous exceptions to 
this rule, in Ockeghem and Josquin as 
well as in Bach and Mozart [see Ex. 2, 
from Bach’s organ chorale Nun hilf uns\. 
This is something perfectly natural in 
music, which, after all, is an art, not an 
exact science, and in which there is no 
rule without legitimate exceptions. It 
would scarcely be necessary to dwell upon 
this point, were it not for the fact that 
theorists and writers of the i8th and 19th 
centuries have bestowed upon this rule 
the character of a “strict law.” Equipped 
with this infallible instrument, they not 
only discovered many “stylistic faults” in 
Bach, but also condemned as “unbear- 
ably crude” early musical styles, such as 
the parallel *organum of the 9th century, 
or the motets of the 13th century, some- 


times even going so far as to raise objec- 
tions against the mixture stops of the 
organ [see *Organ VI J. Today, this 
narrow point of view has been largely 
abandoned. 

A fifth (or octave) which is reached, 
not in parallel, but in similar motion, is 
referred to as a “hidden (covered) fifth” 
(or octave). This kind of voice-leading 
is usually admissible, except for certain 
extreme cases, e.g., when large skips are 

involved in both voices, e.g., Par- 
ticularly frequent (and entirely proper) 
is the progression illustrated in Ex. 3. 
This is called horn fifths, since it forms a 
characteristic feature of the writing for 
natural horns. See also *Parallel chords. 

Regarding a reputed medieval practice 
of “singing in parallel seconds,” cf. E. 
Ferand, in MQ xxv. 

Lit.: F. T. Arnold, “J. S. Bach and 
Consecutives in Accompaniment” (ML 
xiv, no. 4); F. E. Gladstone, in PM A viii; 
H. W. Nicholls, “Bach’s Non-Observance 
of Some Fixed Rules” (SIM iii); M. G. 
Sewall, “Hucbald, Schoenberg and 
Others on Parallel Octaves and Fifths” 
(MQ xii); A. Schonberg, in DM, 1910/ 

II, Vol. XXX. 

Parallel key. See *Kcy relationship. 

Parallel motion. Sec ^Motion. 

Paralleltonart [G.]. Relative (not 
parallel) key. 

Paramese, paranete. See ♦Greek 
music II (a). 

Paraphonia, paraphonista. Para- 
phonta denotes, in late Greek and in early 
medieval theory, the intervals of the fifth 
and fourth, in contradistinction to *sym- 
phoniay the unison, and *antiphoniay the 
octave. The fact that certain early liturgi- 
cal books (Ordo Romanus /, 7th century) 
mention singers called paraphonistae has 
been adduced as an evidence of parallel 
♦organum long before Hucbald’s Musica 
enchiriadis, Cf. R. Wagner, in RdMy nos. 
25, 29; A. Gastou^, in RdM^ no. 26; 
ReMMAy 252. 


[553] 




PARAPHRASE 


PARODY MASS 


Paraphrase. The general meaning of 
the term is that of free rendition or elabo- 
ration. It is used to denote: (i) a textual 
paraphrase, i.e., a free rewriting of a text; 
e.g., a psalm paraphrase is a new wording 
of a psalm, usually in poetic language 
(metrical psalm; sec ^Psalter). See re- 
mark under *Contraf actum. — (2) A 
musical paraphrase, e.g., a free arrange- 
ment of operatic melodies (Liszt’s para- 
phrases on Wagnerian operas); or poly- 
phonic elaborations of liturgical cantus- 
firmus melodies (cf. the chapter “Das 
paraphrasierte Kirchenlied” in RiHM 
ii.i); or melodic modifications, ornamen- 
tations, etc., of pre-existing melodies (cf. 
J. Handschin, “Die melodische Para- 
phrase im Mittelalter,” ZMW x). Cf. 
R, Koppel, Die Paraphrase (Diss. Vienna 
1936). 

Pardessus de viole. See ♦Dessus. 

Parhypate. See *Greek music II (a). 

Parlando [It., speaking]. In singing, 
an indication that the voice must approxi- 
mate speech: in a way, ‘‘spoken music,” 
as distinguished from the “musical 
speech” of the ^recitative. Parlando oc- 
curs particularly in rapid tempo when 
the syllables of the text change with every 
note; see *Patter song. In connection 
with instrumental music, parlando {par- 
lante) calls for an expressive declamation, 
suggestive of speech or song. 

Parody. In present-day usage parody 
means a satirical imitation, such as may 
be created in music either by supplanting 
the original words by a textual parody, 
or by changing the composition as such 
in a comical manner [see *Satire]. In 
connection with earlier practice the term 
denotes: (a) replacement of text in gen- 
eral, with or without the implication of 
caricature [see *Contrafactum] ; (b) 

specifically, a particular type of borrow- 
ing which plays an important role in i6th 
century composition of the mass [see 
^Parody Mass]. 

Lit.; D. F. Grout, “17th-Century Paro- 
dies of French Opera” {MQ xxvii); R. 


Haas, “Wiener deutsche Parodieopern 
um 1730” {ZMW viii); G. Cucuel, “Les 
Operas de Gluck dans les parodies du 
XVIIIe sikle” {RM iii); see also *Para- 
phrase; *Parody mass; ^Satire; *Villa- 
nella. 

Parody Mass [L. missa parodia]. The 
term refers to an important practice of 
16th-century Mass composition, namely 
the use of musical material borrowed 
from pre-existent pieces (motets, chan- 
sons, madrigals) for the composition of 
the Mass. Usually the term is understood 
not to include the mere borrowing of a 
*cantus firmuSy i.e., of a single melody 
used as a tenor, although, possibly, this 
widespread practice formed the point 
of departure for the procedure encoun- 
tered in Parody Masses. Occasionally, the 
process of borrowing went so far as the 
taking over in toto of the entire musical 
substance of, e.g., a motet, the words of 
which were simply replaced by the text 
of a Mass item, a procedure which is 
equivalent to *contraf actum. Usually, 
however, more subtle methods of borrow- 
ing were used, the most common being 
the breaking up of the model into several 
passages or sections and their use in free 
modification and in alternation with 
newly composed sections. In the 15th 
century the borrowing was made from 
chansons. Early examples arc Ocke- 
ghem’s Missa Fors seullement (based on 
his own chanson of the same name) and 
Agricola’s Missa Le serviteur (based on a 
chanson by Busnois). In the i6th century, 
particularly after Josquin (d. 1521), 
motets served most frequently as a model. 
About three-quarters of the Masses of 
Palestrina and Lassus are Parody Masses. 
For an example, cf. HAMy no. 146. Cf. 
also Hassler’s motet “Ecce quam bonum” 
{DdT 2) and his Mass of the same name 
{DdTj), 

Lit.: W. H. Rubsamen, “Some First 
Elaborations of Masses from Motets” 
{BAMS iv); P. Pisk, “Das Parodiever- 
fahren in den Messen dcs I. Gallus” 
{StM v); J. Schmidt-Gorg, “Vicr Paro- 
diemessen dcs 16. Jahrhunderts” (X/, 

1930)- 


[554] 



PARSIFAL 

Parsifal. Opera in three acts by Richard 
Wagner, to his own libretto, produced at 
Bayreuth in 1882, for the dedication of 
the Festspielhaus [see ^Biihncnweihfest- 
spiel], and performed there exclusively 
for twenty years. First performances out- 
side of Bayreuth were at New York in 
1903 and (in Europe) at Zurich, 1913. 
Amjortas (Baritone), guardian of the 
Holy Grail (the vessel from which the 
Saviour drank at the Last Supper) and 
of the Holy Spear, has succumbed to the 
beguilements of Kundry (Soprano), a 
beautiful maiden who is torn between 
“evil and good,” i.e., between the service 
of the enchanter Klingsor (Bass) and that 
of the Grail. The Spear has fallen in the 
hands of Klingsor who has afflicted Am- 
fortas with a wound which will not heal. 
The deliverer appears in the person of the 
“guileless fool” Parsifal (Tenor) who 
(Act II) resists the temptations of Kun- 
dry (scene in the Magic Garden) and) 
seizing Klingsor’s lance, destroys the lat- 
ter’s power. In years of wandering he 
learns wisdom and, returning to the 
Castle of the Grail as a knight in armor 
(Act III), delivers Amfortas and Kundry 
from their sin. 

Parsifal, Wagner’s last work, is writ- 
ten according to the principles of the 
Music Drama [see ’’^Opera X]. The mu- 
sical style is, in the passionate scenes 
(Kundry), similar to that of Tristan, but 
the basic expression is one of solemn dig- 
nity which does not always escape the dan- 
ger of monotony. 

Part, (i) In orchestral or chamber 
music, the music for the single instru- 
ments, such as violin, flute, pianoforte, 
etc. — (2) In contrapuntal music, the 
single melodic line of the contrapuntal 
web (fugue in three, four parts). The 
modern names for such parts, also called 
voices, are soprano, alto, tenor, and bass. 
Early names are: *vox principalis and 
organalis (9th-iith centuries); ’••'tenor, 
*duplum (motetus), triplum, quadru- 
plum (13th century); '••‘discantus, tenor, 
♦contratenor (1300-1450); cantus, altus, 
tenor, bassus, quinta vox, sexta vox, 
•vagans (1450-1600). See also ^Treble; 


PARTIAL SIGNATURE 

♦Meane. — (3) A section of a composi- 
tion, as in three-part song form. 

Part books [G. Stimmbucher], The 
manuscript or printed books of the 15th 
and 1 6th centuries, each containing the 
music for an individual voice of a poly- 
phonic composition [see under ’•^Score 
II]. The usual number of part books is 
four: Cantus {Discantus, Superius); 
Altus; Tenor; Bassus (Basis), abbrevi- 
ated: C (D, S); A; T; B. Books for addi- 
tional parts were marked either Cantus I, 
Cantus II, or Quinta Vox (V), Sexta Vox 

(VI), tic. 

Publication in part books clearly indi- 
cates that the music thus written or pub- 
lished is '••'ensemble music, either vocal, or 
instrumental, or mixed. 

Parte [It.], (i) Voice-part [see *Colla 
parte ]. — (2) 17th-century term for vari- 
ation [see ^Partita; *Parthie]. 

Parthenia. A printed collection of *vir- 
ginalistic music, published in 1611 (1613, 
1635, and many later editions). Accord- 
ing to the title, it was “the first musicke 
that euer was printed for the Virginalls.” 
It contains 21 compositions “by three 
famous Masters William Byrd, Dr. John 
Bull and Orlando Gibbons.” New editions 
from the old plates were made in 1847 
(Rimbault) and in 1908. — A companion 
work is the Parthenia Inviolata which 
contains anonymous pieces (“dances and 
tunes”) for virginal and bass-viol (only 
preserved copy in the New York Public 
Library). 

Parthie, Partie [G.]. German 17th- 
century spelling for ’•^partita. The French 
word partie usually has the meaning of 
part, voice (fugue h 3 parties). 

Partial s. See ♦Acoustics IV. 

Partial signature. The use of a sig- 
nature, practically always b-flat, in some 
but not all of the voices of a polyphonic 
composition. Prior to 1500 such signa- 
tures are extremely frequent, much more 
frequent in fact than “full” signatures. 
As a rule, the highest part carries no sig- 
nature, the b-flat being indicated only 


[555] 



PARTIE 

with the lower parts. Typical combina- 
tions are: tl, b for two-voiced pieces (13th 
century); b, b, or b, b for three-voiced 
pieces (13th, 14th centuries); b, b for 
four-voiced pieces (15th century). This 
method of notation is not, as has fre- 
quently been assumed, a mere negligence 
or a meaningless tradition, but the ade- 
quate expression of a contrapuntal ♦poly- 
tonality in which the melody-carrying 
parts tend towards the tonal realm of the 
B-natural (Lydian), the lower parts 
towards that of the B-flat (“F-major or 
G-minor”). Cf. W, Apel, in AM x; 
ApNPM, io2ff, 140. 

Partie [G., F.]. See under ♦Parthie. 

Partimento [It.]. A 17th/ 18th-century 
practice of improvising melodies and 
complete pieces above a written bass, thus 
a broadening of the practice of ♦thorough- 
bass in which the bass as well as the mel- 
ody is given. The English ♦“divisions 
upon a ground” belong to the field of 
partimento playing, which was exten- 
sively cultivated in the later Baroque pe- 
riod as a means of musical instruction. 
Gaetano Greco (b. 1680), Francesco Du- 
rante ( 1 684-1755), and Giacomo Tritto 
(1733-1824) wrote partimenti. Cf. K. F. 
Fellerer, Der Partimento-Spieler (1940); 
id,y “Gebundene Improvisation” (DM 
xxxi.6). 

Partita [It.]. A 17th- and 18th-century 
term which signifies either a suite or a 
series of variations. The original and 
proper meaning of the word is variation. 
In Trabaci’s Ricercate, canzone^ . . . 
partite diverse (1615) as well as in Fresco- 
baldi’s Toccate e partite d* intavolatura 
(1614) and in other early Italian publica- 
tions, partita always means a series of vari- 
ations, not a suite [cf. the erroneous state- 
ment in RiMLy 1790], as it does also with 
Pachelbel (1699), Boehm, and in Bach’s 
Chorale partitas for the organ. How the 
term came to adopt the meaning of suite 
is not entirely clear. Possibly the denomi- 
nation ♦Parthien (for suites), which ap- 
pears in the publications of Froberger 
(1693), Kuhnau (1692), Kricger (1697; 
here also in the version partita), Theo- 


PASPy 

phil Muflat (1726), is derived, not from 
It. partitay but from F. partie (move- 
ment), a term which may have denoted 
suite-like compositions. Bach uses the 
designation partita for his six suites for 
harpsichord, published in the Clavierii- 
bung i (1731) and for those for violin 
solo. Several of the harpsichord partitas 
show Italian features, such as the Italian 
names “sinfonia” and “burlesca,” and the 
preference for the ♦corrente instead of 
the ♦courante. 

Partition [F.], Partitur [G.], par- 
titura [It.]. ♦Score. See also under 
♦Intavolatura. 

Part-song. A choral composition in 
♦homophonic style, i.e., with the top part 
as the sole carrier of melodic interest. The 
term is commonly understood in contrast 
to the madrigal with its emphasis on 
polyphonic texture and, therefore, applies 
chiefly to choral works of the 19th cen- 
tury, such as were written by Schumann, 
Mendelssohn, Parry, Stanford, Elgar, and 
many others. See also ♦Glee. In recent 
writings on music history the term is 
used in quite a different meaning, i.e., 
for the truly polyphonic songs of the pre- 
madrigal period. Thus, Isaac’s lnnsbrucl{ 
ich muss dich lassen is designated as a 
“German part-song.” Cf. A. Vogel, “The 
English Part-Song around 1500” (BAMSy 
1940). 

Pasacalle [Sp., make rounds of the 
street]. A Latin American dance which 
has adopted different traits in various 
countries. In Bolivia it is a gay, carefree 
serenade in slow duple meter; in Ecua- 
dor, a quick dance in or % -meter; 
in Peru, a march in % -meter, a type 
which also occurs under the sam^ name 
in Spain. None of these dances shows a 
demonstrable relationship to the old ♦pas- 
sacaglia. 

Paso doble [Sp.]. A kind of one-step 
(though the name means “double-step”) 
in % -meter which became popular about 
1926. 

Paspy. Anglicism for ♦passepied. 


[556] 



PASSACAGLIA 


PASSING TONE 


Passacaglia [It.], passacaille [F.]. 
See ’•^Chaconne and passacaglia. 

Passage. A term which is loosely used 
to refer to a short section of a composi- 
tion, much in the same way as in litera- 
ture (a passage from the Bible). More 
specifically, passages or passage work is 
a denomination for sections which con- 
tain brilliant display of virtuosity, rather 
than important musical ideas. Thus, one 
speaks of “scale passages,” “arpeggio 
passages.” 

Passaggio [It.], (i) Transition, mod- 
ulation. — (2) Passage work. — (3) In 
the 16th-century art of diminution [see 
^Ornamentation] a generic term for im- 
provised ornaments, usually other than 
plain scale passages or trill-like figura- 
tions. 

Passamezzo, pass’e mezzo [It. 
passo, step; mezzo, half]. A dance of the 
second half of the i6th century, in duple 
meter and in moderately quick tempo 
[see *Dance music II]. Among the vari- 
ous explanations of the name (“pace-and- 
a-half feature in the dance steps”; “dance 
through the middle of the room”; “dance 
music in halved note values”) only the last 
is worth attention. Very likely, the word 
“mezzo” refers to the diminution (halv- 
ing) of the note values which is indicated 
by the alla-breve sign: (j: [see *Propor- 
tions, proportio dupla]. The term, then, 
simply means that the dance is about 
twice as fast as the earlier *pavane. In 
fact, Arbeau, in his OrchSsographie of 
1585, explains the passamezzo as a “pa- 
vane, moins pesamment et d’une mesurc 
plus l^gere.” It may also be noted that 
the expression “pavane passemaize” oc- 
curs in Gervaise’s Sixi^me livre de dan- 
series (1550). The passamezzo is usually 
followed by the *saltarello, a combination 
which around 1550 superseded the com- 
bination pavane-gaillard. 

The early passamezzos were not en- 
tirely free and original compositions, but 
were written as “variations” of a stand- 
ard melody which occurs first in Spanish 
lute books under the name of Guardame 
las vacas or *Romanesca, These passa- 


mezzos arc sometimes designated as 
“passamezzo antico.” The melodies of 
two examples, (a) from Phalese, 1571 
[cf. RiUL, 1352], (b) from Caroso’s ll 
Ballerino, 1581 [cf. GD iv, 71 ] , arc shown 
here, together with their common skele- 




ton melody [cf. also HAM, no. 154a, b; 
BeMMR, 308]. The later passamezzos, 
sometimes designated as “passamezzo 
nuovo,” are usually in a major mode, 
with quicker ^harmonic rhythm and 
more tonic-dominant harmonies [cf. Am- 
merbach’s “Passamezzo d’Angleterre” in 
ApMZ i, ii]. 

Passecaille [F.]. Passacaglia. 

Passepied [F., pass-foot; Anglicized, 
paspy]. A dance in rather quick %- or 
%-meter and of a gay and spirited char- 
acter which was gready in vogue at the 
French court under Louis XIV and 
Louis XV [sec *Dance music III]. It is 



said to have come from the Bretagne. 
Examples occur in the French operas 
(c.g., Campra, LEurope galante, 1697; 
see Ex.) and in the suites of German com- 
posers (J. K. F. Fischer; J, S. Bach, Eng- 
lish Suite no. 5). 

Passing tone [F. note de passage; G. 
Durchgangsnote ] . See *Nonharmonic 
tones I. 


[557] 




PASSION MUSIC 


PASSION MUSIC 


Passion music. A musical setting of 
the text of the Passion (Passio Domini 
nostri Jesu Christi) from one of the four 
Evangelists. In the Catholic rites the 
Passion according to St. Matthew is read 
on Palm Sunday, those of St. Mark and 
St. Luke on the following Tuesday and 
Wednesday, that of St. John on Good 
Friday. 

A. The Plainsong Passion [G. Choral- 

passion; hence the English translation 
Choral Passion, cf. GD iv, 78; see remark 
under ^Choral, chorale]. In the 12th 
century it became customary to have the 
Passion performed as a sort of play, the 
parts of Christ (Vox Christi)^ the Nar- 
rator (Evangelista; Chronista), and the 
Crowd (Turha Judaeorum) being sung 
each by one priest, and in a distinct man- 
ner. The part of Christ was sung in 
the lowest register (c— f) in a slow and 
solemn recitation; that of the Evangelista 
in a middle register (f-c'), in normal 
speed and character; that of the Turba 
Judaeorum in a high range (c'~F), and 
with pronounced speed and agitation. In 
the old liturgical books these parts are 
indicated by the letters t (tarde^ slowly), 
c (celeriter^ quick), and s (sursum^ high), 
or, later, by and a (bassa, media^ 

aha voce)^ whereas in more recent books 
the signs •f (Christ), C (Chronista), and 
S (Synagogue) are used. This drama- 
tized performance was evidently designed 
to aid the congregation in following the 
Latin narrative. Most of the text was 
sung in a simple inflected monotone, ex- 
cept the Saviour’s cry: ‘'E//, Eli, lama 
sabachthaniy" for which a more expres- 
sive melody was used. The recitation- 
tones for the Passion are given in the 
Cantor inus Vaticanus, 

B. The Polyphonic Passion, The dra- 
matic story of the Passion has naturally 
attracted a great many composers who 
have set it to music in various styles, in 
the motet-style of the polyphonic era, or 
in the oratorio-style of the 17th century. 
Probably the earliest procedure was to 
compose only the turbae which naturally 
suggested performance by a chorus. On 
account of the dramatic effect resulting 
from the contrast of soloist and choral 


performance, this type of passion is called 
“Scenic Passion” (GD), or “Dramatic 
Passion” (MoML). The earliest existing 
examples are in the codex Modena Est. 
lat. 454/55 (c. 1480) and in the Eton 
MS (by Davy; c. 1490). Others are by 
Sermisy (1534), Lassus (St. Matthew, 
1575; St. John, 1580; St. Mark, 1582; St. 
Luke), Asola, Vittoria, Francisco Gue- 
rrero, Byrd (St. John, 1607). In most of 
these Passions the treatment is in poly- 
phonic (motet) style, with the original 
plainsong as a tenor. In Germany, 
Luther’s reform led to the adoption of the 
vernacular as well as to the use of a plain 
homophonic style (stile famigliare), in- 
stead of the more elaborate polyphonic 
treatment usually found with the above- 
named composers. The earliest Passion 
of this type, that by Johann Walther (St. 
Matthew, 1530; cf. GD iv, 74) had a re- 
markable vogue and was still performed 
in 1806 at Niirnberg. Among the long 
list of composers, Protestant as well as 
Catholic, who used the same method, we 
find: A. Scandello (c. 1550), Jacob 
Mailand (St. John, 1568; St. Matthew, 
1570), Thomas Mencken (i6to; cf. GD 
iv, 73), Matthias Vulpius (1612), Chris- 
tian Schultze-Delitzsch (1653), and 
Christian Flor (1667).. 

Side by side with this tradition, there 
existed another treatment of greater musi- 
cal elaboration, that is, the composition 
of the entire text of the Passion in motet- 
style. Notable examples of this type arc 
the Passions by Obrecht (c, 1500; new 
ed. D. de Lange, 1894; cf. GD iv, 73), 
Galliculus (1538), Cypriano de Rore 
(1557), Joachim a Burgk (1568; see *Edi- 
tions XXVI), Jacobus Gallus (1587), and 
Leonard Lechner (1594). As a rule, the 
liturgical plainsong is preserved as a 
cantus firmus in these polyphonic set- 
tings, at least in the earlier works, while 
later composers adhered less strictly to 
this principle and occasionally abandoned 
it altogether. 

The 17th century sees the application 
to the Passion of all the dramatic innova- 
tions of the Baroque era, such as the stile 
recitativOy the aria, the orchestra, etc., to- 
gether with a freer treatment of the au- 


[558] 



PASSION MUSIC 


PASSION MUSIC 

thentic text which was either paraphrased style which is no less remarkable than 
or broadened by free poetic interpolations, their artistic superiority. Both Passions 
thus approaching the ^oratorio (Passion- use the biblical text as a basic narrative, 
Oratorio). An early work indicative of set in recitative or (for the turbae) in 
the new tendencies is the Passion after short choruses. Poetic texts (by Brockes 
St. John by Thomas Selle, of 1643 [see for the St. John Passion, by Picander for 
’•‘'Editions V, 26]. Interesting features the St. Matthew Passion) are used for the 
are the recitative passages, the introduc- arias and for the large choruses. The 
tion of “intermedii,” i.e., choral settings form may be described as a succession of 
of interpolated texts (psalms and Protes- cantatas, each closing with a chorale. Ac- 
tant chorales), the use of different instru- cording to the earliest catalogue of Bach’s 
mentation for the Evangelist and for works (1754), he wrote five Passions. 
Christ. The great figure of this period is However, aside from the two above, only 
Heinrich Schiitz (1585-1672). His Pas- portions of the St, Mar\ Passion remain 
sion-Oratorio Sieben Worte Jesu Christi in the Trauer-Ode of 1727. A St, Lu\e 
am Kreuz from about 1645 uses the reci- Passion, published in B,-G, xlv, is spuri- 
tativo for the Evangelist, and a three-part ous. 

instrumental accompaniment for the The ensuing history of the Passion may 
words of Christ, a treatment which was be characterized by Telemann’s St, John 
adopted by Bach in his Matthew Passion. Passion (1741), Johann Ernst Bach’s 

Late in life {c, 1665-72) Schiitz com- {iy22-yy) Passionsoratorium [DdT 
posed the Historia des Leidens und Ster- two Passions by C. P. E. Bach (1787 and 
bens unseres Herrn und Heylandes Jesu 1788), and by oratorios dealing with the 
Christi, which contains four settings of Passion story, such as K. H. Graun’s Der 
the Passion story according to each of the Tod Jesu (1755), Haydn’s Die sieben 
four Evangelists. It shows the return to Worte am Kreuz (1785), Beethoven’s 
that austere archaism which is character- Christus am Oelberg (1803), Spohr’s Des 

istic of the late Schiitz [cf. SchGMB, Heilands letzte Stunden Compo- 

no. 192]. Other Passions of this period sitions of the *Stabat mater also fall under 

are interesting chiefly for their progres- this category. 

sive tendencies, such as the use of the The recent Bach-renaissance has 

orchestra and the introduction of chorales brought about a remarkable revival of 

and arias [Chr. Flor, 1667; J. Sebastiani, the true Passion spirit in works such as 

1672; J. Theile, 1673; cf. 17]. After the Markus-Passion of Kurth Thomas 
1700 the authentic text of the Bible was and the Choralpassion of Hugo Distler. 
abandoned in favor of rhymed para- Lit.: O. Kade, Die alter e Passionskpm- 
phrases in the sentimental and allegorical position bis zum Jahre 16^1 (1893); F. 
style of the day. Particularly popular Spitta, Die Passionen von Heinrich 
were Chr. F. Hunold-Menante’s Der Schiitz (1886); Ph. Spitta, Die Passions- 
blutige und sterbende Jesus and Brockes’ musiken von Bach and Schiitz (1893); 
Der ftir die Stinden der Welt gemarterte W. Lott, “Zur Geschichte der Passions- 
und sterbende Jesus, The latter was set komposition von 1650-1800” (AMW iii, 
to music by more than twenty composers, vii); P. Epstein, “Zur Geschichte der 
among them Keiser, Telemann, Handel, deutschen Choralpassion” (JMP, 1929); 
and Mattheson. Hand in hand with this id,, in BJ, 1930; K. Nef, “Schweizerische 
textual deterioration went a decline in Passionsmusiken” (Schweizer Jahrbuch 
musical taste leading to a style which ap- fur Musikwissenschaft v); H. J. Moser, 
proximates that of the opera rather than “Aus der Friihzeit der cleutschen Gene- 
of the oratorio. ralbasspassion” (JMP xxvii); H. M. 

Against this background, Bach’s St, Adams, “Passion Music before 1724” 

John Passion (1723) and, particularly, his (ML vii, no. 3); C. S. Terry, “The Spuri- 

St, Matthew Passion (1729) represent a ous Bach Lucaspassion” (ML xiv, no. 3); 

return to proper and dignified Passion R. Haas, “Zu Walthers Choralpassion 

[559] 



PASSY-MEASURE 

nach Matthaus” (AMW iv); K. Nef, 
“Die Passionsoratorien Jean-Fran^ois 
Lesucurs” (in ^Editions XXIV B, 3/4); 
id,y “Bcitragc zur Geschichte dcr Passion 
in Italien” {ZMW xvii). See also under 
*Oratorio. 

Passy-measure. Old English for 
’"'passamezzo. 

Pasticcio [It., pic, pastry]. A musical 
work, usually operatic, which includes 
contributions of various composers. Ex- 
amples arc the opera Muzio Scevola 
(1721) to which Mattel, Bononcini, and 
Handel contributed one act each; the ora- 
tor ium Die SchuldigJ^eit des enten Ge- 
bots which was written jointly by Mozart, 
Adlgasser, and Michael Haydn; the *Dia- 
belli-variations; or the violin sonata for 
J. Joachim of which Schumann, Brahms, 
and Dietrich each wrote one movement. 
— More specifically, the term applies to 
operatic medleys of the i8th century the 
music of which was selected by the ar- 
ranger or producer from the composi- 
tions of famous composers, for the pur- 
pose of entertaining the audience with an 
uninterrupted succession of their favorite 
songs, a procedure which immensely 
pleased the pleasure-seeking public of the 
1 8th century. See also *Opera VIII, Cf. 
O. G. Sonneck, Miscellaneous Studies in 
the History of Music (1921), pp. iii- 
179; also in SIM xii. 

Pastorale, (i) Instrumental or vocal 
pieces written in imitation of the music 
of shepherds, their shawms and pipes. 
Through the biblical shepherds who at- 
tended the birth of Christ, the pastorale 
acquired the character of an idyllic Christ- 
mas music. Typical features are the %- 
or ^%-meter in moderate time, sugges- 
tive of a lullaby, a tender, flowing melody, 
and long-held drones. The native coun- 
try of the pastorale (as well as of the al- 
most identical *siciliano) is Italy where 
there existed an old tradition among the 
rural shepherds (*pifferari) of coming to 
town on Christmas morning and playing 
on their shawms. Among the many beau- 
tiful examples of this class of composition 
(one of the earliest being by Frcscobaldi) 


PATHfiTIQUE 

it suffices to mention Bach’s Pastorale for 
the organ, the Sinfonia which opens the 
second part of his Christmas Oratorio, 
the Sinfonia Pastorale in Handel’s Mes- 
siah, and the last movement of Beetho- 
ven’s *Pastoral Symphony. 

(2) In the 1 6th century, dramatic per- 
formances based on an idyllic plot. These 
were among the most important fore- 
runners of the *opcra. In the 17th cen- 
tury this genre was particularly culti- 
vated in France. Several of the early 
French operas, e.g., Cambert’s Les Peines 
et les plaisirs de V amour (1671) and Lul- 
ly’s Les Festes de V Amour et de Bacchus 
(1672), bear the title Pastorale. Cf. L. de 
la Laurencie, “Les Pastorales . . . avant 
Lully . . (KIM, 1911, p. 139). 

Pastoral Symphony. Beethoven’s 
Symphony no. 6 (op. 68) in F, published 
in 1809 under the title: “Sinfonia Pas- 
torale, No. 6.” The four movements por- 
tray, according to Beethoven’s inscrip- 
tions: The awakening of cheerful feelings 
on arrival in the country; A Scene at the 
Brook; A Merry Meeting of Country 
Folk, followed by Thunderstorm and 
Tempest; and, finally. Song of the Shep- 
herds, Glad and Thankful Feelings after 
the Storm. This symphony is, no doubt, 
the greatest example — perhaps, the only 
really great example — of ^program 
music. In this connection it is interesting 
to note that Beethoven expressly distin- 
guished this work from the cheaper type 
of program music which prevailed in his 
day (battle pieces, etc.; see ^Battaglia) 
by the remark: “Mehr Ausdruck der 
Empfindung als Mahlerei” (Expression 
of feelings rather than portraying). 

Pastoso [It.]. With pomp, with osten- 
tation. 

Pastourelle [F.], pastorela [Pro- 
vencal]. Chansons of the troubadours 
and trouveres which deal with rural love 
scenes, frequently with the inclusion of 
licentious allusions. The term is of purely 
literary significance. See ^Madrigal. 

Pathetique. Popular name of Beetho- 
ven’s Pianoforte Sonata op. 13 (1799). 


1 560] 



PATTER-SONG 


PEDAL 


Tchaikovsky chose the name Symphonie 
Pathctique for his last symphony, no. 6, 
op. 74 (1893). 

Patter-song. “A kind of song the hu- 
mour of which consists in getting the 
greatest number of words uttered in the 
shortest possible time” (GD), This rapid 
*parlando-stylc has been frequently used 
for comical effects in operas (Mozart’s 
*Don Giovanniy “Catalogue Aria”; Ros- 
sini’s *Barbiere di Siviglia, “Largo al 
factotum”), and plays an important part 
in the comic operas of Sullivan. 

Pauke [G.]. ^Kettledrum. The term 
occurs in the popular names of three com- 
positions by Haydn, namely: (a) Paulsen- 
messCy a Mass in C, composed 1796, in- 
scribed by Haydn: Missa in tempore belli, 
i.e., War-time Mass, a title which suf- 
ficiently explains the conspicuous role 
played by the kettledrums in this work; 
(b) Pau\enschlag Symphonie y i.e., Drum- 
stroke Symphony in G (1791), so called 
with reference to the sudden stroke of the 
timpani in the middle of the slow move- 
ment (a more common name is “Surprise 
Symphony”); (c) Pau\enwirb€l Sym- 
phonyy i.e.. Drum-roll Symphony, in E- 
flat (1795), so called because of the kettle- 
drum roll which opens the introduction. 

Pause [F. point d'orgue) G. Permute; 
It. fermata] . The sign r^y also known as 
hold or fermata, which indicates that the 
note (or rest) over which it appears is to 
be prolonged. As a rule, a duration of ap- 
proximately (but not exactly) the double 
of the normal value will prove satisfactory 
and appropriate. — It must be noted that 
the foreign terms pause [F,], Pause [G.], 
and pausa [It.] always mean a rest. 

Pavane [Anglicized pavan, paven, 
pavinj. A court dance of the early i6th 
century, probably of Spanish origin [sec 
*Dancc music II ] . It was executed in slow, 
solemn movements and with dignified 
gestures, imitating, in a way, the proud 
deportment of the pavOy i.e., peacock (for 
a different derivation of the name, see 
*Padovana). The international adoption 
of the Spanish pavane as the ceremonial 


court dance, instead of the earlier 
(French) *basse danse, is a characteristic 
symptom of the shift in cultural leader- 
ship which took place around 1500. The 
pavane is usually in slow duple meter 
[see illustration, A. de Cabezon (1510- 







t -f i 


X. J 

rf 

) • 

j I 

JjjJ 


Tf 
J J 

1 r ? 









r'r rr r 


66) ] ; in the earliest Spanish sources, how- 
ever, examples in slow triple meter arc 
not infrequent (Milan, ll Maestro y 1535; 
cf. ApMZ \\;TaAM\). If in duple meter, 
it is frequently followed by the galliarde 
in quicker triple meter [sec *Nachtanz; 
cf. HAMy no. 137; SchGMBy no. 134]. 
After 1550, the pavane and galliarde went 
out of dance fashion, being superseded 
by the '"'passamezzo and saltarello. They 
were perpetuated, however, by the Eng- 
lish virginalists as an idealized type of 
music, and reached a most remarkable 
height of artistic perfection under the 
hands of William Byrd, John Bull, Or- 
lando Gibbons, and John Dowland [cf. 
HAMy nos. 178, 179]. Gibbons’ “Pavane 
the Earl of Salisbury” is, indeed, one of 
the most glorious examples of idealized 
dance music, comparable to the sarabandc 
in Bach’s Partita no. 6, and to the march 
(“alia Marcia”) of Beethoven’s Piano- 
forte Sonata op. loi. After 1600 the pa- 
vanc was adopted (usually under the 
name *paduana) into the early German 
suite in which it serves as a slow intro- 
ductory movement. Modern examples 
have been written by Ravel {Ma mere 
VOye; Pavane pour une infante difunte)y 
Vaughan Williams (ballet Job), and 
others. 

Paventoso [It.]. Timid. 

Pavilion [F.]. The bell of wind instru- 
ments. Pavilion chinois is the •Crescent. 

Peal. See •Change ringing. 

Pedal [from L. pes, foot], (i) In musi- 
cal instruments, an action which is oper- 
ated by the feet. Sec •Organ III, XI, XII; 


[561] 



PEDAL CLARINET 


PEDAL POINT 


♦Pianoforte; •Harpsichord; •Harp.— 
(2) Short for *pedal point. 

Pedal clarinet. Older name for the 
double-bass clarinet. 

Pedal clavicymbel. See *Pedal piano. 

Pedalflugel [G.]. Sec •Pedal piano. 

Pedal harp. The modern chromatic 
•harp. 

Pedalier [F.], (i) The pedal board of 
the organ, or a similar apparatus attached 
to a pianoforte. — (2) Sec •Pedal piano. 

Pedalklavier [G.]. See •Pedal piano. 

Pedalkoppel [G.]. The pedal coupler 
of the organ; see •Organ IV, 

Pedal note. Same as •Pedal tone. 

Pedal organ. See •Organ III. 

Pedalpauke [G.]. Kettledrums tuned 
by pedals. Sec •Percussion instruments 
A, I. 

Pedal piano [F. pedalier pianoforte; 
G. Pedalflugel], A pianoforte which is 
equipped with a pedal board, similar to 
that of the organ, so that the bass can be 
played with the feet. The Pedalfliigely 
which had but passing success, is known 
chiefly through the series of ^‘Studien” 
and “Skizzen” which Schumann wrote 
for it (opp. 56, 58). There also exist com- 
positions for this instrument by Alkan 
and Gounod [cf. GD iv, 95]. J. S. Bach 
had a two-manual harpsichord with hand 
stops and with a full pedal board. This 
was chiefly a practicing instrument for 
organists. The oft-repeated statement 
that his six trio-sonatas and even his pas- 
sacaglia were written for this instrument 
is erroneous. All these pieces are genuine 
organ music, as appears, for instance, 
from the long-held notes which occur in 
most of the slow movements. It should 
also be noted that single bass notes which 
seem to be out of the reach of the hand 
(end of the Sonata in D, B.-G, xxxvi, 19; 
two fugues in A, ibid,, pp. 169, 173) by 
no means necessarily point to a pedal- 
harpsichord (nor to the organ) since they 


can easily be played on a manual instru- 
ment with the ♦short octave arrangement. 
Cf. J. Handschin, “Das Pedalklavier’’ 
(ZMW xvii). 

Pedal point [F. point d*orgue; G. Or- 
gelpunl{t; It. pedale]. Pedal point or, 
simply, pedal means a long-held note, 
normally in the bass, sounding against 
changing harmonies in the other parts. 
From the harmonic point of view, the 
interesting feature of the pedal point is 
that it represents one of the most natural 
sources of dissonance, inasmuch as the 
held note blends easily with every chordal 
combination (e.g., low C with a D-flat or 
a B-flat triad; sec illustration). Accord- 



ing to the scale degree of the held note, a 
distinction is made between tonic pedal, 
dominant pedal, and subdominant pedal 
(long note on the tonic, dominant, or sub- 
dominant of the key). The terms “in- 
verted pedal” and “internal pedal” de- 
note pedal points which appear, not in 
the bass, but in the soprano, or in a mid- 
dle part. 

The pedal point (also called •bourdon 
or •drone) is one of the earliest devices 
of polyphony, perhaps the earliest, as may 
already be concluded from its extended 
use in Oriental and primitive music [see 
•Oriental music]. In Western music it 
makes its first appearance in the •organa 
of the 1 2th and 13th centuries (Schools 
of St. Martial and Notre Dame; see •Ars 
antiqua) in which the notes of the origi- 
nal plainsong are frequently extended as 
long-held tones, one each serving as a 
basis for an entire section. A monumental 
example of a 13th-century pedal point 
is the beginning of Perotinus’ organum 
quadruplum Viderunt omnes [cf. AdHM 
i, 229] which has been called the “F- 
major toccata of the 13th century” (with 
reference to the like-named composition 
of Bach). It may be noted that the term 


[562] 




PEDAL TONE 

punctus organicus (organ point, OrgeU 
punJ{t) is probably to be explained as re- 
ferring to these organa, rather than to 
the organ. As an organ device, the pedal 
point appears first in certain compositions 
of Frescobaldi, e.g., his Pastorale, Its im- 
portance in the organ works of Buxte- 
hude, Bach, etc., is well known. Among 
modern composers Tchaikovsky has 
shown a particular predilection for pedal- 
points. 

Pedal tone. See *Wind instruments 
II; *Horn I. 

Peer Gynt Suite. See *Suite II; *In- 
cidental music. 

Pelleas et Melisande. Opera in five 
acts by Claude Debussy (1862-1918), 
text from Maeterlinck’s play of the same 
name, produced in 1902. Scene: a medi- 
eval castle. Golaud (Baritone) finds the 
beautiful Melisande (Soprano) in a for- 
est, marries her, and brings her to the 
gloomy castle of his grandfather Arl^el 
(Bass) where she and Pelleas (Tenor), 
Golaud’s younger half-brother, fall in love 
with each other. Golaud, thoughtful and 
friendly, encourages what he believes to 
be a childish sympathy, but, upon dis- 
covering the truth, rages with jealousy 
and kills Pelleas (Act IV). In the last act 
Melisande dies. This story is told in a 
succession of scenes filled with mystic and 
symbolic significance, scenes which are 
not meant to form a continuous plot and 
which stand to the closely-knit action of 
Wagner opera in about the same relation- 
ship as Debussy’s aphoristic '•''impression- 
ism to the sweep and pathos of Wagner’s 
musical style. 

Pelleas et Melisande, being the only 
significant opera which the impression- 
ism has produced, stands in a class by 
itself. In opposition to the Wagnerian 
opera, Debussy has written a score which 
deliberately avoids emotional stress, pro- 
viding only a “tonal envelope” of pale 
colors and of incorporeal transparency. 
Nonetheless, the opera shows a degree of 
unification and identification between the 
poet, the composer, and their characters 
which renders it a Gesamt\unstwer\ in 


PENTATONIC SCALE 

the same sense as with Wagner’s music 
dramas. See reference under *Recitativo. 

Pelog. See ^Javanese music. 

Penillion. An ancient form of Welsh 
music practice [see ’•^Bards], executed by 
a harper and a singer, with the former 
playing a well-known harp-air and the 
latter extemporizing words and a some- 
what different melody to fit with the 
harper’s tune and harmonies. The harper 
can change his tune as often as he wishes; 
the singer, after a measure or two, is ex- 
pected to join with proper words and 
music, in accordance with the dictates of 
tradition. The penillion is probably the 
last relic of those legendary contests in 
which the heroes fought against one an- 
other not only with their weapons, but 
also with their wits, solving puzzles and 
competing with musical instruments. Cf. 
W. S. Gwynn Williams, ^Penillion in 
English (1925). 

Penitential psalms. Psalms 6, 32, 38, 
51, 102, 130, and 143 in the Authorized 
Version; 6, 31, 37, 50, loi, 129, and 142 
in the Vulgate [see *Psalm]. In music 
history the penitential psalms are famous 
particularly through Orlando di Lasso’s 
composition of the whole series of texts 
(P salmi penitentialeSy 1565). The same 
project was carried out by L. Lechner 
(1587) and others. Later composers have 
been particularly attracted by the dra- 
matic greatness of Ps. 130, De profundis, 
and Ps. 51, ^Miserere, 

Pentatonic scale [the shorter form 
“penta-scale” may be used]. A scale 
which consists of five different tones, the 
octave being already reached at the sixth 
degree. Theoretically there exists, of 
course, an infinite variety of such scales. 
The following types are of special impor- 
tance: (a) The tonal penta'Seale, i.e., a 
five-tone scale which has no semitones 
(the German term is anhemitonisch) . 
Properly speaking, there exists only one 
such scale (transpositions apart), namely: 
c d . f g a . c'. However, by using differ- 
ent tones as a tonic, five different “modes” 
can be derived from it, for instance: c d . 
f g a . c', or: / g a . c' d' . F, etc. On the 


[563I 



PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS 

pianoforte, such scales can easily be repro- 
duced by playing the black keys only. 
The tonal penta-scale, usually in its “first 
mode” (on c), occurs in nearly all the 
early musical cultures, in China (as far 
back as 2000 B.C.), Polynesia, Africa, as 
well as with the American Indians, the 
Celts, and the Scots. It must be consid- 
ered the prototype of all scales. The 
ancient Chinese already construed it as 
a succession of fifths and descending 
fourths: f-c'-g-d'-a [see ^Chinese 
music]. — (b) The semitonal [G. hemi- 
toniscK\ penta-scale. Such a scale results 
by omitting the second and the sixth, or 
the second and the fifth, degrees of the 
diatonic scale: c . e f g . b c', or: c . e f . a 
b c'. Since these scales include two major 
thirds {ditonus) they are also called “di- 
tonic.” The second form is of especial 
interest since this is the scale which, in 
descending motion, prevailed in ancient 
Greece: e' . c' b a . f e. Semitonal penta- 
scales occur frequently in modern ’••'Japa- 
nese music. — (c) A penta-scale with 
equidistant steps is the Javanese salendro 
[see * Javanese music]. This has been 
used, under the name “pentaphonic” 
scale, by Alaleone [cf. A. Eaglefield-Hull, 
in Monthly Musical Record, Sept. 1922]. 

Percussion instruments. Generic 
name for those instruments of the ’•^or- 
chestra which are sounded by striking or 
shaking. They can conveniently be di- 
vided into two groups, those which pro- 
duce a sound of definite pitch and those 
which do not. 

A. Of Definite Pitch, i. Kettledrum 
[F. timbale) G. Pau\e\ It. timpani]. The 
kettledrum (seldom used singly) is the 
most important of the percussion instru- 
ments. It consists of a hemispherical 
shell of copper or some alloy, across which 
is stretched a “head,” ordinarily of calf- 
skin, which is held in place by a metal 
ring through which pass hand screws 
fixed to the shell, thus allowing the ten- 
sion of the skin to be varied. The instru- 
ment is played by two sticks which have 
wooden handles and a head made ordi- 
narily of hard felt covered with a layer 
of soft felt, although for special effects the 


PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS 

material used may differ. The number 
of kettledrums used by the classical 
school was two, one small and one large, 
which were tuned to the tonic and domi- 
nant of the key of the composition. A 
third drum of intermediate size was 
added about the middle of the 19th cen- 
tury and toward the end four were often 
demanded, though various composers, 
notably Berlioz and Mahler, have been 
more extreme in their desires. Example i 

>«- 

shows the composite compass of the in- 
struments in ordinary use, although this 
range is at times exceeded. Each of the 
drums is best confined to a range of about 
a perfect fifth; Ex. 2 shows that of the 
largest and Ex. 3 that of the smallest; the 
two others are in between. While the 
kettledrums are primarily rhythmic in- 
struments, their tone color is of great 
value to an ensemble, and they are espe- 
cially important as a regulating factor in 
orchestral dynamics. They may be muffled 
or muted [see *Mute]. Various methods 
of tuning the drums mechanically by 
means of a controlling pedal [Pedal- 
pau\e] or some such device have been 
invented. Such instruments, which allow 
the pitch to be changed quickly, are re- 
quired, e.g., in Salome s Dance by R. 
Strauss and in d'Indy’s Summer Day on 
the Mountain. Although their tone qual- 
ity is less resonant than that of the ordi- 
nary instrument, they are generally in 
use nowadays. 

The introduction of the kettledrums 
into the orchestra took place around 1670, 
John Locke with his opera Psyche (1673) 
and Lully with his Thesee (1675) being 
the rivals for a priority which is difficult 
to fix exactly. The frequent use of the 
timpani in Bach’s cantatas for the expres- 
sion of joy and truimph is well known. 

Lit.: P. R. Kirby, “Kettledrums: An 
Historical Survey” (ML ix, no. i); P. A. 
Browne, “The Orchestral Treatment of 
the Timpani” (ML iv, no. 4). 

2. Gloc\enspiel [E.; G.] or Bells [F. 
carillon, jeu de timbres) It. campanetta]. 



PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS 

An instrument composed of a scries of 
horizontal rectangular steel plates of vary* 
ing length, with or without resonators, 
which are arranged roughly in the same 
manner as a pianoforte keyboard, and arc 
struck by two wooden or composition 
hammers. It is made in two sizes, one 
with a chromatic range as in Ex. 4, the 
other as in Ex. 5. The part for the glock- 

enspiel is written in treble clef two octaves 
below the actual pitch. It is wise to keep 
within the range of the smaller instru- 
ment, since the larger is not universally 
used. Its most notable characteristic is its 
bright, penetrating tone color, and be- 
cause of this it should be used sparingly. 
Wagner used the glockenspiel in the 
Dance of the Apprentices from The Mas- 
tersingers; Tchaikovsky in the Chinese 
Dance of his Nutcracker Suite, 

3. Xylophone, An instrument resem- 
bling the glockenspiel in essential con- 
struction, save that the bars are made of 
wood. The instrument, pitched an octave 
lower than the glockenspiel, and there- 
fore larger, is mounted on a frame, and 
the player stands while performing. Its 
sounding compass is one octave below 
that of the glockenspiel, notated at the 
actual pitch. In tone quality it is dry and 
“wooden.” See also ^Xylophone, 

4, Celesta, An instrument resembling 
in appearance a small upright pianoforte. 
It may be considered as a “keyboard- 
glockenspiel,” as the tone is produced by 
the striking of steel bars with hammers 
which are connected to a keyboard by a 
simplified pianoforte action. The range 
of the celesta is as shown in Ex. 6, and it is 
written for on two bracketed staves at an 
octave below the actual pitch. It is best 
adapted to light and graceful effects, 
whether chordal or arpeggiated. Melodic 
lines may be given to the instrument pro- 
vided they do not contain notes of great 
length, since the sustaining power is 
limited. Owing to its light character, ac- 
companiments to a celesta melody should 


PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS 

be thinly scored. The instrument was 
introduced by Tchaikovsky for the 
“Danse de la Fee Dragee” of his Nut- 
cracker Suite (1891). 

5. Chimes, A set of metal tubes, nor- 
mally 18, suspended from a metal frame, 
tuned chromatically from c to f", and 
struck with a hammer. They are em- 
ployed to produce the effect of church 
bells, hence the alternative name tubular 
hells. They are used in the finale of Tchai- 
kovsky’s “1812” Overture, in Mahler’s 
Symphony no. 2, in Sibelius’ Symphony 
no. 4 (fourth movement), and in many 
operas. 

Other percussion instruments of rare 
occurrence are the *anvils, the ^marimba, 
and the *dulcitone. 

B. 0 / Indefinite Pitch, i. Side drum 
or Snare drum [F. petite caisse\ G. Kleine 
Trommel\ It. tamburo militare] , A small 
cylindrical drum with two heads stretched 
over a shell of metal. The upper head, 
which is struck by the player with his 
two drumsticks, is called the batter-head; 
the lower, across which arc stretched the 
taut snares (strings, in appearance not 
unlike violin strings), is called the snare- 
head. The brilliant tone quality of the 
side drum is largely dependent on the 
vibrations of the snare-head against the 
snares. The instrument may be “muffled” 
by loosening the snares. In addition to 
the roll, which produces a tremolo, there 
are two other strokes commonly used on 
the side drum: the Flam, consisting of 
two notes [Ex. 7], and the drag, which 



is a series of strokes fused into a sort of 
instantaneous roll, preceding an accented 
note [Ex. 8]. 

2. Tenor drum [F. caisse roulante\ G. 
Ruhrtrommel\ It. cassa rullante] , A drum 
of large size, with a wooden shell which 
is deeper in relation to its diameter than 
is the side drum. 

3. Bass drum [F. grosse caisse\ G. 
grosse Trommel; It. gran cassa] , A large 
drum which varies considerably in size, 
both in depth and diameter. The heads 
are thicker and their tension is much less 


[565] 



PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS 

than with the two smaller drums. It has 
no snares and is played with a large soft- 
headed stick. The sound produced is low 
and heavy. Single strokes should be used 
at moderate speed, but a roll, performed 
by two timpani sticks, is also effective. 
The bass drum was used by Mozart in his 
Entfuhrung and by Beethoven in the 
finale of his Ninth Symphony. 

4. Tambourine. A small single-headed 
drum, the shell of which is pierced at in- 
tervals to allow the insertion of loosely- 
hanging “jingles” (circular metal plates), 
usually in pairs connected by a wire which 
passes through the holes of the shell. The 
instrument is played (a) by striking the 
head with knuckles, which gives detached 
sounds and simple rhythmical figures, 
(b) by grasping the shell firmly and shak- 
ing it, which gives a “roll” of the jingles, 
and (c) by rubbing the thumb on the 
head, which gives a tremolo of the jingles. 

5. Triangle. A small round bar of steel 
bent in the shape of a triangle, open at 
the upper end, struck with a beater of the 
same material. Because of its penetrating 
tone quality it should be used sparingly, 
single widely-spaced strokes being the 
most effective manner of writing for the 
instrument, although it can perform com- 
plex rhythmic figures and rolls. It was 
used first in Gluck’s Iphigenie en Tauride 
(1779) and in Mozart’s Abduction from 
the Seraglio (1782) in order to obtain an 
exotic, Turkish, atmosphere [see * Jani- 
zary music]. Beethoven used it in the 
finale of his Ninth Symphony for the 
“Turkish” variation of the theme; Haydn 
in his “Military Symphony.” For a prom- 
inent solo part see the Piano Concerto in 
E-flat by Liszt. 

6. Cymbals [F. cymbales\ G. Bec^en; 
It. piatti or cinelli]. Two large circular 
brass plates of equal size, made slightly 
convex so that only the edges will touch 
when they are struck together. In the 
center of each cymbal is a deep saucer- 
like depression, pierced by a hole, through 
which a strap is attached, enabling the 
player to hold it. They are played in the 
following ways: (a) by clashing them 
together with a sideways movement — 
the ordinary way of playing single notes; 


PERFECT, IMPERFECT 

(b) by striking a single cymbal with a 
hard snare-drum stick or a soft timpani 
stick; (c) by clashing the two cymbals 
against each other as fast as possible, a 
rather unsatisfactory effect; (d) by sus- 
pending one cymbal and performing a 
roll on it with two hard snare-drum sticks 
or two soft timpani sticks; (e) by fasten- 
ing one cymbal to the shell of the bass 
drum, thus enabling the player to play 
both instruments at the same time. See 
also *Cymbals. 

7. T am-tam or Gong. A broad circular 
disk of metal, slightly convex, with the 
edges turned, giving it the appearance of 
a shallow plate with low vertical sides. 
It is suspended in a frame so as to hang 
freely, and is struck with a heavy bass- 
drum beater. 

8. Other instruments of this class, 
rarely used in orchestral scores, are the 
*anvil, ^castanets, *rattle, ^thunder ma- 
chine. Modern radicalists have devised 
percussive and noise-producing effects 
compared with which Richard Strauss’s 
thunder machine is mere child’s play 
[see ^Futurism]. Primitive instruments, 
such as the Cuban maracas (a gourd filled 
with dry seeds; see ^Rattle) and the 
guiro (a serrated gourd scraped with a 
stick), have been used by Prokofiev 
{Alexander Nevsky) and Stravinsky {Le 
Sacre du Printemps). An interesting in- 
stance of a purely percussive score is 
Edgar Varese’s Ionisation (1931). 

In scientific classification, the various 
drums [see *Drums] are grouped under 
m€mbranophon€S\ the other instruments 
under idiophones [see ^Instruments I 
and II]. 

Lit.: Ch. Bairn, The Percussion Band 
from A to Z { 1936). W. D. D. 

Perdendo(si) [It.]. Gradually dying 
away. 

Perfect, imperfect. See ♦Cadence; 
♦Intervals; ♦Mensural notation. It may 
be noticed that the modus perfectus, im- 
perfectus of mensural notation is some- 
thing entirely different from the modus 
perfectus, imperfectus of the 13th-century 
theory of rhythmic ♦modes. While, in 
the former case, the terms indicate the 


[566] 



PERIOD 

ternary or binary value of the longa (L = 
3 B or = 1 B)i they refer, in the latter 
case, to the final note in the pattern of a 
mode, this final note being present in the 
modus perfectus, absent (replaced by a 
rest) in the modus imperfectus. The 
modi imperfect!, although discussed at 
length by theorists (Anon. IV; cf. 
ReMMAy 280), are entirely devoid of 
practical significance [cf. ApNPM, 231]. 

Period. A term frequently used to de- 
note a group of measures comprising a 
natural division of the melody. Usually 
considered as comprising two ^phrases. 

Periodicals, Musical. I. Historical 
Survey, Among the earliest periodicals 
of music (leaving out of account periodi- 
cal publications of music, etc.) are 
Scheibe’s Critischer Musicus (1737-40), 
the Journal de musique frangaise et 
italienne (1764-68), and J. A. Hiller’s 
Wochentliche Nachrichten (1766-70). 
Following are the most important of the 
subsequent enterprises: Allgemeine mu- 
sikjilische Zeitung (Breitkopf und Har- 
tel, 1789-1848, 1863-82); Fetis’ Revue 
musicale (1827-80; merged with Gazette 
musicale de Paris and became the Revue 
et Gazette musicale de Paris); Le Mine- 
strel (Paris, 1833-); Neue Zeitschrijt fur 
Musii{ (founded by Robert Schumann, 
1834; now issued as Zeitschrijt fiir Mu- 
sih^; see IV); Signale flir die musil{alische 
Welt (Leipzig, 1843—); The Musical 
Times (London, 1844-); Dwight's Jour- 
nal of Music (Boston, 1852-81); Le 
Guide Musicale (Brussels, 1855-1914, 
1917-18); The Musical Standard (Lon- 
don, 1862-1933); Music (Chicago, 1891- 
1902). 

There follows a selected list of periodi- 
cals still issued (or issued until recently), 
classified according to countries, with a 
special group (VII) reserved for musi- 
cological publications. 

11 . United States. The Musical Cour- 
ier (New York, 1880-; semimonthly). 
— The Etude (Philadelphia, 1883-; 
monthly). — The Musician (New York, 
1 895-; monthly ) . — Musical A merica 
(New York, 1898-; fortnightly). — 


PERIODICALS 

Music Educator's Journal (Chicago, 
1914-; bimonthly). — The Musical Quar- 
terly (New York, 1915-; quarterly; sec 
also VII). — Modern Music (New York, 
1924-; quarterly ) . — A merican Music 
Lover (New York, 1935-; monthly). 

III. England. The Musical Times 
( London, 1 844-; monthly ) . — The 
Monthly Musical Record (London, 
1871-; monthly). — Musical Opinion 
(London, 1877-; monthly). — The Strad 
(London, 1890-; monthly). — Music and 
Letters (London, 1920—; quarterly; see 
also VII). — Music Review (London, 
1 939-; quarterly; see also VII). 

IV. Germany y Austria, Switzerland. 
Zeitschrijt Jur Musil{ (Regensburg, 
1834-; monthly). — Signale Jiir die mu- 
sil(alische Welt (Leipzig, 1843-; weekly). 

— Allgemeine Musi 1 {zeitung (Berlin, 
1874-; weekly). — Neue Musil^zeitung 
(Stuttgart, 1880-; monthly). — Die Musi\ 
(Berlin, 1901-15; fortnightly; 1922-; 
monthly ) . — An bruch (Vienna, 1919- 
37; monthly). — Melos (Mainz, 1920- 
36; monthly). — Der Aujta\t (Prague, 

1920- 38; monthly). — Schweizerische 
Musi\zeitung (Zurich, 1861-; monthly). 

V. France, Belgium. Le Menestrel 
(Paris, 1833-1940; weekly). — Revue 
musicale (Paris, 1901-40; monthly; see 
also VII). — La Revue musicale Beige 
(Brussels, 1924—; weekly). — La Revue 
Gregorienne (Tournai, 1911— ; monthly). 

— La Revue Internationale de musique 
(Brussels, 1938—; bimonthly). 

VI. Italy. Rivista musicale italiana 
(Torino, 1894-; quarterly; see also VII). 

— La Rassegna musicale (Torino, 1928-; 
monthly). — Musica d'oggi (Milano, 
1919). — Rassegna Gregoriana ( Rome, 
1902-). — // Pensiero musicale (Bologna, 

1921- ). — Bollettino bibliografico musi- 
cale (Milan, 1926-). — ll Musicista 
(Rome, 1934). — Rivista nazionale di 
musica (Rome, 193 5-). 

VI. Other Countries. La Revista Musi- 
cal (Buenos Aires, 1925-34). — Revista 
Brasileira de Musica (Rio de Janeiro, 
1934-; quarterly) . — Revista Musical 
Mexicana (Mexico, D.F., 1942-; semi- 
monthly). — Musica Viva (Rio de Ja- 
neiro, 1940-42). — Musicalia (Havana, 



PERMUTATIO 


PERU 


1 927-). — Boletino Latino-Americano 
de musica (Montevideo, 1935-; annu- 
ally). — The Canadian Journal of Music 
(Toronto, 1914-; monthly). — De Mu- 
zie\ (Amsterdam, 1926-). — De Muzie\- 
wereld (Amsterdam, 1936-). — Soviet- 
sXaya Musica ( Moscow, 1 933-4 1 ) . — Re- 
vista musical Catalana (Barcelona, 1904- 
37)- 

VII. Musicological Periodicals, Most 
of the periodicals belonging to this group 
are listed on pp. viii f, with their abbrevia- 
tions as used in this Dictionary. Addi- 
tional publications are: The Journal of 
Musicology (Greenfield, Ohio, 1939-; 
quarterly); Note d' arc hivio (Rome, 1924; 
quarterly). 

For additional lists of periodicals cf. GD 
iv, 110-121 and Suppl. Vol., 504-507; A. 
Einstein, Das neue Musi\lexil{pn (1926), 
720-724. 

Lit.: A. General: F. Crome, Die An- 
fdnge des musi\alischen Journalismus in 
Deutschland (Diss. Berlin 1897); H. 
Koch, Die deutschen musi\alischen Fach- 
zeitschriften des 18. Jahrhunderts (Diss. 
Halle 1923); W. Freystatter, Die musi\al- 
ischen Zeitschriften (1884); E. van der 
Straeten, Nos PSriodiques musicaux 
(1893); O. Sonneck, “Die musikalischen 
Zeitschriften-Literatur . . {ZIM i); E. 
O’Meara, “Music in the 17th and i8th 
Century Periodicals” {Music Libr, Ass, 
Notes iv); J. T. Windle, “Report on the 
Project for Indexing Music Periodicals 
. . .” (M,L,A. Notes, ix); H. E. Johnson, 
“Early New England Periodicals devoted 
to Music” {MQ xxvi), 

B. Indices to periodical literature: D. H. 
Daugherty, A Bibliography of Periodical 
Literature in Musicology . . . (annual, 
i94ofI); Bibliographic des Musi\schrift- 
turns (Leipzig, 1936-; annual); E. Re- 
fardt, Verzeichnis der Aufsdtze iiber 
Musi\ in den nichtmusikalischen Zeit- 
schriften . . . (1925). Current indices are 
contained in ZIM and ZMW, 

Permutatio. See *Hexachord. 

Perpetuum mobile [L., perpetual mo- 
tion]. A term used by Paganini (op. ii), 
Weber (last movement of Piano Sonata 
op. 19), and others to denote pieces which 


proceed from the beginning to the end in 
the same rapid motion, e.g., i6th-notes in 
presto. Pieces of this type, although not 
labeled thus, occur also in Chopin’s 
fitudes. 

Persian music. See ^Arabian music. 
Cf. LavE i.5, 3065-83. 

Peru. In pre-Hispanic times Peru was 
the center of the vast Incan empire which 
dominated most of the northwestern sec- 
tion of the South American continent. 
The Incas, or “people of the sun,” prob- 
ably settled in the valley of Cuzco (the 
city of that name was their capital) in the 
13th century, the country having been 
ruled before then by the Aymaras. Al- 
though the civilization of the Incas was 
in some ways less advanced than that of 
the Mayas of Central America, they ap- 
pear to have had a more highly developed 
musical system. Many musical instru- 
ments from ancient Peru have been pre- 
served, chiefly ^panpipes and flutes 
{quena), and from these it is evident that 
the Incas could produce elaborate melo- 
dies. It is a moot point as to whether they 
used scales with semitones in addition to 
the tonal penta-scale [see ^Pentatonic] , 
but considerable evidence has been as- 
sembled to indicate that the use of semi- 
tones was not unknown. Besides various 
kinds of panpipes and flutes (generally 
made of canes), the ancient Peruvians 
also had rattles and bells, drums, end- 
blown shell trumpets, and tubular trum- 
pets of wood or clay. 

After the Spanish conquest, which be- 
gan in 1526 and was marked by much in- 
ternal strife among the conquistador es, 
Peru became the most important center 
of Spanish power in South America, and 
the new colonial capital, Lima, was the 
seat of a brilliant viceregal court (the first 
viceroy was appointed in 1544) in which 
cultural activities flourished. Music was 
cultivated not only in the churches, but 
also in the theaters, where Spanish dra- 
mas were performed with the customary 
musical settings. 

In the early period of independence an 
outstanding figure was Bernardo Alzedo 
(1798-1878), who composed the Peruvian 


[568] 



PERU 

National Hymn (1821). He lived for 
many years in Santiago de Chile, becom- 
ing choirmaster of the cathedral there. 
In 1864 he returned to Lima. He was the 
author of a didactic work entitled Filosofia 
elemental de la miisica (Lima, 1869), an 
introduction to musical theory and one of 
the earliest books of its kind to be pub- 
lished in South America. Alzedo also 
composed much religious music. 

The study and utilization of Peruvian 
folk music, upon which the modern na- 
tional school is based, was initiated by 
Claudio Rebagliati (1843-1909), an Ital- 
ian musician who settled in Lima in 1863. 
His Peruvian Rhapsody, Un 28 de Julio^ 
was the first attempt to obtain local at- 
mosphere in an orchestral medium. Re- 
bagliati made a revision of the National 
Hymn which was approved by Alzedo 
and officially accepted. The gathering of 
folk music was carried on assiduously by 
Daniel Alomias Robles (1871-1942), 
whose collection (mostly unpublished) 
consisted of some 1200 tunes. He lived in 
the United States for many years, and at 
the time of his death was head of the Fine 
Arts section in the Ministry of Public 
Education at Lima. He composed the 
opera llla-Cori, several symphonic poems, 
many songs, and piano pieces. The late 
Theodoro Valcdrcel (1902-42) also culti- 
vated Peruvian folk idioms in his com- 
positions, which include the ballet-opera 
Suray-Surita, the ballet Cl(ori Kanchay 
and Suite autdetona for violin and piano. 
He published several collections of folk 
music from Peru. 

Andres Sas (b. Paris, 1900) has made a 
special study of Peruvian Indian music, 
whose characteristic scales and rhythms 
he has utilized in several compositions, 
such as Suite Peruana and Himno y 
Danza for piano. Manuel Aguirre is 
known chiefly for his piano pieces of 
folkloristic coloring, such as the suite De 
mis montanas (orchestrated by Sas). 
Pablo Chavez Aguilar (b. 1898), choir- 
master of Lima Cathedral, has published 
Seis Preludios Incaicos and Ocho Varia- 
ciones sohre un tema incaicOy for piano. 

On the whole, Peru now has a flourish- 
ing contemporary school, whose younger 


PHAGOTUS 

representatives include Carlos Sdnehez 
Malaga (b. 1905), Roberto Carpio (b. 
1900)5 Raoul de Verneuil (b. 1901), and 
Alfonso de Silva (1903-37). Peruvian 
composers have been held back chiefly by 
lack of adequate technical training, but 
they have a rich tradition upon which to 
draw and a definite national school of 
considerable promise seems now to be 
emerging. 

Lit.: R. and M. d’Harcourt, La Mu- 
sique des Incas et ses survivances (1925); 
R. Klatovsky, “Music in the Realm of the 
Incas’* {Musical Times, Ixxv, 6961!); C. 
Vega, “Tonlcitern mit Halbtonen in der 
Musik der alten Peruaner” (AM ix); A. 
Sas, “Ensayo sobre la musica Inca” {Bo- 
letin latino-americano de musica i); C. 
Raygada, “Panorama musical del Peru” 
ii). G.C. 

Pes [L., foot], (i) Same as podatus; see 
•Neumes I. — (2) Name for the iterated 
bass motive of the *Sumer canon [see also 
•Ostinato]. 

Pesante [It.]. Weighing, heavy. 

Pescia [It.]. See under ^Caccia. 

Petrouchka. See ^Ballet III. 

Pezzo [It.]. Piece, composition. 

PF. In orchestral scores, etc., short for 
pianoforte. As a dynamic sign, short for 
“piano followed by forte.” 

Pfeife [G.]. Fife; organ pipe. 

Pfundnoten [G. Pfund, pound]. The 
long notes (each, as it were, “weighing a 
pound”) which occur in the *cantus 
firmus of innumerable polyphonic com- 
positions, from the 13th-century •organa 
to Bach’s “cantus-firmus” chorales [see 
•Organ chorale] . 

Phagotus. A curious instrument of the 
i6th century which is worth mentioning 
only because it has erroneously been con- 
sidered the predecessor of the *fagot, i.e., 
bassoon. Actually it was a fanciful and 
impracticable modification of the bag- 
pipe. Cf. L. F. Valdrighi, II Phagotus di 
Afranio (1881). GD iv, 13 1 (illustra- 
tion); F. W. G^pin, in PM A Ixvii. 


[ 560] 



PHANTASIE 


PHONOGRAPH 


Phantasie [G.]. See ^Fantasia. Phan- 
tasiestuchcy Phantasiebildery etc., are ro- 
mantic titles for pieces of an imaginative, 
fanciful character, with a slight program- 
matic connotation. See ^Character piece. 
Phantasieren is “to improvise.” 

Phantasy. Title of English chamber 
music pieces which were written for the 
Cobbett Competitions, established in 
1906. According to the statutes of the 
competition, they have to be in one move- 
ment. Over forty of these compositions 
were written between 1905 and 1930. R. 
Vaughan Williams, W. H. Hurlstone, 
Frank Bridge, John Ireland, Thomas 
Dunhill, were among the contributors. 
Cf. Ch. Maclean, in ZIM xii. 

Philharmonic pitch. See *Pitch. 

Philharmonic. Name of two famous 
concert halls and orchestras, one in Berlin, 
the other in Vienna. See ^Orchestras II. 

Philidor, Collection. A large MS col- 
lection of 17th-century music (chiefly 
French), compiled by Andre Philidor (r. 
1647-1730; proper name Danican; father 
of the famous chess-player Francois Phili- 
dor). The collection contains innumer- 
able dance tunes, airs, military signals, as 
well as all the ballets and operas of Lully 
and of a few other composers; finally, all 
the sacred music in use at the French court 
chapel. A large part of the collection is 
now at St. Michael’s College in Tenbury 
(England; see ^Libraries III, D), another 
in the library of the Paris Conservatoire. 
Cf. J. W. Wasielewski, in VMW i; E. H. 
Fellowes, in ML xii, no. 2; A. Tessier, in 
RM xii, no. 114. 

Phonograph and recorded music. 

The phonograph traces its origin to 
Thomas A. Edison, who in 1877 produced 
a record made of tin foil from which his 
own voice could be heard reciting Mary 
had a little lamb. This record was a cyl- 
inder, as were all the commercial records 
made by Edison for many years. The in- 
vention of the disk record (patented in 
1896) and the surmounting of the prob- 
lems of mass production and marketing 
of recordings were the work of Emil Ber- 


liner, whose factory was the beginning of 
the Victor Company, the largest producer 
in the field. The reproduction of sound 
by the passage of a needle or stylus through 
the grooves of a record, whether a cylinder 
or a disk, has been accomplished by two 
methods. By far the more common of 
these is the “lateral cut,” used from the 
early days by Victor, Columbia, and other 
companies, in which the sound is pro- 
duced by variations on the sides of the 
groove through which the needle passes. 
The other method, adhered to by Edison, 
and by the Pathe Freres in Paris, was 
called “vertical cut,” or “hill and dale,” 
because the motion of the needle (or the 
Edison diamond point and the Pathe 
sapphire ball) is up and down rather than 
sidewise. Though this latter method is 
considered by many experts to be superior, 
it has been abandoned in recent years, be- 
cause its adoption by one of the major 
companies would mean the scrapping of 
all present equipment. In the early pho- 
nograph the sound was amplified by 
means of a mica sound box, which held 
the needle, and a large horn. 

The types of phonographs and records 
remained generally the same until 1925, 
when the Orthophonic Victrola and elec- 
tric recording were introduced. These 
instruments, with more sonorous sound 
chambers than were found with the ear- 
lier machines, were able to bring more 
music from the records than had been 
heard before; and the new method of re- 
cording, utilizing the microphone which 
had come into being with the radio, 
marked a tremendous advance in the 
range and faithfulness of reproduction. 
The next few years saw the development 
of the electric phonograph, in which the 
sound is reproduced entirely by electricity, 
and of “higher fidelity” recording, in 
which the frequency range has been in- 
creased still further. A modern record 
played on a modern machine is amaz- 
ingly lifelike, and even early acoustical 
recordings can be made to sound remark- 
ably well. Certain problems are still to be 
solved, such as that of surface noise, or the 
hissing sound which the needle makes in 
passing through the record grooves. Com- 


[570] 



PHONOGRAPH 


PHONOGRAPH 

mcrcial phonographs, turned out in mass, and several societies have been formed 
are very often unsatisfactory because of for the purpose of re-recording or re- 
inequalities in the materials used: a rec- pressing old masters on a subscription 
ord can sound its best only on a good basis. 

reproducing equipment. In 1913 the Gramophone Company in 

The repertoire of the phonograph has Europe experimented with orchestral re- 
undergone considerable change since the cording, securing the services of Arthur 
early days. Edison’s original intention Nikisch, who conducted the Berlin Phil- 
was to produce literally a talking machine, harmonic Orchestra in Beethoven’s Fifth 
and the musical possibilities of the new in- Symphony, and the London Symphony 
strument were not at first apparent. The Orchestra in a series of standard works, 
earliest repertoire, therefore, of the com- In the United States the Columbia Com- 
mercial phonograph was made up mostly pany engaged Felix Weingartner the same 
of vaudeville sketches and monologues, year and enlarged their staff orchestra for 
These were gradually supplemented with several recordings under his direction, 
band records and sentimental songs; for The first of these were cut versions of the 
it was possible to reproduce wind instru- “Liebestod” from Tristan and the con- 
ments with reasonable clarity, and the ductor’s arrangement of Weber’s “Invita- 
singing voice emerged recognizably from tion to the Dance.” Several years later 
the wax. Celebrated singers early began (1917) Columbia engaged the Chicago 
to play with recording their voices, and Symphony, conducted by Frederick Stock, 
by the nineties the stunt was quite fash- the Cincinnati Orchestra under Kunwald, 
ionable. About the year 1900 the rec- and the New York Philharmonic under 
ord companies in Europe began to see Stransky. Victor followed a year later 
the commercial possibilities of this idea, with a series of recordings of Dr. Karl 
and a new period in phonograph history Muck and the Boston Symphony, and 
began. The first American celebrity re- shortly thereafter Leopold Stokowski be- 
cordings were announced in 1903 by the gan his long series with the Philadelphia 
Columbia Company, the list including Orchestra. The year 1919 saw the first 
disks by Marcella Sembrich, Edouard de serious attempts at recording chamber 
Reszke, Ernestine Schumann-Heink, music in this country when the Flonzaley 
Giuseppe Campanari, Antonio Scotti, Quartet made for Victor a series of ab- 
Charles Gilbert, and Suzanne Adams, breviated movements from their reper- 
Victor was not slow to follow by building toire. 

up an impressive “red seal” catalogue, to The issuing of complete symphonies 
which most of the feted vocalists and in- and other larger works received its great- 
strumentalists of the day contributed. The est impetus in Europe. As long ago as 
singers recorded mostly operatic arias, 1907 and 1908 Victor was issuing here 
occasionally branching out into the song complete performances of operas (includ- 
repertoire, and the violinists, cellists, and ing Pagliacci made under the direction of 
pianists gave their versions of the lighter the composer) recorded by La Scala Corn- 
classics. At first all accompaniments were pany in Milan, but it was not until the 
played on the piano, but about 1905 many establishment of electrical recording that 
of the singers were busy remaking their the American catalogues began to fill up 
selections with orchestra. Owing to the with records made for the sake of the mu- 
limitations of reproduction at that time, sic rather than that of the artist. After a 
all kinds of alterations were made in the period of depression, attributed to the 
orchestrations of arias, and the instru- competition of the radio, records began to 
ments were necessarily few in number, enjoy a new popularity comparable to that 
but the voices as recorded were unmistak- they had known in the great days of cc- 
ably those of their famous prototypes, lebrity disks. Within the first decade of 
Today the collecting of early celebrity electric recording the usual repertoire of 
recordings has become a major hobby, standard works, both instrumental and 

[571 ] 



PHONOGRAPH 


PHRASE 


vocal, was pretty well covered, and the 
enterprise of some of the companies, par- 
ticularly in Europe, made it possible for 
the phonograph owner to come to know 
a great deal of music he might never oth- 
erwise have had a chance to hear. This 
fact has certainly been in no small meas- 
ure responsible for the general rebirth of 
interest in the music of the sixteenth and 
seventeenth centuries. Societies were 
formed for the recording of music whose 
appeal was expected to be limited, but 
many of the sets so issued proved suffi- 
ciently popular to be given release subse- 
quendy in the regular commercial cata- 
logues. The music of such men as Delius, 
Hugo Wolf, Sibelius, Kilpeinen, and 
Purcell was issued in such society sets, as 
well as the Sonatas of Beethoven, various 
works of Bach, and several operas of Mo- 
zart. A further development has been the 
issuance of records of chamber music with 
one of the instrumental parts missing, and 
of accompaniments to songs, for the ben- 
efit of amateurs who lack the necessary 
partners for musical performance. 

The amazing growth of interest in rec- 
ords is illustrated by the amount of litera- 
ture published on the subject. The Gram- 
ophonCy in England, and The American 
Music Lovery in the United States, are 
magazines devoted entirely to recorded 
music, and various dealers publish critical 
bulletins. Many general magazines and 
newspapers have instituted record review 
columns, and in 1936 The Gramophone 
Shop in New York published an Encyclo- 
pedia of Recorded Music (a new edition 
of which appeared in 1943). Most mod- 
ern books on music include lists of records, 
and several critical surveys of recorded 
music have been brought out. 

Another important development has 
been the introduction of record collections 
in libraries throughout the world. A proj- 
ect of the Carnegie Corporation has been 
the assembling of ‘‘music sets” for colleges 
and schools, and the free distribution of 
these records, books, and scores to selected 
institutions. Steps are being taken to es- 
tablish record archives in connection with 
various libraries in order not only to pro- 
vide the public with a place to listen to 


music, but to preserve many of the im- 
portant disks no longer on the market. 
The voices of such singers as Caruso, 
Eames, Lilli Lehmann, Victor Maurel, 
Adelina Patti, Melba, Tamagno, De Lu- 
cia, Tetrazzini, and Fremstad, and the 
playing of Paderewski, Kreisler, Ysaye, 
De Pachmann, and many others will thus 
be preserved for posterity. 

The output of recorded music includes, 
needless to say, the entire standard reper- 
toire of our concerts and many composi- 
tions which are very seldom heard in the 
concert hall. Particularly worth mention- 
ing is the attention which has been given 
to the music of Bach and of the masters 
of still earlier periods. Most of the latter 
have been recorded in sets covering the 
entire history of music or special phases 
thereof. The most important of these are: 
UAnthologie Sonore (Parlophone-Odeon; 
cd. by C. Sachs) ; History of Music by Eye 
and Ear (Columbia; ed. by P. Scholes); 
Seven Centuries of Sacred Music (Lu- 
men); Editions de V Oiseau-Lyre\ Trois 
Steeles de musique d'orgue (Pathe). For 
recordings of medieval music, cf. the Rec- 
ord List in ReMMAy 465^. See also ♦Mu- 
sic Education III. 

Lit.: Bibliography of Music Records 
(Minneapolis Board of Education, 1940); 
R. D. Darrell, Encyclopedia of Recorded 
Music ( 1 936) . P. L. M. 

Phonola. See ♦Mechanical instruments 
IV. 

Phorminx. Homeric name for the 
♦kithara, or ♦lyra. 

Phrase. A natural division of the me- 
lodic line, comparable to a sentence of 
speech. The term is used with so little 
exactness and uniformity that a more 
specific description can scarcely be given. 
The accompanying example (Beethoven, 



Piano Sonata op. 2, no. 2) merely serves 
to illustrate the principle (P = Phrase; 
M = ♦Motive). In music of the classical 


[572] 



PHRASING 

period (Bach to Brahms) a phrase usu- 
ally includes, according to the tempo, two, 
four, or eight measures; however, in the 
17th century, phrases of three, five, and 
seven measures are very frequent [e.g., 
the two ^grounds in Purcell’s Dido and 
Aeneas] . See *Vierhebigkeit. 

Phrasing. The clear rendering in mu- 
sical performance of the *phrases of the 
melody. This is achieved by the inter- 
polation of a slight rest (breathing-rest) 
with the last note which, therefore, will 
have to be shortened in some sort of por- 
ta to or staccato (depending upon the speed 
and loudness of passage). 

The study of phrasing has been evolved, 
in the late 19th century, chiefly by Ger- 
man writers such as R. Westphal (1880) 
and H. Riemann (1884). Riemann in 
particular has contributed to its establish- 
ment as a topic of musical analysis. In his 
Analysen von Beethoven s Klaviersonaten 
(3 vols., 1917) phrasing is practically the 
only stylistic consideration, and his nu- 
merous “Phrasierungsausgaben” of com- 
positions by Bach, Beethoven, and other 
masters are provided with a great number 
of minute phrase marks. 

Unfortunately, Riemann, as well as 
many other writers and editors, has done 
ill service to a good cause by exaggeration 
and dogmatism. Not only are Riemann s 
Phrasierungsausgaben practically worth- 
less (in fact, illegible) by the confusing 
number and variety of phrase marks, but 
also in cases of greater moderation the 
fact is usually overlooked that “in music 
of high artistic quality there is not always 
Just one single way of phrasing but sev- 
eral possibilities which overlap and bal- 
ance one another” [cf. A/oML, 626]. For 



instance, in Schubert’s “Death and the 
Maiden” there exist at least three different 
types of phrasing, each of which has its 


PHRYGIAN 

special significance and justification [Ex. 
i]. It would be nonsensical, of course, to 
indicate all these minute nuances by slurs. 
In the above melody all the three manners 
of phrasing actually merge into what 
might be called a “breathing legato”; 
thus, Schubert very wisely (that is to say, 
with the unconscious wisdom of the art- 
ist) indicated none of them. In fact, upon 
closer consideration one might well arrive 
at the conclusion that the old masters who 
were not “phrase-minded” came a good 
deal closer to artistic truth than the mod- 
ern editors with their phrase-conscious- 
ness. 

The above considerations apply also to 
one particular “law” of phrasing, namely, 
Riemann’s Aufta^tigl^eit, according to 
which every musical phrase begins with 
an “Auftakt,” i.c., an upbeat. Undoubt- 
edly, this is a principle of basic importance 
and one the consideration of which is par- 
ticularly necessary for the initiating per- 
former, who is likely to regard each bar- 
line as a barrier. Once more, however, a 
sound principle has been carried ad ab- 
surdum by exaggeration and dogmatism. 
Examples 2 (by Combarieu) and 3 (by 



Schweitzer) will sufiSciently illustrate this 
point. Particularly in the case of Bach 
the fact cannot be too strongly emphasized 
that his melodies are so highly complex 
in structure, so rich in relationships of 
various degrees, that any indication of 
phrasing is bound to be one-sided and 
therefore misleading. 

Phrygian. (1) See ♦Greek music. — 
(2) In the system of the *Church modes, 
the Phrygian is represented by the seg- 
ment e-e of the diatonic scale, with e as 
the tonic (ftnalis). From the modern 
point of view, it appears as a variety of 
minor (E minor), the characteristic dis- 
tinguishing feature being the minor sec- 


[573] 



PHYSHARMONICA 


PIANOFORTE 


ond: e f g a, instead of e g a. In com- 
positions in the Phrygian mode, this char- 
acteristic step appears most conspicuously 



in the cadences (Phrygian cadence; see 
Ex.). To the harmonically minded, such 
formulae seem to be not so much a full 
close in E (VII-I) as a half-cadence in A 
(IV-V). In this meaning the Phrygian 
cadence is frequently found in the sonatas 
of Corelli, Handel, and others, as a tran- 
sition from one movement to the next. 
For an example of Phrygian in modern 
music see ^Modality. 

Physharmonica. See under ♦Har- 
monium. 

Piacevole [It.]. Agreeable. 

Pianamente [It.]. Softly. 

Piangendo [It.]. Plaintive. 

Pianino [G.]. The upright piano. 

Piano, (i) Short for ♦Pianoforte. — (2) 
Soft; pianissimo, very soft. See ♦Dynamic 
marks. 

Piano concerto. See ♦Concerto II, 
III (c). 

Piano duet. A composition for two 
piano players playing on either one or two 
instruments. Such compositions are also 
called “for four hands” [F. ^ quatre 
mains\ G. vierhdndig^. 

(a) Duets for One Piano. An isolated 
early example is an early-iyth-century 
piece by Nicholas Carlton entitled: “A 
Verse for two to play on one Virginal or 
Organ” (Brit. Mus. MS 29996; cf. H. Mil- 
ler, in MQ xxix, no. 4). A continuous 
tradition did not begin until the late i8th 
century. A famous picture of 1762 shows 
the young Mozart and his sister playing 
four-hand. Among the earliest extant 
compositions are a Sonata by }oh. Chris- 
tian Bach (1735-82) [cf. A. Prosniz, 
Hand buck der Klavierliteratur (1908), 
p. 128], Mozart’s four-hand Sonata in D 
(K.V. 381; 1772?), Burney’s Four So- 


natas or Duets for two performers on one 
Pianoforte or Harpsichord ( 1777 ), Hay- 
dn’s II maestro e lo scolare, variazioni a 
quadri mani per un clavicembalo ( 1778 ), 
and five more compositions (four sonatas 
and one set of variations) by Mozart, 
composed between 1780 and 1791 . Be- 
sides Mozart the only great! composer who 
was seriously interested in four-hand mu- 
sic was Schubert. Brahms wrote a set of 
variations on a theme by Schumann (op. 

23)- ^ 

(b) Duets for Two Ptanos, Isolated 
early compositions for two harpsichords 
are a “Verse for two Virginals” by Giles 
Farnaby (late i6th century; cf. Fitzwil- 
liam Virginal Book, i, 202), a Fancy by 
Thomas Tomkins (1573-1656) in Brit. 
Mus. Add. 29996, several sonatas by Pas- 
quini {Deux sonates pour 2 clavecins, 
Paris), an Allemande, by F. Couperin 
(new ed. by Brahms-Chrysander, vol. ii, 
160; other examples in vol. iii), and two 
fugues in Bach’s ♦Art of Fugue. A sonata 
for two harpsichords reproduced in the 
complete works of Bach (B.-G. vol. 43.!, 
p. 47), but actually composed by his son 
W. F. Bach, has been little noticed. The 
present-day repertory begins with Mozart, 
who, in his Sonata in D {K.V. 448; 1781), 
has written one of the most famous pieces 
for two pianos. Other original composi- 
tions are his Fugue in C minor (K.V. 
426; 1783), two Sonatas by dementi, 
Schumann’s Variations op. 46, a Rondo 
by Chopin in C, Variations by Sinding, 
and several compositions by Busoni. More 
numerous are arrangements for two pi- 
anos, among which those made by the 
composers themselves are particularly 
worth mentioning (Brahms, F Minor 
Quintet and Variations on a Theme by 
Haydn; Busoni, Fantasia contrappuntis- 
tica, originally written for piano solo). 
Important contributions to the repertory 
of four-hand music are the arrangements 
of the organ works by Bach, for one or 
for two pianos. Cf. A. M. Henderson, in 
PM A lii; F. Niecks, in Z/M v; H. Miller, 
in MQ xxix, no. 4. 

Pianoforte. I. The pianoforte may be 
described briefly as a stringed instrument. 


[574] 



PIANOFORTE 


PIANOFORTE 

the strings being struck by hammers from all the strings, but from only that 

which are put into motion from keys by note or chord which is held in the mo- 

means of a connecting mechanism called ment in which it is put into action, leaving 

action. In the scientific classification, the other notes free for playing with or 

which is based upon the consideration of without the dampers. Thus it permits 

the sound-producing agent, it is classified the sustaining of single notes, e.g., a pedal- 

as a zither, i.e., as a stringed instrument point in the bass, but also permits numer- 

the strings of which are stretched over a ous coloristic effects which have been little 

board, the sounding-board [sec *Instru- exploited by modern composers, probably 

ments IV, A, i (b)]. Its most interesting owing to the fact that it is seldom found 

and most complicated part is the action on European instruments and may have 

which, in its present form, is a highly in- been unfamiliar to composers such as 

volved mechanism, in fact one of the Debussy or Ravel. One such effect is to 

triumphs of 19th-century technical in- depress the keys of, e.g., the C major chord 

genuity. Its complexity is caused mainly without producing a sound, then to de- 

by the so-called repetition, i.e., a mecha- press the sostenuto pedal, and after this 

nism which makes it possible to strike the to execute a scale-glissando (without the 

hammer for a second time (and more ordinary damper pedal), which will then 

times) before the key has returned to its resound as a C major chord, 

original position. It is this device which II. History, The origin of the piano- 
makes possible the rapid iteration of one forte or, at least, of its distinguishing de- 

and the same note. Passing over a de- vice, the hammer action, is usually traced 

tailed explanation of this mechanism with back to the activity of Pantaleon Heben- 

its various parts (hopper, check, escape- streit who toured Europe as a virtuoso of 

ment, etc.) which can be successfully the *pantalon, i.e., a large dulcimer played 

studied only from a model, the device to with hammers, like the cimbalom of the 

be mentioned next is the dampers, i.e., Hungarian gypsies [seealsounder’*^Echi- 

small lengthy pieces of wood covered with quierj. In fact, one of the various “in- 
felt which lie above the strings and which, ventors'’ of the pianoforte, Gottlieb 

by means of connecting wires, move up Schroter, admitted in 1717 that Heben- 

and down together with the action, thus streit ’s playing had inspired his invention 

making the string free for vibration in of a hammer mechanism which, however 

the moment in which the hammer strikes primitive, made it possible to play “soft 

and checking it when the key is released, and loud” on the harpsichord. Several 

Finally, the pianoforte has two (or fre- years earlier, however, in 1709, a much 

quently three) pedals, the damper pedal more perfect hammer mechanism had 

to the right, the soft pedal to the left, and been invented by Bartolommeo Cristofori 

the sostenuto pedal in the middle. The (1655-1731) of Florence, very likely 

^damper pedal, upon being depressed, without any knowledge of the perform- 

raises all the dampers, thus allowing the ances of Hebenstreit, who is not known 

strings to vibrate after the keys have been to have played in Italy. Cristofori’s ac- 

released. It therefore is, properly speak- tion, as well as that of the most famous of 

ing, a “non-damper pedal.” The soft early piano makers, Gottfried Silbermann 

pedal causes the entire keyboard, action — who evidently took up Cristofori’s 

and hammers, to shift a little to the left ideas — already had a hopper (escape- 

(hence the German name V erschiebung) ment), similar to the repetition of the 

so that the hammers strike only two in- modern piano, a feature which was abari- 

stead of, as normally, all the three strings doned by the later German makers until 

assigned to them [see ^Course] or, in the Johann Andreas Stein (1728-92) rein- 

lower registers, only one instead of two troduced it in 1770, giving a separate es- 

[see *Mute; *Una corde]. The sostenuto caper to each key, instead of a long rail 

pedal is an ingenious modification of the which had been used theretofore. It was 

damper pedal. It raises the dampers, not this action, known as German action or 

[575] 



PIANOFORTE 


PIANOFORTE MUSIC 


Viennese action^ which delighted Mozart 
when he visited Stein's workshop, in 1777. 
Under the hands of Stein's son-in-law, 
Johann Andreas Streicher (1761-1833), 
this became the typical Viennese instru- 
ment of the Hummel-period. It was sim- 
ilar in shape to the harpsichord, elegant 
in appearance as well as in sound, and 
had a very light action. 

In the meantime, another country had 
taken up the making of pianos, England. 
Here the instrument acquired, mainly 
under John Broadwood (1732-1812), 
various features which were destined to 
be of great consequence for its further de- 
velopment, and which separated it finally 
from its ancestor, the harpsichord. Among 
these was a much heavier structure, al- 
lowing for a greater tension of the strings 
which thus became more sonorous; also 
the two pedals of the present pianoforte 
(patent from 1783) ; and an action, known 
as English action^ which was much heav- 
ier than the Viennese action but also more 
expressive and dynamic. Small wonder 
that Beethoven much preferred his Broad- 
wood to the Viennese instruments. Around 
1800, piano makers experimented a good 
deal trying to introduce new shapes [see 
*GirafIe piano] and special devices oper- 
ated by stops or pedals (* Janizary stop; 
cf. R. Harding, “Experimental Piano- 
fortes," PM A, Ivii). At the same time 
important steps were made towards the 
modern pianoforte by the introduction of 
iron frames (first full cast-iron frame by 
A. Babcock, Boston, 1825) and by the in- 
vention (Seb. Erard, Paris, 1821) of the 
double escapement which causes the ham- 
mer to fall back immediately to an inter- 
mediate position, and to its final resting 
position only after the key is released. 
The last step in the evolution of the piano 
was the introduction of cross-stringingy 
i.c., the arrangement of the higher strings 
in the form of a fan, spreading over the 
largest part of the soundboard, and with 
the bass strings crossing them at a higher 
level. Cross-stringing was invented by 
Babcock around 1830, but was not gen- 
erally adopted until 1855 when Steinway 
and Sons of New York gave it its definite 
form. Modern attempts at improvement 


have been made mainly with regard to 
the keyboard [see ^Keyboard III]. See 
also *Pedalier; *Sostenente pianoforte; 
*Electronic musical instruments I (N<?o- 
Bechstein\ Solovox). 

Lit.: R. E. M. Harding, The Pianoforte 
(1933; bibl.); E. A. Wier, The Piano 
(1941); Ph. James, Early Keyboard In- 
struments , . ,to the Year 1820 (1930); E. 
Blom, T he Romance of the Piano ( 1928) ; 
L. Nalder, The Modern Piano (1927); 
W. Spillane, History of the American 
Pianoforte (1890); H. Brunner, Das 
Klavier\langideal Mozarts und die Kla- 
viere seiner Zeit (1933); R. Harding, 
“Experimental Pianofortes . . ." (PMA 
Ivii); id.y in KIMy 1930; C. Parrish, “Criti- 
cisms of the Piano when it was New" 
(MQ xxx). 

Pianoforte music. The literature prop- 
er for the pianoforte starts with the so- 
natas which dementi, Haydn, and Mo- 
zart wrote from c, 1775 on, and thereafter 
includes among its contributors practically 
all the great and lesser composers of the 
19th and 20th centuries. Nobody would 
think of excluding from this repertory 
the works of J. S. Bach although these 
were written for different instruments, 
the ^harpsichord and the ^clavichord. 
During the last decades there has been a 
noticeable increase of interest in the mu- 
sic of still earlier keyboard composers, 
and it is mainly on account of this tend- 
ency (which deserves all possible encour- 
agement) that the scope of the present 
article is extended to cover the entire rep- 
ertory of keyboard music, except that 
which, owing to its church affiliation, is 
clearly designed for the organ. Since, 
however, throughout the i6th and 17th 
centuries it is frequently impossible to 
draw a clear distinction between music 
for the organ, harpsichord, and clavichord, 
the article on *organ music should be 
consulted for additional information. 
Regarding the attempts to distinguish be- 
tween the repertories for the harpsichord 
and clavichord, see ^Keyboard music. 
For a related repertory see *Lute music. 

I. Renaissance (-1600). While most 
keyboard music written prior to 1600 be- 



PIANOFORTE MUSIC 


PIANOFORTE MUSIC 

longs primarily to the field of organ mu- (1627-93), Alessandro Poglietti 1683), 
sic [see *Organ music I], a special litera- and Johann Jacob Kuhnau (1660-1722) 

ture for the stringed instruments exists in contributed some amusing ^program 

the numerous dances of the i6th century, pieces, the last-named being particularly 

The earliest examples occur in the MS known for his (1700) and 

book of Kotter {c. 1515), in P. Attain- his attempts to transfer the trio-sonata to 

gnant’s Quatorze gaillards . . . (1529), and the harpsichord (Clavierubung ii, 1692). 

in certain English MSS of c, 1525 [see A large repertory of preludes, fugues, 

*Dump; ^Hornpipe]. Towards the end suites, toccatas, etc., exists in the works 

of the century a large repertory occurs in of numerous 17th-century German com- 

the books of the German * colorists. An- posers mentioned under *organ music II. 

other secular form of the period is the Bach’s compositions include such im- 

variations which figure prominendy in mortal works as the ^Inventions, the 

the repertory of the *virginalists who *Well-tempered Clavier, the English and 

were the first to develop an idiomatic French Suites, the ^Partitas, the Chro- 

style based on * uick ‘‘pianistic” figura- matic Fantasy and Fugue, the Italian 

tions (broken chord passages, parallel Concerto [see ^Concerto grosso], the 

thirds, quick scales, etc.). See also *Basse French Overture [see ^Overture II], and 
danse, ^Passamezzo, *Pavane; *Varia- the ^Goldberg Variations, 
tions IV. An important school of harpsichord 

II. Baroque (1600-1750). As in the composers (clavecinists) existed in France, 
preceding period, the pianistic literature extending from Chambonnieres (1602- 
consists mainly of dances, now arranged 72) to Rameau (1683-1764) [sec^French 

in ^suites, and of variations. Gradually music III]. Francois Couperin (1668- 

certain types of organ music, such as the 1733) created the pianistic ^character 

^toccata and the fugal forms (*ricercare, piece in ♦gallant style, a type which Ra- 

♦canzona, ♦capriccio, ♦fugue), take on meau endowed with startling traits of 

stylistic features which make them suit- ingenious characterization. In England 

able for the stringed keyboard instruments Henry Purcell (1658—95) and Handel 

also. In Italy we find, around 1600, a (1685-1759) made important contribu- 

school of composers working in Naples tions, mainly in the field of the suite. In 

who were the first to emphasize the harp- Italy the toccata took on features of a 

sichord over the organ. Antonio Valente somewhat superficial virtuosity with 

published, in 1576, an Intavolatura de Bernardo Pasquini (1637-1710) and Ales- 

cimbalOy and Giov. Maria Trabaci says, sandro Scarlatti (1659—1725), while Do- 

in his publication of 1615, that “the harp- menico Zipoli (b. 1675) pursued a more 

sichord is the sovereign of all the instru- serious line in his toccatas, fugues, and 

ments in the world, and upon it all music suites. The greatest Italian keyboard 

can be played easily” [cf. W. Apel, in composer of this period is Domenico 

MQ xxiv, 425]. These Neapolitan mas- Scarlatti (1685-1757) who wrote over 

ters form the transition to Frescobaldi 400 pieces, called sonatas, in which he cx- 

(1583-1643) whose numerous ♦partitas hibited a highly remarkable display of 
(variations) are outstanding in the pia- ingenuity, introducing special pianistic 
nistic literature of the Baroque. Fresco- devices such as the crossing of the hands 
baldi abandoned the strictly contrapuntal and extended rapid scales. His style was 
texture of the earlier period for a freer imitated by the Spanish padre Antonio 

and more idiomatic keyboard style in Soler (1729-83). A contemporary of 

which the voices arc allowed to pass out Scarlatti, Francesco Durante (1684- 

and enter freely [see ♦Freistimmigkeit]. i755)> represents, in his studii and eser^ 

His pupil Froberger ( 1616—67) went even cizi, the transition to the ♦Rococo style of 

farther in this direction, being influenced the i8th century. 

by the free style of French lute music III. Rococo (1730-80). While Bach 
(Denis Gaultier). Johann Kaspar Kerll was writing his sublime masterworks, the 

1577] 



PIANOFORTE MUSIC 


PIANOFORTE MUSIC 


apotheosis of a glorious tradition, other 
composers eagerly adopted the facile 
methods of the ^gallant style and pro- 
duced quantities of mediocre works which 
even today fill the volumes euphemisti- 
cally called “The Early Masters of the 
Piano.” Mainly Italian composers, such 
as Durante, Porpora, Antonio Rossi (fre- 
quently confused with Frescobaldi’s pupil 
Michelangelo Rossi), Paradisi, Galuppi, 
Grazioli, Sacchini, Rutini, wrote numer- 
ous sonatas which, however slight in 
quality, are historically important as the 
precursors of the classical sonata [see 
♦Sonata B, III; also ♦Haffner Collection], 
Padre Martini’s (1706-84) sonatas arc of 
a more serious nature, but suffer some- 
what from academic anemia. At the same 
time compositions of great significance 
were written by the sons of J. S. Bach. 
Philipp Emanuel’s sonatas were the im- 
mediate point of departure for Haydn, 
while those of Johann Christian served 
Mozart as a model. Wilhelm Friede- 
mann’s compositions (fugues, ♦polo- 
naises) remained without succession, but 
stand out for themselves as great, though 
entirely forgotten, masterworks of the 
pianistic literature. 

The close of this period marks the 
emergence of the pianoforte as the victori- 
ous rival of the harpsichord and the clavi- 
chord. The earliest known pieces for the 
pianoforte (though written in true harp- 
sichord style) are by Lodovico Giustini 
who, in 1732, published sonatas for the 
“cembalo di piano e forte detto volgara- 
mente dei martellati” (. . . “commonly 
called the one with hammers”) [cf. R. 
Harding, in ML xiii; new ed. by R. Hard- 
ing]. These, however, remained as iso- 
lated as Cristofori’s instrument [sec 
♦Pianoforte II] , and it was not until about 
40 years later that the pianoforte began its 
triumphal career. One of its first cham- 
pions was Johann Fr. Edelmann (1749- 
94) in Paris, dementi’s first sonatas of 
1773 arc perhaps the earliest pieces to 
rnskt use of the distinctive powers of the 
instrument. Of C. P. E. Bach’s six pub- 
lications “fiir Kenner und Liebhaber” the 
first (1779) is called “Scchs Clavier- 
Sonaten,” probably indicating an ad- 


libitum use of the three keyboard instru- 
ments, while the others (1780-87) ex- 
pressly call “fiirs Forte-piano.” On the 
other hand, it is interesting to note that 
the original editions of almost all the Bee- 
thoven sonatas up to op. 27 (including 
the Moonlight Sonata) bear the inscrip- 
tion “Pour le clavecin ou pianoforte,” an 
inscription for which the publishers ra- 
ther than the author would seem to be 
responsible [see ♦Harspichord II]. 

IV. Classicism (1780-1830). This, the 
greatest, period of piano music is too well 
known to be described here. Suffice it to 
point to some of the most obvious ad- 
vances in the exploitation of the resources 
of the instrument, such as the amazing 
degree of virtuosity attained in Beetho- 
ven’s Waldstein Sonata, Appassionata, 
and Piano Concertos, the transcendental 
technique of his latest sonatas (op. io6ff) 
which narrow-minded virtuosos have 
termed “unpianistic,” and the “orchestral 
coloring” which makes its appearance in 
Schubert’s great, but little known, sonatas. 
Beethoven’s Bagatelles mark the begin- 
ning of an important type of 19th-century 
piano music, the ♦character piece. 

V. Romanticism (1830-1910). The 
remark made at the beginning of the pre- 
vious paragraph applies here too. The 
piano pieces by Schumann, Chopin, Liszt, 
Brahms, form the standard repertoire of 
the pianists and, indeed, overshadow 
many other pieces which would be equally 
or more worthy of their attention (par- 
ticularly Schubert). Mendelssohn, who 
was the most favored composer of former 
generations, has fallen into a not entirely 
deserved eclipse from which he seems to 
emerge again. Weber’s sonatas also could 
be put to use as a relief from the monotony 
of our pianistic programs. 

Around 1870 the national composers 
began to make their novel contribution 
to the pianistic repertory, with Edvard 
Grieg as the pioneer. Relatively easy to 
play and yet highly effective, his pieces as 
well as those of Dvofak, Smetana, Mac- 
Dowcll, Albeniz, Granados, Falla, are 
greatly favored by players and listeners. 
A contrary statement can be made with 
regard to Max Reger and Ferruccio Bu- 


[578] 



PIANOFORTE MUSIC 


PIANOFORTE PLAYING 

soni. Cyclopic compositions such as the Links between Cabezon and Frescobaldi” 
former’s Variations on a Theme by Bach (MQ xxiv). See also ^Colorists; *Virgin- 
or the latter’s Fantasia Contrappuntistica, alists. — To II: G. Pannain, Le Origini e 
though extremely interesting, make re- lo sviluppo delV arte pianistica in Italia 
quirements on the technical and mental dal i^oo fino al ly^o circa (1917; also 
capacities of the player which are not in in RMI xxi to xxii); L. Oesterle, \Early 
relation to their appeal to the general Keyboard Music, 2 vols.; R. Buch- 
public. Alexander Scriabin’s Etudes and mayer, 1 [Aus historischen Klavierl^on- 
Sonatas fall largely into the same category, zerten, 5 vols.; P. Epstein, \Alte Meister- 
Debussy, on the other hand, was highly stuc\e, 4 vols.; W. Apel, \Concord Clas- 
successful in developing a pianistic style sics for the Piano (1938); G. Abraham, 

of great attractiveness and in exploiting “Handel’s Clavier Music” {ML xvi, no. 

entirely novel resources of the instrument 4); J. S. Shedlock, “The Harpsichord 
[see ^Impressionism] . His coloristic Music of Al. Scarlatti” ( 5 /M vi); Ch. van 
technique has left its imprint on the works den Borren, “La Musique de clavier au 

of Ravel as well as of numerous other XVIIe siecle” {RM ii, no. 6). — To III: 

composers of the 20th century. F. Torrefranca, Le Origini italiani del 

VI. New Music {i()io-). At the outset romanticismo musicale (1930); R. Hard- 

of this period stand Arnold Schdnberg’s ing, “The Earliest Pianoforte Music” 

Drei Klavierstiicke (1909) the *atonality (ML xiii, no. 2); G. de St. Foix, “Les 

of which shocked the musical world of premiers pianistes parisiens” {RM iii-vii, 

the 1910’s, as did also the miniature form ix); C. Parrish, The Early Pianoforte . . . 
of his Sechs kleine Klavierstiicke ( 1 91 1 ). (diss. Harvard 1939); G. Benvenuti, 

The pianistic production of the ensuing '\Cembalisti italiani del sett€cento\ M. S. 

three decades reflects, of course, the gen- Kastner, '\Cravistas Portuguezes. — To 

eral trends which characterize this ex- IV: H. Abert, “Joseph Haydn’s Klavier- 

tremely tumultuous development and werk” {ZMW ii); id., “Joseph Haydn’s 

which are outlined in the article on *New Klaviersonaten” {ZMW iii); John P. 

music. On the other hand, this produc- Porte, “Mozart’s Pianoforte Works” {ML 

tion affords a very convenient survey over vii, no. 4). — To V: K. Westphal, “Der 

the confusing maze of experiments and romantische Klavierstil” {DM xxii, no. 

tendencies [see Lit. VI, W. Apel]. The 2). — To F/; W. Apel, “Die neue Klavier- 

recent sonatas of Hindemith stand out as musik” {DM xxiv, nos. 3 and 7); E. J. 

works of superior artistic significance. Dent, “The Pianoforte and its Influence 

See also ^Sonata B, IV. on Modern Music” {MQ ii). — See also 

Lit.: H. Westerby, The History of under *Organ music; *Sonata; *Suitc; 

Pianoforte Music (1924); C. G. Hamil- ♦Concerto; ^Character piece, 
ton. Piano Music — its Composers and 

Characteristics (1925); M. Seiffert, Ge- Pianoforte playing. The inclusion in 
schichte der Klaviermusi\ i (up to 1750; this Dictionary of an article on piano 
K.Vxosmz, Handbuch der Klavier- playing (while similar topics, such as 
literatur (i907ff); G. Tagliapietra, fAn- “Violin playing,” are omitted) is justified 
thologie alter und neuer Musi\ fiir Kla- by the general interest in this subject as 
vier, 18 vols. (German ed. by W. Apel, well as by the fact that the technique of the 
1934). — To I: O. Kinkeldey, Or gel und piano, more than that of any other instru- 
Klavier im 16. Jahrhundert (1910); W. ment, is sufficiently “rational” to permit 
Merian, fD<?r Tanz in den deutschen of a summary description. Although 
Tabulaturbuchern (1927); H. Halbig, there exist various points of contention 
'\Klaviertdnze des 16. ]ahrhunderts\ W. amongst professional artists and teachers 
Apel, ^Musi\ aus fruher Zeit, 2 vols. as to just how the piano should be played, 
(1934); id., “Early Spanish Music ...” a vast field of knowledge has been sys- 
{MQ xx); id., “Early German Keyboard tematically organized so that we arc able 
Music” {MQ xxiii); id., “Neapolitan to ascertain many basic and universally 

[579I 



PIANOFORTE PLAYING 


PIANOFORTE PLAYING 


accepted laws which govern the art of tion of the muscles which brings the 
pianism. weight of the arm into play. 

Considering this situation it is surpris- 11 . The Basic Piano Technique, In ad- 
ing that among the rank and file of piano dition to the above-described actions there 
teachers (and, as a consequence, of piano is still another method of producing a 
players) there are still a great number who sound, which might be characterized as a 
are ignorant of some of these basic prin- ‘‘minimized arm action”: the finger is 
ciples, particularly of those which have placed immediately on the key, the arm is 
been developed and accepted within the slightly raised and then relaxed as in the 
last fifty or seventy years. The subsequent visible arm action. The advantage of this 
explanations are chiefly meant as a con- method is that it produces a “singing” 
tribution towards correcting this deplor- tone and allows for a minute control of 
able and dangerous state of affairs. dynamic nuances such as is not obtained 

I. The Pianistic Apparatus, The play- otherwise. The usefulness of this method 
ing apparatus of the pianist is a flexible is by no means restricted to the production 
system of levers connected by four joints, of single tones, as might seem to be the 
as follows (joints in parentheses): fingers case. It can be used for the most rapid 
— (knuckles) — hand — (wrist) — fore- passages if combined with a “minimized 
arm — (elbow) — upper arm — (shoul- finger action” (the fingers keeping in con- 
der) — torso. As a consequence there are stant touch with the depressed and rising 
four different ways of producing a sound: keys) and with a process of transferring 
(a) by moving the fingers from the knuck- the weight of the arm from one finger to 
les; (b) by moving the hand from the the next. This “close technique” (which, 
wrist; (c) by moving the forearm from by the way, is much easier learned than 
the elbow; (d) by moving the upper arm described) can be said to be the basic 
from the shoulder. The first of these, the technique of truly accomplished piano 
finger action^ is, of course, by far the most playing. 

important and actually forms the very It is only by this method of playing that 
basis of piano playing. The second {wrist melodies can be made to sound as a “liv- 
action) is useful for the playing of pas- ing organism,” rather than as the dead 
sages in light and quick staccato, e.g., sum of so many single notes, as is the case 
rapid octaves. The elbow is important if the pure finger action is used. If com- 
mainly because it permits of a rocking bined with a rotating movement of the 
action of the forearm to be used for hand, it renders easy the execution of 
tremolos and •Alberti bass figures. In rapid figures (e.g., quick turns) which 
the older school a straight downward are difficult and unsatisfactory if played 
movement of the forearm was taught by the fingers alone. In fact, all the other 
under the name of “elbow staccato,” but movements of the levers and joints easily 
this is of practically no value since it and naturally find their proper place 
causes the fingers to make a wasteful within the basic frame of this technique, 
circular movement. Such waste is elimi- Thus the stiffness which so frequently 
nated in the last method of playing, attends the older methods of playing is 
known as arm action, in which the whole eliminated at the very outset, 
arm is moved from the shoulder, thus Although the systematic teaching of 
enabling the hand to rise vertically above the close-finger technique and of arm- 
thc keys and to drop down from a lesser weight methods is of a relatively recent 
or greater distance. This action is im- date, there can be no doubt that the great 
portant in modern piano music for the pianists of the earlier periods employed it 
execution of powerful fortissimo chords, to a large extent. Particularly informa- 
It should be noticed that the arm action tivc in this respect is the description which 
differs from the others in that these in- Forkel gives of J. S. Bach’s playing {Ueber 
volve muscular activity while the former Johann Sebastian Bachs Leben, Kunst 
is properly made through a passive rclaxa- und Kunstwerkc, 1802; new cd. 1925, pp. 

[580] 



PIANOFORTE PLAYING 

28fl): “According to Bach’s manner . . . 
the five fingers are curved so that . . . each 
of them is placed immediately above its 
respective key. This position requires 
that the finger should not fall down on 
the key nor (as is frequently done) be 
thrown^ but merely should be carried 
through the movement with a certain 
feeling of security and mastery.” 

The discovery of the arm-weight play- 
ing and of its revolutionizing possibilities 
has led certain pedagogues to an extreme 
reaction against the pure finger method of 
the older school. Such a radical point of 
view is, however, extremely dangerous. 
Finger development is a most important 
factor, after all, in piano playing, and the 
finger exercises of the old school still have 
their legitimate place in modern piano 
instruction, although their ultimate pur- 
pose is different. While formerly they 
were considered as representing the prop- 
er method of piano playing, their main 
function within the new system is to de- 
velop that independence and strength of 
the fingers which enables them to support 
the weight of the arm and to direct it into 
the individual key. There are, however, 
cases in which a more active participation 
of the fingers (i.e., acting from a certain 
distance) is desirable, mainly in order to 
bring out the crispness and brilliancy re- 
quired by Mozart, or the dry and percus- 
sive sound called for in modern music of, 
e.g., Bartdk, Hindemith, Stravinsky. The 
trill is perhaps the only pianistic figure 
which calls for a pure finger action. Its 
brilliant execution is, therefore, one of the 
most difficult feats of piano playing. 

III. The Wrist, The proper use of the 
wrist in piano playing is often neglected. 
One of the most important playing con- 
ditions to be set up is that of the supple, 
flexible wrist with prehensile fingers. 
These conditions are to a certain degree 
opposed to each other, but their smooth 
combination and cooperation are indis- 
pensable in piano playing. One of the 
most useful functions of the wrist is its 
role in shaping the musical phrase. In 
general one may follow the principle of 
beginning the phrase with the wrist at 
keyboard level, gradually lifting the wrist 


PIANOFORTE PLAYING 

as the phrase develops, and dropping it 
again as the phrase comes to an end. With 
a tapering phrase, however, the wrist 
should be lifted towards the end. Side- 
ways motions are another extremely im- 
portant function of the wrist, to be used 
mainly for widely spaced broken-chord 
figures, as, e.g., in Chopin’s A-flat Etude. 
Here the principle is to move the wrist 
(almost ahead of the fingers) in such a 
way that each finger, if called into ac- 
tion, forms the straight prolongation of 
the arm. In playing chords the wrist as- 
sumes the function of a shock absorber. 
Sometimes a stiff wrist, resulting in a per- 
cussive and harsh effect, may be desired, 
but as a rule the wrist should be flexible 
and elastic in order to make the sound full 
and sonorous. In octave-playing the wrist 
may be employed in one of two ways. 
Light, quick octaves are executed by a 
pure up-and-down movement of the flex- 
ible wrist (particularly for octave repeti- 
tions on the same keys) . Octave passages 
in f or ff call for arm action combined 
with a fixed wrist. 

IV. The Sense of Touch, Many diffi- 
culties encountered in elementary piano 
instruction result from the failure of the 
teacher to develop the pupil’s sense of 
touch as applied to the keys of his instru- 
ment. Beginners, trying to find a note, 
fall into the habit of looking at the key- 
board, so that their eyes arc constantly 
shifting up and down between the music 
sheet and the keyboard. The numerous 
interruptions which mar the playing of 
otherwise promising students arc a com- 
mon fault resulting from this habit. Told 
by the teacher to play without such in- 
terruptions they fall into the even more 
detrimental habit of playing from mem- 
ory, usually in a haphazard way which is 
neither fish nor flesh. The only remedy to 
this deplorable situation is to show the 
pupil how to play “blind,” i.e., to find the 
intervals (third, fifth, octave, etc.) by 
using his sense of touch, without being 
allowed to look at the keys. Wide jumps 
(which, for this very reason, should be 
avoided in the first two or three years of 
piano playing) are an exception to an 
otherwise infallible rule. How much a 

[581] 



PIANOFORTE PLAYING 


PIANOFORTE PLAYING 

fully developed sense of touch contributes ess of mental preparation which antici- 
to facilitate sight-reading need hardly be pates the actual playing of the fingers, 
pointed out [see *Sight-reading III]. The “blind playing” described in a previ- 

V. Touch and Tone Quality, The word ous paragraph forms the first step in this 
“touch” is widely used in piano teaching direction. Of basic importance in the 
in order to denote (somewhat vaguely, no mastering of difficult passages is the “posi- 
doubt) the physied approach to the key tioning” of the hand, i.e., an analysis of 
as the conditioning factor to obtain a vari- the passage as to the changing positions of 
ety of tone qualities, ranging from the the hand, and the use of preparatory “in- 
soft and lyrical to the harsh and percus- between” movements which lead the hand 
sive. The basic idea of the theory of touch to the new position while the fingers are 
is that piano playing permits not only of still occupied in the old one. Another 
dynamic gradations of sound (pp, p, realization of the same basic principle is 
mf, etc.), but, within a given intensity, of the so-called “long hand,” involving the 
additional variations of timbre, so that a “pre”-formation of wide skips such as are 
mf may be either “lyrical,” or “decisive,” frequently encountered in the accompani- 
or “percussive,” etc. Whether this is pos- ment of the left hand [see remark under 
sible or not is a hotly contested problem ^Technique]. 

among modern pianists. The affirmative VII. Historical Conspectus. Interesting 
group holds that the percussive noise ac- information regarding the technique of 
company ing the inception of tone attack the 16th-century keyboard (clavichord, 
determines its quality (timbre) and pro- organ) players is contained in Tomas 
poses that, by varying the degree of de Santa Maria’s Arte de taner fantasia 
finger action, different timbres can be (1565; cf. O. Kinkeldey, Orgel und Kla- 
produced in each dynamic register. The vier in der MusiJ{ des 16. JahrhundertSy 
negative group (“a piano key struck by 1910) and in Girolamo Diruta’s 11 Tran- 
Paderewski and the same key struck by silvano (1593, 1609). Extremely difficult 
an umbrella sound absolutely the same”) pianistic passages occur in the works of 
holds that no such variation is possible the ^virginal composers, particularly those 
with the single sound and that the varie- of John Bull (rapid scales in parallel 
tics of timbre which are clearly noticeable thirds, iterated notes, etc.). J. S. Bach 
in the playing of accomplished pianists played a leading part in the development 
result only from the relationship of vary- of the modern system of fingering [see 
ing intensities produced either simul- ^Fingering]. His contemporary Dome- 
taneously (as in chords) or successively nico Scarlatti (1685-1757) explored the 
^^(as in melodies). At any rate, the per- virtuoso resources of the harpsichord to 
ipeption of tone-quality, even if not tenable the fullest (crossing of the hands, wide 
from the scientific point of view, should skips, far-flung arpeggios), while C. P. E. 
be retained as a mental factor of prime Bach, in his Versuch uber die wahre Art 
importance. While it may not have a de das Klavier zu spielen (1753), treated 
facto basis, it has an “as-if” value which chiefly the clavichord as a melodic in- 
no piano player can afford to neglect. strument. 

VI. Piano Playing and Brains, The The “old school” of piano playing (em- 
picture of modern pianism would be sorely phasis on finger technique) is represented 
incomplete without pointing to the im- by Muzio Clementi (1752-1832), Johann 
portance of certain mental processes which Nepomuk Hummel (1778-1837), and 
go hand in hand with the purely technical Carl Czerny (1791-1857). Great pianists 
methods. “Brains as well as hands play such as Beethoven, Chopin, Liszt, Rubin- 
on the piano” [cf. Th. Fielden, in PM A stein were, of course, in full command of 
lix] is a truism which should find a place all the advanced methods of modern 
on the front page of every pianist’s study pianism, but Ludwig Deppe (1828-90) 
book. Most of this mental training con- was the first to point out the importance 
sists of a “look-ahead” attitude, of a proc- of a deliberate use of the arm and its 

[582] 



PIANOLA 


weight [cf. Amy Fay, Music Study in 
Germany^ 1880]. Theodor Leschctitzky 
(1830-1915) established the methodical 
training in the new style of playing. Ru- 
dolf Breithaupt (b. 1873) introduced the 
principles of relaxation, Rollung (rolling 
and rotating movements of the hand), 
positioning, coordination of finger and 
arm, not without a dangerous tendency 
towards underestimating the importance 
of finger training. The same statement 
applies to the modern Relaxation School, 
represented mainly by Tobias Matthay 
(b. 1858) who, by his one-sided emphasis 
on freedom and suppleness, has to some 
extent discredited a good cause. Willy 
Bardas (1887-1924) made important con- 
tributions towards our understanding of 
the mental processes involved in piano 
playing. See ^Fingering. 

Lit.: H. Klose, Die Deppesche Lehre 
des Klavierspiels (1886); M. Brce, The 
Groundwork, of the Leschetitzky Method 
(1905); R. M. Breithaupt, Natural Piano- 
technic (1909; German original ed. 1905); 
F. A. Steinhausen, Ueber die physiolo- 
gischen Fehler und die Umgestaltung der 
Klaviertechnik (1905); T. A. Matthay, 
The Act of Touch in all its Diversity 
(1903, ’24); id,^ Visible and Invisible in 
Pianoforte Technique (1932); W. Bardas, 
Zur Psychologie der Klaviertechnik 
(1927); O. R. Ortmann, The Physiologi- 
cal Mechanics of Piano Technique 
(1929); M. Levinskaya, The Levins^aya 
System of Pianoforte Technique and 
Tone-colour . . . (1930); Arnold Schultz, 
The Riddle of the Pianist's Finger . . . 
(1936); Y. Bowen, Pedalling the Mod- 
ern Pianoforte. (1936); C. A. Mar- 
tienssen. Die individuelle Klaviertechnik 
. . . (1930); Th. Fielden, “The History of 
the Evolution of Pianoforte Technique” 
(PM A lix). 

Pianola. See ^Mechanical instruments 
IV. 

Piano-violin. See *Sostenente piano- 
forte. 

Piatti [It.]. Cymbals. 

Pibgorn (pibcorn). See ^Clarinet IV; 
’•^Reed 11 . Cf. H. L. Balfour, in Journal 
of the Anthropological Institute xx, 142. 


PIEN 

Pibroch [Anglicized form of Gaelic 
piobaireachd, pipe tune]. An interesting 
type of Scotch bagpipe music, consisting 
of highly ornamented variations on a 
theme called urlar. They were formerly 
written down in a curious notation called 
canntaireachd, in which syllables such as 
‘ em, en, dari, dili . . .” denote tones or 
stereotyped motives. Cf. T. P. Grant, in 
ML vi, no. I ; A. Mackay, A Collection of 
Ancient Piobaireachd (1907). 

Picardy third [F. tierce de Picardie]. 
The major third as used for the final 
chord of a composition in a minor key. 
This practice originated around 1500 
when, for the first time, the third was 
admitted in the final chord of a piece. 
(The statement, found in some recent ref- 
erence books, that the major third was “a 
common idiom from the beginning of 
harmonic composition, about A.D. 1000” 
is erroneous since prior to 1500 the final 
chord was practically always without the 
third, consisting of root, fifth, and octave 
only [see *Cadence].) When, around 
1500, the third was admitted into the final 
chord, the major variety was preferred, 
probably because, from the point of view 
of contemporary theory, it is more con- 
sonant than the minor [see ^Consonance 
and dissonance]. The picardy third con- 
tinued to be used till the end of the Ba- 
roque period (c. 1750). No plausible ex- 
planation for the name “tierce de Picar- 
die” which occurs for the first time in 
J. J. Rousseau's Dictionnaire de musique 
(1764) can be given. 

Piccolo [It., small]. Short for piccolo 
flute, see *Flute I (b). 

Pickelflote [G.]. Older name for the 
piccolo flute. The modern name is Kleine 
Flote. 

Piedi [It., feet]. See under ♦Ballata. 

Pien. In ^Chinese music pien denotes 
certain degrees of the scale which are con- 
sidered as subordinate in importance to 
others and which, therefore, are treated as 
mere ornamental or passing tones. These 
are the two “leading-tones” of the diatonic 
scale, that is, e and b, both of which form 


1 583] 



PIENO 

a semitone upwards. They represent later 
additions to the original pentatonic scale 
of Chinese music, c-d-f-g-a-c'. The 
term is also used by modern writers with 
reference to other musical provinces, c.g., 
to plainsong, in which the leading-tones 
frequently appear as auxiliary degrees. 
See, however, ^Gregorian chant V (c). 

Pieno [It.]. Full. E.g., organa pieno^ 
full organ; a voce piena, with full voice. 

Pietoso [It.]. Kindly, sympathetic. 

Pilfero [It.]. Old term for various pop- 
ular Italian wind instruments such as the 
shawm, fife, bagpipe, all of which were 
used by the shepherds. Hence, the name 
pifferari for the rustic people who, in the 
i8th century, went to Rome every Christ- 
mas morning to play there in imitation of 
the Biblical shepherds. See ^Pastorale. 

Pince. See *Mordent. 

Pines of Rome. See ^Symphonic poem 
IV. 

P’ip’a, A Chinese short lute, with the 
neck leading into the body, in the shape 
of a bottle. It has four silk strings, tuned 
variously, and twelve or more frets the 
upper four of which have the form of 
convex ledges. It is used today chiefly by 
street singers and beggars. The early form 
of the Chinese lute is represented by a 
Japanese instrument, the biwa, which 
was introduced into Japan as early as the 
17th century. This instrument has re- 
tained a much higher position than the 
Chinese p’ip’a and, as a consequence, is 
played with great refinement and artistic 
perfection. To withstand the strong 
blows of the plectrum {batsi) a band of 
leather or, in smaller instruments, of lac- 
quer is laid across the soundboard. It has 
only the four ledges of the p’ip’a, without 
the additional inlaid frets. The delicate 
trill of the strings vibrating against these 
ledges is a characteristic feature of biwa 
playing. Cf. SaHMI, iSpff. Illustration 
on p. 413. 

Pipe, (i) A small instrument of the re- 
corder type which was held and played 
with the left hand only, while the right 


PITCH 

hand played the tabor, a diminutive drum. 
The playing of the “pipe and tabor” [F. 
galoubet and ^tambourin\ Sp. flaviol and 
tamborino] was popular as early as the 
13th century, as is shown by the famous 
miniatures of the Cantigas-MSS of the 
Escorial [illustration in GD iv, 184; ii, 
260]. It was the usual accompaniment 
to the *farandole and to the English 
*Morris dance, and is still used for the 
Spanish *sardana. — (2) Generic name 
either for all the *wind instruments, or 
for certain classes, e.g., the wood winds, 
or the flutes, or the pipes of the organ, or 
primitive instruments in the shape of a 
simple tube. 

Pique [F.]. See *Bowing (d). 

Piston. I.e., piston valves [see ^Valves]. 

Pitch, (i) [F. accorde; G. Tonhohe; It. 
intonazione]. The location of a musical 
sound in the tonal scale, proceeding from 
low to high, comparable to the tempera- 
ture which indicates the location of a body 
in the thermal scale proceeding from cold 
to warm. The exact determination of 
pitch is by the frequency (number of vi- 
brations) of the sound; see ^Acoustics I. 
[Scientifically speaking, pitch, as the 
physiological sensation of acuteness and 
gravity, depends also to a small degree 
upon other factors (e.g., intensity) which 
are, however, negligible from the musical 
point of view; cf. Stevens and Davis, 
Hearing (1938).] 

(2) [F. diapason\ G. Kammerton, Stim- 
mung] It. diapason^. The absolute pitch 
of one specific note, standardized for the 
purpose of obtaining identical pitches on 
all instruments. The present-day stand- 
ard of pitch is a' = 440 (double) vibrations 
in the United States, 435 in Europe. The 
latter pitch, known as International pitch, 
Concert pitch, New Philharmonic pitch. 
Diapason normal [V,],Kammerton [G.], 
was fixed by the Paris Academy in 1858 
and was internationally adopted at a con- 
ference held at Vienna in 1889. 

Prior to this agreement there existed a 
confusing variety of pitches, and the ques- 
tion of pitch has become a real problem 
particularly in connection with the works 


[584] 



PITCH 


PITCH NAMES 


of Bach who frequently had to transpose 
his orchestral and choral parts on account 
of the different tuning of the organs in 
different churches, or who had to score 
wood-wind parts in, e.g., C while the parts 
for the organ, voices, and strings were 
scored in A (for the voices and strings a 
different scoring was obviously unneces- 
sary since these could adapt themselves to 
the pitch of the organ). These discrepan- 
cies were caused by the fact that, through- 
out the Baroque period, different pitches 
were in use for different ensembles, name- 
ly the Kammerton (chamber pitch) for 
domestic instrumental music, the Chorton 
(choir pitch, organ pitch) for church or- 
gans and, consequently, for sacred choral 
music, and the Cornett-ton which the 
town-musicians used for their brass in- 
struments. The confusion in this matter 
has been greatly increased by numerous 
erroneous or one-sided statements in mod- 
ern writings which usually concern them- 
selves with terms rather than with facts 
[see, e.g., the contradictory statements in 
RiMLy 316 and 856] . By far the clearest 
account is found in N. Bessaraboff’s 
Ancient European Musical Instruments 
(1941), pp. 357ff, 377f, and 442. Follow- 
ing his suggestion, the different pitches 
are represented here by keys (disregarding 
microtonic deviations), the standard pitch 
of the present day being represented by 
the key of C. The pitches used during the 
Baroque period and the various names by 
which they were referred to appear from 
the following tabulation: 

Practorius Common 

{Organographiay designation after 
1619) Practorius 

Bb Tertia minorc Ticf Kammerton 

B Chorton Hoch Kammerton 

Cj^ Kammerton Chorton 

D Cornett-ton Cornett-ton 

(The designations of the left column arc used 
subsequently.) 

The Hoch Kammerton must be regard- 
ed as the “standard instrumental pitch” 
from 1600 to c. 1820. Thus, Bach’s in- 
strumental compositions as well as the 
symphonies of Haydn, Mozart, and Bee- 
thoven sounded a semitone lower than 
they are performed today [see reference 


under * Absolute pitch]. On the other 
hand, his organ works and cantatas 
(which involved the participation of the 
organ) sounded a semitone or even a 
whole-tone higher than today. Following 
is a list of some characteristic data cover- 
ing the period from c, 1500 to 1850; 



Pitch 

Date 

Source 

A a 

' = 377 

1511 

Arnold Schlick’s “low or- 
gan*’ 

Bb 

374 

1700 

Lille, Organ of the Hos- 
pice Comtesse 

393 

1713 

Strasbourg, Silbermann 
organ 

B 

422 

1751 

Handel’s tuning fork 


422 

1780 

Mozart’s tuning fork 


423 

1618 

Practorius’ Chor-ton 


427 

1811 

Paris, Grand opera 

C 

440 

1834 

Scheibler (Stuttgart pitch) 


446 

1856 

Paris, Grand opera 

c# 

475 

1618 

Praetorius’ Kammerton 

D 

503 

1511 

Arnold Schlick’s “high 
organ’’ 


506 

1495 

Halberstadt organ 

E 

563 

1636 

Mersenne’s Ton de cham- 
bre 


It may be noted that recently the ac- 
curacy of Ellis’ calculations of the Halber- 
stadt organ and of Schlick’s pitches has 
been questioned. According to R. Ken- 
dall, Schlick’s “high organ” was a quarter- 
tone below present-day pitch (r. 435) 
while his “low organ” pitch was merely 
theoretical. 

Lit.; A. J. Ellis, The History of Musical 
Pitch (1880; also in Journal of the Society 
of ArtSy 1880) ; N. Bessaraboff [see above] ; 
R. Kendall, “Notes on Arnold Schlick” 
(AM ix). 

Pitch names. I. Following is a tabula- 
tion of the English, German, French, and 
Italian names for the tones of an octave: 


English: 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

A 

B 

German: 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

A 

H 

French: 

ut 

re 

mi 

fa 

sol 

la 

si 

Italian: 

do 

re 

mi 

fa 

sol 

la 

si 

English: 

C-sharp 


C-flat 




German: cis ces 

French: utdi^sc utbemol 

Italian: do diesis dobemollc 


English: C-double-sharp C-double-flat 

German: cisis ccses 

French: ut double-dicse ut doublc-b^mol 

Italian: do doppio diesis do doppio bcmolle 

N.B. The German terminology denotes a 
sharp by the suffix -is, a flat by the suflSx 


[585] 



PITCH PIPE 

-cs, a double-sharp by -isis, and a double- 
flat by -cscs. Irregular formations are: By 
i.e., B-flat, instead of Hes; Esy i.c., E-flat, 
instead of Ees; As, i.e., A-flat, instead of 
Aes. Note, particularly, that the English 
B is in German H (pronounced ha), and 
that the English B-flat is in German B. 

II. As regards the indication of differ- 
ent octaves, there exists, unfortunately, 
no uniform practice. The accompanying 
table shows the system employed in this 
book and most widely used elsewhere (i), 
together with two others, (2), and (3). 
The chief source of confusion arises from 
the fact that some writers designate mid- 


PLAIN-CHANT MUSICAL 
Pivot chord. See under ^Modulation. 

Pizzicato [It., plucked; abbr. pizz.]. In 
violin- (cello-) playing, indication that the 
string is to be plucked with the finger, as 
regularly in guitars, harps, etc. Early in- 
stances of this technique occur in Reinhold 
Reiser’s Adonis (1697), and in Handel’s 
operas Agrippina (1709) and 11 Pastor 
Fido (1712). Paganini introduced the 
virtuoso technique of plucking the strings 
with the left hand, in alternation or simul- 
taneously with bowed tones. 

Placido [It.]. Peaceful. 



die c (the C in the middle of the key- 
board) by c', others by c. The method 
(3) is, perhaps, the simplest and most 
logical; however, it has not been widely 
accepted. Cf. R. W, Young, in Journal of 
Musicology i. 

For other systems of pitch designation, 
see *Solmization, ^Letter notation. 

Pitch pipe. A device used since the 
1 8th century as an aid in tuning instru- 
ments. It consists of a wooden pipe with 
a movable stopper which, if pushed out 
or in, emits sounds of various pitches 
which are indicated on a graduated scale. 
It was largely discarded after the intro- 
duction of the tuning fork. 

Piu [It.]. More; e.g., piu allegro, quick- 
er. Piuttosto allegro, rather quick. 

Piva [It.], (i) Ancient name for the 
•bagpipe, shawm, or similar instruments. 
— (2) An early 16th-century dance in 
quick triple meter, apparently an imita- 
tion of music played on the instrument 
piva. Dalza’s lute book of 1508 (Petrucci, 
Intavolatura de lauto, iv) contains several 
‘‘suites” consisting of pavane, saltarello, 
and piva. 


Plagal cadence [G. Plagalschluss], 
The cadence with the subdominant pre- 
ceding the tonic: IV-I. This cadence, 
also known as Amen-cadence because of 
its traditional use for the “Amen” at the 
end of hymns, was prominent in early 
music (15th, 1 6th centuries), became ob- 
solete or archaic during the i8th and 19th 
centuries, but begins once more to play an 
important role in contemporary music, 
particularly in the works of Hindemith. 
This revival is concomitant with the mod- 
ern aversion to the leading tone which is 
the characteristic note of the authentic 
cadence. See •Cadence. 

Plagalis, plagius [L., from Gr. plagios, 
slanting, i.e., collateral]. A plagal mode. 
E.g., primus plagius, first plagal mode. 
See *Church modes. 

Plainchant. Same as •plainsong, ♦Gre- 
gorian chant. 

Plain-chant musical [F.]. A 17th- 
century French type of plainsong, char- 
acterized by the use of more “expressive” 
melodic progressions than are found in 
Gregorian chant, of accidentals (leading 
tone), and of strictly measured note-values 


[586] 


PLAINSONG 


PLAINSONG NOTATION 


(half- and quarter-notes) in the free ar- 
rangement of “measured rhythm” [see 
’"‘Rhythm II (h)]. The rhythmic prin- 
ciples used in the plain-chant musical are 
obviously derived from the *vers mesure 
of the 1 6th century. The plain-chant mu- 
sical started around 1620 and spread all 
over France in the 17th and i8th centuries, 
but is novv^ extinct. Henry Dumont 
{Messes en plainchant, 1669), Bourgoing, 
Chastelain, Nivers, wrote many melodies 
(all monophonic) in this style [see illus- 
tration]. Cf. A. Gastou^ in TG ix, 8iff; 



Kyrle 


id., in Cours ...de chant grSgorien (1917), 
pp. 84!!; H. Quittard, Henry du Mont 
(1906), pp. i75fl. 

Plainsong. The term is derived from 
L. *cantus planus, a 13th-century name 
for the ^Gregorian chant. It is used syn- 
onymously with the latter, but also in a 
wider sense, as a general denomination 
for the ancient style of monophonic and 
rhythmically free melody which is the 
common possession of the various Western 
liturgies (Gregorian chant, * Ambrosian 
chant, *Gallican chant, ^Mozarabic 
chant) as well as of those of the East 
(Byzantine chant, Syrian chant, Arme- 
nian chant). It may also be applied to 
similar bodies of non-Christian liturgical 
music (Jewish, Hindu) in order to indi- 
cate that this music is neither harmonic 
nor strictly measured. 

Plainsong notation. This term is used 
here as the English equivalent of G. Cho- 
ralnotation {Choral, i.e., Gregorianischer 
Choral, i.e., plainsong). Properly speak- 
ing, both terms denote the notation of 
Gregorian chant, i.e., the notation in 
*neumes. Actually, however, the German 
term is used preferably with reference to 
a considerably later stage of monophonic 
notation, starting around 1200 when the 
four-line staff had been generally accepted 
and the neumes had been replaced by those 
square-shaped forms which are still used 
today in the liturgical books [see ’•"Nota- 


tion IT, ^Neumes II ] . The rhythmic prob- 
lems of this system are the same as those 
presented by the neumes [see ^Gregorian 
chant VI], unless melodies of a more re- 
cent date (hymns, sequences) are consid- 
ered or the possibility of a deteriorated 
practice is taken into account. Cf. WoHN 
i, 146-171. 

The term Choralnotation is also used 
with reference to the large repertory of 
13th to 15th-century secular monophonic 
music for which the same notational sym- 
bols (essentially those of the present-day 
liturgical books) were employed, i.e., the 
melodies of the troubadours, trouveres, 
Minnesinger, Meistersinger, the Italian 
laude, the Spanish cantigas, etc. [cf. 
WoHN 1, 172-197]. It goes without say- 
ing that, thus used, the term and, as a 
consequence, its English synonym are 
entirely inappropriate designations. No 
better terms, however, have as yet been 
suggested. In the secular repertory the 
use of metrically indefinite symbols — 
lacking, e.g., a clear distinction between 
long and short values — for the writing 
down of (presumably) measured melodies 
has given rise to various contrasting theo- 
ries, most of which are based on a consid- 
eration of the poetic meter of the text. 
While Riemann forced the melodies into 
his scheme of ierhebigkeit, J. Beck and 
others applied the principle of modal in- 
terpretation [G.Modaltheorie] according 
to which each melody follows the pattern 
of one of the rhythmic *‘modes. The latter 
method has been generally accepted for 
the melodies of the troubadours and trou- 
veres [see ^Trouveres] but seems of ques- 
tionable value in the case of Minnesinger 
melodies. It is interesting to note that J. 
Beck, who was the first to expound this 
theory, in 1907, turned against it in 1927. 
As a matter of fact, the whole problem is 
still far from being solved. Even the tex- 
tual meter is by no means as clear a guide 
as it is usually assumed to be [see ’•"Text 
and music; ^Poetic meter III] . A thorough 
study of the whole field, unbiased by mod- 
ern prejudice in favor of “correct” accen- 
tuation, measure, strict meter, etc., is 
sorely needed. 

Lit.: WoHN 1, 146-71; 172-97; RiHM 


[587] 



PLAINTE 


POETIC METER 


i.2, 245ff, 26ofI; J. B. Beck, Die Melodien 
der Troubadours (1908; sec the footnote 
in WoHN i, 200); /V/., Le Chansonnier 
CangS (1927); H. Riemann, in JMP xii; 
J. Handschin, in AM x and in Medium 
Aevum iv (1935); H. J. Moser, in ZMW 
vii, 3671!; E. Jammers, in ZMW vii. 

Plainte [F.]. (i) See •Tombeau. — (2) 
Sec *Planc. — (3) A Baroque ornament, 
cither a ^pofiaincnto 17th-century 
viol music) or a *Nachschlag. 

Plaisanterie [F.]. Name for playful 
movements in the suites of the i8th cen- 
tury; also for collections of pieces in the 
light style of the *Rococo. 

Plane, planh [Provengal]. Troubadour 
songs of a mournful character. The term 
carries no particular connotation of mu- 
sical form. 

Plantation songs. See *Ncgro music. 

Plaque [F.]. Played simultaneously and 
deliberately, as opposed to *arpeggio. 

Plateau [F.]. Plate, i.c., of the •cym- 
bals. 

Platerspiel [old G. Plater y bladder]. 
•Bladder pipe. 

Player piano. See *Mechanical instru- 
ments IV. 

Plectrum. A small piece of horn, tor- 
toise-shell, wood, ivory, metal, etc., used 
for the playing of certain stringed instru- 
ments, such as the Greek lyra and the 
modern mandolin and zither. The quills 
of the harpsichord are a mechanized form 
of plectrum. 

Plein-jeu [F.j. Full organ. Also name 
for pieces written for the full organ. 
Demi-jeUy half organ, i.c., softer regis- 
tration. 


cata). The direction of the dash indicates 
whether the grace note is higher or lower 
than the main note (usually a second or, 
more rarely, a third, depending upon the 
position of the next-following note). The 
accompanying example shows three plicae 


I 2 3 4. r 6 7 






longae (1,2,4), characterized by a longer 
dash to the right side, two plicae breves 
(3,7), characterized by a longer dash to 
the left side or two dashes of about equal 
length, and two ligaturae plicatae (5,6) 
[cf. ApNPMy passim]. 

The plica developed from the liquescent 
•neumes of the Gregorian chant. Accord- 
ing to 13th-century theorists (Pseudo- 
Aristoteles; cf. GS i, 173) it was sung in 
a special manner, probably a tremolo [sec 
•Tremolo (3) ] . The theory, advanced by 
H. Riemann {Mus, W ochenblatty 1897) 
and utilized by P. Rungc {Die Colmarer 
Liederhandschrijty 1896), that the plica 
played a prominent part in the music of 
the Minnesinger is erroneous. The Ger- 
man scribes of the 14th and 15th centuries 
used notational characters which are sim- 
ilar in shape to the plica notes of 13th- 
century music, without having their 
meaning. See •Ornamentation II. 


Plut. See under •Magnus liber organi. 

Pmo. Short for *pianissimo. 

Pneuma. See *Neuma (2). 

Pneumatic action. See •Organ II. 

Pochette [F.j. •Kit. 

Poco [It.]. Little. Diminutive forms 
are pochettOy pochettinOy pochissimo. 


Plica [L., fold, plait]. A notational sign 
of the 13th century calling for an orna- 
mental tone to be inserted between written 
notes. The sign for the plica is an upward 
or downward dash which is attached to 
single notes (longa, brevis) as well as to 
the final note of a ligature {ligatura pit- 


Podatus. See •Neumes I. 

Poetic meter. I. Poetic meter, with its 
regular alternation of accented (strong) 
and unaccented (weak) syllables or, in 
ancient Greek terminology, of thesis and 
*arsisy is very similar to musical meter 


[588] 




POETIC METER 


POETIC METER 


with its various schemes of accented and 
unaccented notes. The terminology of 
ancient Greek poetry is, therefore, fre- 
quently used to denote corresponding 
schemes of musical rhythm. The chief 
patterns (called “feet”) of the Greek sys- 
tem are: 

Poetic Musical 


Iamb: 

Trochee: 

Dactyl: 

Anapaest: 

Amphibrach: 


I JU JIJ 
I U JIJJ I 
• t IJJJIJJJI 
JJJIJJJIJJJI 
1 JUJJIJJ 


(In the musical cxampl 


es each thesis is rendered 


as a half-note, each arsis as a quarter-note.) 


This terminology is used particularly 
in connection with the 13th-century sys- 
tem of rhythmic modes in which, how- 
ever, nearly all the musical schemes differ 
in some detail from those indicated above 
[see *Modes, Rhythmic]. 

II. According to the number of feet 
contained in one line of the poem, one 
distinguishes between dimeter (two feet), 
trimeter (three), tetrameter (four), pen- 
tameter (five), and hexameter (six). For 
instance, the dactylic hexameter (Homer) 
consists of six dactyls the last of which 
is usually one arsis short {katalectic)i 
I . . I . . I . . I . . I . . I . In the case of an 
iambic or trochaic foot, however, the num- 
bering proceeds in pairs of feet {dipody^ 
i.e., two feet). Thus, a line including four 
iambs, . | , 1 . | . |, is called an iambic dim- 
eter (not tetrameter). In hymnody cer- 
tain standard meters have distinct names 
and designations, e.g., the common meter ^ 
indicated thus: 8 6. 8 6 (the figures give 
the numbers of syllables in each line). 
Here each line usually is an iambic dim- 
eter, the lines “8” complete, the lines “6” 
katalectic, with one arsis and thesis miss- 
ing at the end. 

III. As regards the application of the 
metrical schemes to words (versification), 
there are two principles determining 
which syllables fall on the thesis and which 
on the arsis, one ancient and one modern. 
In ancient poetry the division of lines into 
feet was quantitative, based on the recur- 
rence of long syllables (G., Silbenmes- 


whereas in modern poetry the divi- 
sion is qualitative, based on the recurrence 
of stressed syllables (G., Silbenwdgung), 

In modern poetry the thesis- and arsis- 
syllables are essentially the same as they 
are in prose; in other words, the poetic 
accentuation follows the natural accent of 
the words, e.g.: 

I .. . I . I . I . 1 . 

Meantime we shall express our darker purpose 

In Greek and Latin poetry, however, the 
poetic accentuation differed essentially 
from that of prose, as the following ex- 
ample shows: 

Prose accent: . | . | . . ( . . | . . 

Maecenas atavis edite regibus 

Poetic accent; j . | . . ( | . . | . | 

(For the rules governing ancient poetry 
cf. any Greek or Latin grammar.) 

While ancient Greek and Latin poetry 
was exclusively quantitative, the modern 
principle of quality originated in Syrian 
poetry of the 4th century (Ephrem, d. 
373) and was introduced into the Latin 
Church by St. Ambrose and St. Augus- 
tine. It prevails in most of the Latin po- 
etry of the Middle Ages, e.g., in the ♦Am- 
brosian hymns and in the ♦sequences of 
the 1 2th and 13th centuries (Adam de St. 
Victor). In the 8th century, however, 
there was, under the influence of Byzan- 
tine poetry, a return to the ancient system, 
though less rigidly applied. In fact, with 
many medieval Latin poems it is question- 
able whether they should be read quan- 
titatively (a) or qualitatively (b), e.g.: 

(a) I . . I . . I . . I 

Conditio naturae defuit, 

(b) . 1 . 1 . I . I . I 

(a) I ..| . : I • -.1 

In filio quern virgo genuit 

(b) . I . I . I . I . I 

Similar problems arise with medieval 

French poems, owing to the peculiar in- 
difference of the French language towards 
accentuation (in contrast to English or 
German), e.g.: 

(a) I . . I . .1 . .1 

Quar cusse je cent mile mars d’argent 

(b) . I . I . I . I .1 

These ambiguities present great diffi- 
culties in the interpretation of medieval 
monophonic songs, particularly those of 
the troubadours and trouveres [cf. J. B, 


[5891 



POGGIATO 


POLISH MUSIC 


Beck, Die Melodien der Troubadours . . . , 
pp. 132, 138; sec *Plainsong notation]. 
C£. also MoML, ii. 

Lit.; C. F. Abdy Williams, “The Aris- 
toxenian Theory of the Rhythmic Feet’' 
(MA ii); 1 . Krohn, “Der metrische Takt- 
fuss in dcr modernen Musik” (AMW iv); 
F. Rosenthal, “Probleme der musikali- 
schen Mctrik” (ZMW viii). 

Poggiato [It.]. “Leaned upon,” dwelt 
upon. 

Poi [It.]. Then, afterwards. Poilacoda^ 
“then the coda,” usually given at the end 
of the Trio to indicate that the resump- 
tion of the Scherzo is to be followed by the 
Coda: S — T — S — C. 

Point, (i) The upper end of the violin 
bow. — (2) Point of perfection, of divi- 
sion, etc. [see *Punctus]. — (3) In the 
motets of the i6th century, point of imita- 
tion denotes a section of the polyphonic 
texture in which a single subject, con- 
nected with a small division of the text, is 
treated in imitation. These points are the 
structural cellules of the motet which con- 
sists of a succession of a considerable num- 
ber of points. In the classical motet of the 
Josquin period the points are usually 
marked off, not vertically, but diagonally, 
so that the conclusion of one point over- 
laps the beginning of the next. For an 
example cf. HAM^ no. 89; SchGMB, no. 
107. 

Point d’orgue [F.]. (i) The *pause 
and its sign. — (2) *Pedal-point. — (3) 
A *cadenza in a concerto, so called be- 
cause its beginning is customarily indi- 
cated by a pause sign placed above the pre- 
ceding chord of the composition proper. 

Pointing. See under ^Anglican chant. 

Polacca [It.]. *Polonaise. 

Polish music. I (-1600). Poland pos- 
sesses a famous war song, BogarodiezUy 
dating from the 13th century, which is 
preserved in ii copies [cLLavE i.5, 2572]. 
The earliest known Polish composer is 
Nicolaus of Radom (after 1400) of whom 
a number of Mass compositions are pre- 
served [cf. F. Ludwig, in AMW vii, 430] . 


A continuous development of Polish mu- 
sic started in the i6th century with Sebas- 
tian Felsztyn who wrote motets, hymns, 
and a Mass, — all in Flemish style — and 
published several theoretical books be- 
tween 1519 and 1544. He was followed 
by Vinceslas Szamotuly (psalms), Mar- 
tinus Leopolita (Martin Lwowczyk; 
1540-89), Thomas of Szadek, and Nico- 
las Gomolka (1539-1609), all brought up 
in the tradition of the Flemish School or, 
later on, of Palestrina [cf. Lit., Monu- 
menta i-iii]. German influence (Johan- 
nes Buchner) is patent in two extensive 
organ tablatures of c. 1540 [cf. WoHN ii, 
27!!] which contain a great number of 
hymns and motets arranged for the organ, 
but also interesting preludes. Towards 
the end of the i6th century Polish dances 
made their appearance at the Saxon court, 
as is shown by a number of pieces (“Pol- 
nischer Tantz”) contained in the tabla- 
ture of Normiger of 1599 [see ^Colorists] . 
Their music, however, does not show any 
specific national traits. A center of mu- 
sical culture was the chapel of the Rora- 
tistes which, founded in 1543, continued 
to the end of the i8th century. 

II (1600-1900). Under King Sigis- 
mund III (1587-1632) an opera, directed 
by Marco Scacchi of Rome, was estab- 
lished at the court of Warsaw, but the en- 
suing political collapse of Poland brought 
musical life to an almost complete stand- 
still for more than 150 years. The Polish 
opera came to new life under Matheus 
Kamienski (1734-1821) who composed 
numerous operas between 1780 and 1800, 
in the style of the *Singspiel. Josef Koz- 
lowski (1757-1821) is interesting mainly 
as a composer of numerous ^polonaises, 
as is also his pupil Count Michael Oginski 
(1765-1833). Joseph Eisner, known 
mainly as the teacher of Chopin, wrote 
numerous operas of which only the titles 
have been preserved and, besides, sym- 
phonies, chamber music, songs, and a fa- 
mous Passion oratorio. He also founded 
the first conservatory at Warsaw (1821- 
30), of which Chopin was a pupil. Even 
more important was Charles Kurpinski 
(1785-1857), as a composer of operas, 
conductor, and teacher. The foremost 


[590I 



POLISH MUSIC 


POLO 


instrumental composer of the “classical” 
period of Polish music was Ignace-Felix 
Dobrzynski (1807-67; two symphonies, 
chamber music). 

Frederic Chopin (1810-49), son of a 
French father and a Polish mother, put 
all these achievements into eclipse and 
carried the fame of Polish music into all 
parts of the world. Together with Schu- 
mann and Mendelssohn he founded the 
musical ^Romanticism to which he im- 
parted a distinct tinge of national expres- 
sion, particularly in his polonaises and 
^mazurkas. Stanislav Moniuszko (1819- 
72) wrote numerous songs many of which 
became a part of the national treasure of 
Poland. His opera Halka (1858) is the 
first Polish national opera. Five of the 15 
operas he wrote belong to the permanent 
repertory of Polish opera houses. His 
most important successor was Ladislas 
Zelenski (1837-1921) who composed op- 
eras of some merit, but deserves mention 
mainly as a composer of chamber music 
in a moderately Romantic style, influenced 
by Schumann and Brahms. Henrik Wie- 
niawski (1835-80) became world-famous 
as a violin virtuoso, and composed two 
well-known violin concertos as well as 
other pieces for his instrument. Ignaz 
Paderewski (1860-1940) occupied a sim- 
ilar place in piano music, to say nothing 
about his outstanding position in the po- 
litical life of Poland. 

Ill (1900-). The “young-Polish” group 
is represented mainly by Karol Szyma- 
nowski (1883-1937), one of the outstand- 
ing composers of modern music. Suc- 
cessively influenced by Richard Strauss, 
Scriabin, and, after World War I, Debussy, 
he arrived, about 1920, at a mature style 
of his own, a mixture of Romantic and 
impressionistic elements, but consciously 
Polish at the same time and, in his latest 
works, tending towards atonality and 
constructivism. Among his most im- 
portant works are a Stabat mater, a ballet 
Harnasie (1926), a Symphonic Concer- 
tante for piano and orchestra, and his 
Second Violin Concerto (1930). Other 
modern composers of significance arc 
Alexander Tansman (b. 1897) and Karol 
Rathaus (b. 1895), both of whom follow 


the radical trends of *New music, and 
Jerzy Fitelbcrg (b. 1903), who writes in 
a strongly neo-classical idiom. Both Tans- 
man and Fitelberg arc now in America. 

Lit.: E. Rayson, Polish Music and Cho- 
pin its Laureate (1916); LavE i.5, 2568- 
85; AdHM ii, 1144-51 (modern music); 
A. Wieniawski, La musique polonaise 
(1937); H. Opienski, La musique polo- 
naise (1918, ’29); M. Glinski, Muzyka 
pols\a (1927); H. Jachimecki, Historjy 
muzy\i polsl(iej (1920); J. Surezynski, 
"fMonumenta musices sqcrae in Polonia^ 
4 vols. (1887); Z. Jachimecki, “Polish 
Music” {MQ vi); F. Starezewski, “Die 
polnischen Tanze” {SIM ii); T. Norlind, 
“Zur Geschichte der polnischen Tanze” 
{SIM xii). To I: J. Surezynski, in KJ, 
1890; A. Chybinski, in Riemann Fest- 
schrift (1909); /V/., in SIM xiii; /W., in 
ZIM xiii; J, W. Reiss, in ZIM xiii; Z. 
Jachimecki, in ZMW ii. — To II: H. Opi- 
enski, in RdMy 1929, no. 30 (opera); id,, 
in RdM, 1934, no. 52 (symphony). — To 
III: Z. Jachimecki, “Karol Szymanowski” 
{MQ viii). Cf. also RiHM ii.i, 342f. 

Polka. A Bohemian dance in quick 
duple meter and characteristic rhythms. 
It originated around 1830 in Bohemia, 
and soon spread to the European salons, 
causing a real “polkamania” which lasted 
until the end of the century. The polka 
was introduced into art music by Smetana 
{The Bartered Bride; From my Life; 
Bohemian Dances), Dvorak, and others. 
See *Dance music IV. 


I. Polka. 2. Polo 

Polo. An Andalusian (north Spanish) 
dance in moderate %-meter, with fre- 
uent syncopations of the *hcmiola-type 
see Ex.], and with rapid coloraturas 
sung to syllables such as “Ay,” “Ole,” etc. 
The dance movements show Oriental in- 
fluence, being movements of the body ra- 
ther than of the feet. Two famous polos 



POLONAISE 


POLYCHORAL STYLE 


were written by Manuel Garcia (1805- 
1906), “Yo soy cl contrabandista” and 
“Cuerpo bueno” [cf. Lat/E i.4, 2293!!], 
the latter of which was used by Bizet in 
the prelude to the fourth act of Carmen, 
A good modern example is found in Fal- 
la’s Seven Spanish Popular Songs (no. 7). 

Polonaise. A Polish national dance of 
a stately and festive character. The music 
is always in moderate triple meter, with 
rhythms such as those illustrated [Ex. i], 




jK 


II 

mtwm am 





d ^ ^ 

■ 

f'-i- 

L J ^ i— 

— — 

.El 

J. 




and shows a number of characteristic fea- 
tures, e.g., feminine ending of the phrases; 
repetition of short and precise motives, 
frequently three times within a measure; 
characteristic accompanying rhythms, 
traits which can all be seen in the accom- 
panying example [Ex. 2] by Beethoven 
(op. 89). 

The polonaise is not a folk dance, but 
developed from courdy ceremonies and 
processions, records of which go back as 
far as the late i6th century [cf. GD iv, 
218]. Although in this period Polish 
dances make their appearance in various 
musical manuscripts and printed books, 
none of them bears any resemblance to the 
polonaise. The earliest known examples 
of the polonaise proper arc those written 
by Bach (Brandenburg Concerto no. i; 
French Suite no. 6; Orchestral Suite no. 2, 
in B minor; also pieces in the Noten- 
buchlein der Anna Magd. Bach) and 
Handel (Concerto Grosso no. 3). Around 
the middle of the i8th century the polo- 
naise became very popular, probably as 


the result of political changes (election of 
the Saxon Elector Augustus III to the 
Polish throne, 1733). A great number of 
vocal polonaises are contained in Spe- 
rontes’ Singende Muse {DdT 25/26]. 
J. Th. Goldberg (for whom Bach wrote 
his *Goldberg Variations) wrote 24 polo- 
naises, and W. Fr. Bach, in his 12 polo- 
naises, raised the dance to an idealized 
type of extraordinary imagination and 
artistic perfection (new ed. Peters, no. 
750), whereas Mozart (Pianoforte Sonata 
in D major; K.V. 284) furnished a charm- 
ing example in a much simpler style. 
During the first half of the 19th century 
the polonaise continued to attract the in- 
terest of composers such as Beethoven, 
Schubert (polonaises for four hands), 
Weber (opp. 21 and 72), Liszt (Deux 
Polonaises, 1852), and, above all, Chopin 
who, preceded by his countrymen Josef 
Kozlowski (1757-1821) and Count Mi- 
chael Oginski (1765-1833; see *Polish 
music II), made the polonaise the symbol 
of the heroism and chivalry of the Polish 
nation. See *Dance music III. 

Polska. A Swedish dance, probably of 
Polish origin, similar in character to the 
mazurka rather than to the polonaise. 
For an example cf. GD iv, 219; also Nie- 
mann, in SIM V, 99, 

Polychoral style. The term is used 
with reference to compositions in which 
the ensemble (chorus with or without 
the orchestra) is divided into several (usu- 



mm 

mmmmm..mmm' ammrmmi 

i 

■nm 

I^ISS S^SBSSSS 



wsm 

u 

in coe-lo ml 

2pniem 

in 


ally two or three) distinct groups singing 
and playing in alternation. This tech- 
nique, which is also known as *antiphonal 


[592] 



POLYCHRONION 


POLYRHYTHM 

style, was exploited chiefly by Giov. Ga- Although, according to definition, there 
brieli (1557-1612; see illustration). It is no difference between polyphony and 
forms a characteristic feature of the* Venc- counterpoint, the former term is used 

tian School and persisted throughout the preferably with regard to early music 
Baroque period, particularly in Rome (Medieval polyphony) as well as for broad 
(Orazio Benevoli; see *Roman School), classification (polyphonic, monophonic); 

in the English Services where the two the latter for the styles of, e.g., Palestrina 

choruses are designated Dec, and Can, and Bach, and, consequently, in teaching 
(i.e.. Decani and Cantoris^ signifying re- where these serve as models. Sec also 
spectivcly the south side and the north ^Contrapuntal; *Tcxture. 
side of the cathedral, according to the seats Numerous theories have been advanced 
usually occupied by these officers), and regarding the “origin of polyphony,” but 
in Germany (Handl, Hassler, Schiitz), none of these can be said to be more than 
the latest examples being found in Bach hypothetical. Some scholars have ven- 
(first movement of the St. Matthew Pas- tured to regard the earliest extant exam- 
sion). Early adumbrations of polychoral pies of polyphony (c, 800), not as a begin- 
treatment occur in the works of Josquin ning, but as a “first culmination point” of 
des Pres who frequently interrupts the full- a development, traces of which they be- 
voiced writing in four parts (S,A,T,B) lieve to exist in Oriental and primitive 
by “antiphonal” passages in which two music [cf. ReMMA, 249ff]. See *Primi- 
half-choruses (S,A and T,B or S,A,T and tive music IV. 

A,T,B) perform a short phrase twice, in Lit.: M. Schneider, Geschichte der 
an echo-like manner [Ex. under ^Echo; MehrstimmigXeity i, ii (i934“35); P. 
also in BeMMR, 250]. Zarlino, in his Wagner, “Uel^r die Anfange des mehr- 
htituzioni harmoniche of 1558, credits stimmigen Gesanges” (ZMW ix); E. 
Willaert with the introduction of the poly- Steinhard, “Zur Fruhgeschichte der 
choral style in its more explicit form. Its Mehrstimmigkeit” (AMW iii); F. Lud- 
development during the second half of the wig, “Studien fiber die Geschichte der 
1 6th century was furthered by the alter- mehrstimmigen Musik im Mittclalter” 
nate playing on the two organs of St. (SIM v); M. Schneider, “Kaukasische 
Mark’s at Venice which were installed in Parallelen zur mittelalterlichen Mchr- 
the two apses of the cathedral. Accord- stimmigkeit” (AM xii); for additional 
ingly, different choruses were placed with bibliography cf. ReMMAy 45if* 
the organs and elsewhere in the building 

(^con spezzati\ G. Apsidenchdre), Polyrhythm. The simultaneous use of 

Lit.: L. Reitter, Doppelchortechni\ bet strikingly contrasting rhythms in differ- 
Heinrich Schiitz (Diss. Zfirich 1937); ent parts of the musical fabric, also known 
E. Hertzmann, in ZMW xii. as cross-rhythm. Properly speaking, all 

. r. *4 1 • contrapuntal or polyphonic music 

Polychronion. See Acclamation. ^5 polyrhythmic, since rhythmic variety 

Polymetric, See *Polyrhythm. simultaneous parts more than anything 

else contributes to giving the voice-parts 
Polyphonic, polyphony [Gr. polySy that quality of individuality which is es- 
many; phonos, voice; G. Mehrstimmig, sen tial to polyphonic style [see ♦Texture]. 
Vielstimmig], Music written as a com- Generally, however, the term is restricted 
bination of several simultaneous voices to those examples in which rhythmic va- 
(parts) of a more or less pronounced in- riety is introduced, not as a means to en- 
dividuality. Hence, the term polyphony hance contrapuntal life, but for its own 
is practically synonymous with *countcr- sake (cross rhythm). A distinction can 
point. It should be noted that the word be made between two types: contrasting 
“poly” must not be taken literally, since rhythms within the same scheme of ac- 
as few as two parts can make perfect po- cents (meter) [Ex. i, a and b]; contrast- 
lyphony, better, indeed, than six or eight, ing rhythms involving a conflict of meter 

[ 593] 



POLYRHYTHM 


POLYTONALITY 


or accents [Ex. i, c and d]. The latter 
type is sometimes termed “polymetric.’* 
Twice in the history of music have poly- 

I a b 


J yJ>J 7J> 
rJ^J r/J 


J J J J 
J J J J J J 


J J JIJ J J J\U J J JIJ J J jl 
J JiJ J JIJ J ^ J J JN J J Jl 


Polymetric passages can also be written 
in such a way that different meters are 
avoided, in which cases one of the two 
voice-parts will necessarily be in ’’‘‘synco- 
pation [Ex. I (d)] . This manner of writ- 
ing is frequently preferred for the sake of 
easier reading, but it actually obscures the 
true rhythmic life, in modern editions of 
early music as well as in jazz [Ex. 4 J . See 
also *Imbroglio. 




Polytonality. The simultaneous use 
of different tonalities (usually two: bi- 
tonality) in different parts of the musical 
fabric, e.g., of B-flat minor in the left hand 
against F-sharp minor in the right hand 
of a pianoforte piece [see Ex. i, from 
Prokofiev’s Sarcasmes]. This technique 
has been used to quite an extent by con- 
temporary composers seeking new means 
of tonal design. Among the earliest ex- 
amples are passages in Stravinsky’s Pe- 
trouch\a^ 1911 (Ex. 2) and in Busoni’s 




metric designs played a prominent role: 
around 1400, and in present-day music 
[see *New music]. A passage from the 
15th-century song “Amans ames secrete- 


ment” [Ex. 2; cf. ApNPM, 175] and one 
from Hindemith’s Klaviermusi^y op. 37 
[Ex. 3] serve as illustrations. 


Sonatina seconda, 1912 (see ^Cadence, 
Ex. 27). The combination C against F- 
sharp or, in terms of the pianoforte key- 
board, “white against black,” has become 
known as the “Petrouchka chord.” This 
device has been exploited, somewhat fa- 
cetiously, by numerous other composers, 
particularly in pieces which they consid- 
ered suitable for children (Casella, Pezzi 
infantili). In these cases, as in others as 
well, the jocose character of the device is 
patent. In this respect it is interesting to 
note that occasionally earlier composers 
have used polytonal schemes for satirical 
purposes, e.g., Hans Newsidler in a lute 
piece Der Judentantz (The Jew’s dance) 


[594] 






POMHART 

of 1535 [cf- ApMZ i], and Mozart in 
his Ein musikcilischer Spass (A Musical 
Jest), composed in 1787 (K.V. 522). See 
also ^Partial signature. 

Lit.: J. Deroux, “La Musique poly- 
tonale” (RM ii); D. Milhaud, “Poly- 
tonalite et atonalite” (RM iv, no. 4); 
A. Machabey, “Dissonance, polytonalite, 
atonalite’' (RM xii). 

Pomhart, Pommer. Old German for 
*Bombarde [see *Oboe family III]. 

Ponticello [It.] . The bridge of stringed 
instruments. Sul ponticelloy see *Bow- 
ing (k). 

Pontilicale. See ^Liturgical books 1 . 

Porrectus. See *Neumes I. 

Port. A term formerly in use in Scotland 
to denominate an instrumental piece, usu- 
ally for the harp. Cf. GD. 


PORTUGUESE MUSIC 

pressed by sign or a particular notation 
[see ♦Appoggiaturaj. Usually, however, 
both appoggiatura and resolution are re- 
peated, so that the ornament consists of 
four notes, the last three forming a pince 
(^mordent). In keyboard music this fuller 
execution is usually indicated by com- 
bining the sign for the port de voix with 

, 'V 

that for the pince, as illustrated. In music 
for the voice and all other instruments the 
pince was taken for granted. P. A. 

Portee [F.]. Staff. 

Porter (portez) la voix. See *Port de 
voix (i). 

Portuguese hymn. The hymn Adeste 
ftdeles (O come, all ye faithful), so called 
because it was frequently used, around 
1800, in the Portuguese chapel at London. 


Portamento [It., carrying]. A special 
manner of singing, with the voice gliding 
gradually from one tone to the next 
through all the intermediate pitches. A 
similar effect, frequently but erroneously 
called ^glissando, is possible on the violin 
and on the trombone. In vocal composi- 
tions the portamento is indicated by a slur 
connecting two notes of different pitch. 
See *Portato. 

Portative organ [G. Portativ] . A small 
portable organ of the Middle Ages which 
was used for processions and for domestic 
music. An Italian 14th-century name is 
organetto. See *Organ XII. There exists 
a movement in Germany to revive this 
instrument. Cf. H. Hickmann, Das Por- 
tativ (1936); H. Wolff, in ZMW xv, 318. 

Portato [It., carried]. A manner of per- 
formance halfway between legato and 
staccato [see *Legato]. The use of the 
name ’•‘‘portamento for this is misleading 
and should be avoided. 

Port de voix [F.]. (i) In modern 
French usage, same as ^portamento. — 
(2) One of the most important French 
agriments of the 17th and i8th centuries. 
Essentially it is an upward-resolved sus- 
pension or appoggiatura, generally ex- 


Portuguese music. I (-1700). In the 
13th century the Portuguese Kings Af- 
fonso III (1248-79) and Dinez (Denis) I 
(1279-1325) attracted Provencal trouba- 
dours to their courts. Very likely these 
instigated interest and succession among 
native musicians one of whom, Martin 
Codax, is known to us through seven 
songs which were discovered in 1914 in 
the binding of a 14th-century MS of Cic- 
ero’s De officiis [cf. ML v, 29f; I. Pope, in 
Speculum \x(i^-^^)], Joaol (1385-1433) 
was a munificent and lavish ruler who 
entertained a large orchestra at his court 
for festivities and ceremonial occasions. 
The rule of Joao III (1521-57) saw the 
rise of Flemish polyphony in Portugal, 
with Damiao de Goes (1502-53, well 
known as a historian and traveler; a motet 
“Ne laetaris” in Glareanus’ Dode\achor- 
don) and Manuel Cardoso (d. 1595) as 
the first native representatives. 

In the 17th century a splendid school of 
Portuguese polyphonic music emerged, 
known as the School of fivora. To this 
belong Manuel Mendes (d. 1605), Duarte 
Lobo (c, 1565-1643), its greatest master, 
Frei Manuel Cardoso ( 1569-1650), Felipe 
de Magalhaes (publications 1631, ’42), 
Joao Louren9o Rebello (1610-61), and 


[595] 



PORTUGUE^ MUSIC 

Diego dc Melga^o (1638-1700). To these 
must be added the Portuguese King John 
IV (1604-56), who studied music under 
Rebello, composed many works for church 
use (of which two motets are preserved), 
wrote a book and pamphlet in defense of 
Palestrina, and founded the world-famous 
library the destruction of which, in the 
Lisbon earthquake of 1755, entailed the 
loss of innumerable priceless musical 
works. A contemporary of Lobo was 
Manuel Coelho (b. 1583) who, in 1620, 
published an interesting collection of or- 
gan music {Flores de musica)^ containing 
*tentos (ricercares) in the style of Cabezon 
and Sweelinck (new ed. of 5 tentos by 
S. Kastner). A similar collection was 
published in 1626 by F. Correia de Araujo 
{Ubro de tientos), 

II (1700-Present). Under the disso- 
lute and fanatic King John V (1706-50) 
Portuguese music came under the influ- 
ence of Italian musicians. Domenico 
Scarlatti stayed at the Portuguese court 
from 1721 to 1729, and his influence is 
patent in the works of the ‘‘Portuguese 
Scarlatti,” Jose de Seixas (1709-42), who 
wrote hundreds of “sonatas” in his mas- 
ter’s style [cf. M. S. Kastner, Cravistas 
Portuguezes], Even more penetrating 
was the Italian influence in the field of the 
opera which came entirely under the 
domination of the Neapolitan composers. 
Among the first Portuguese composers of 
operas was Francisco de Almeida {La 
Pazienza di Soar ate ^ 1733 )* He was fol- 
lowed by Joao de Sousa Carvalho (1709- 
98) whose pupil Marcos Portugal (1762- 
1830) became the greatest Portuguese op- 
era composer, while Joao Domingos Bom- 
tempo (1775-1842) was the first sym- 
phonist of Portugal, writing orchestral 
works in the style of Haydn and Mozart. 
Unfortunately he had no followers of note. 

The father of modern Portuguese mu- 
sic is Jos6 Vianna da Motta (b. 1868) who 
is a champion of nationalism (TA^ L«- 
siads for chorus and orchestra). Freitas 
Branco (b. 1890) combines impression- 
istic idioms with national elements. Ruy 
Coelho (b. 1891) has written several op- 
eras and symphonic poems in the national 
tradition. Frederico de Freitas (b. 1902) 


POSITIVE ORGAN 

is the author of orchestral and instru- 
mental pieces in the impressionist vein. 

Lit.: G. Chase, The Music of Spain 
(1941), chapter XVIII; LavE i.4, 24011!; 
A. Soubis, La Musique h Portugal (1890) ; 
S. Kastner, Contribucidn al estudio de la 
musica espanola y portuguesa (1941); 
A. Pinto, Musica moderna portuguesa 
(1930); E. Vieira, Diccionario biogra- 
phico dos musicos portuguezes (1891); 
Julio Eduardo dos Santos, "fA Polifonia 
classica portuguesa (1938); S. Kastner, 
\Cravistas portuguezes. For folk music 
see under *Fado. 

Pos. Short for or [F.] *positify 

or [G.] *Posaune. 

Posaune [G.]. Trombone. 

Pose [F.]. Steady, sedate. 

Positif [F.]. Choir organ. 

Position, (i) With reference to chords 
(close, wide position), see ^Spacing. — 
(2) On the violin, etc., positions are the 
different places on the finger board oc- 
cupied by the left hand. Thus, on the G- 
string the first position covers the fifth 
from g to d', g being the open string and 
the successive four notes a, b, c', d' being 
stopped by the four fingers. The second 
position starts with the first finger on b 
and ends with the fifth finger on e', etc. 
The moving from one position into an- 
other is known as shift. For the history 
of this technique cf. GD, article “Shift.” 
Both terms apply also to the trombone 
with reference to the varying position of 
the slide. The home position is called the 
first, and each successive position lowers 
the pitch a semitone. 

Positive organ [G. Positive . In the 
Middle Ages, name for a small chamber 
organ which was stationary, as opposed 
to the portable ^portative organ. It had 
mostly soft flute-stops. A famous illustra- 
tion is found on van Eyck’s Altar of Ghent 
[cf. AdHMy 574]. Later the name was 
applied to a special section of the church 
organ in which also flue-stops (Principal, 
etc.) prevail, such as are suitable for the 
accompaniment of the choir; hence, syn- 

[596] 



POSTLUDE 

onymous with *choir organ. See *Organ 
XII. Cf. F. W. Galpin, in MA iv. 

Postlude. An organ piece played at the 
conclusion of the service, during the exit 
of the congregation. It is usually impro- 
vised. The term is also used in the mean- 
ing of *coda. 

Potpourri [F.]. A medley of popular 
tunes, operatic airs, patriotic songs, etc., 
which are played in succession, being con- 
nected by a few measures of introduction 
or modulation. The name, which prop- 
erly denotes a dish mixed of many ingre- 
dients (literally “rotten-pot”), occurs as 
early as in Ballard’s collection of ^brunettes 
of 1 71 1. J. B. Cramer was the first to use 
it for the 19th-century type of drawing- 
room piece. 

Pousse [F., pushed]. Up-bow; see 
^Bowing. 

Poussez [F.]. Push on, speed up. 

pp. Pianissimo. Sometimes ppp, pppp, 
are used to denote the ultimate degree of 
softness. 

P.R, In French organ music, abbrevia- 
tion of Positif-Recit, i.e., choir organ and 
swell organ coupled. 

Prachtvoll [G.]. Grand, pompous. 

Praeambulum [L.]. Sixteenth-century 
name for ^prelude. 

Praefatio [L.]. See ^Preface. 

Praeludium. See *Prelude. 

Prague Symphony. Mozart’s Sym- 
phony in D (K.V. 504), composed in 1786 
and enthusiastically received in Prague in 
1787. 

Pralltriller [G.]. Modern term for the 
“inverted mordent,” See under *Schnel- 
ler. 

Preambule [F.], preambulum [L.]. 
See *Prelude. 

Precentor. The director of music in a 
cathedral or monastic church. 


PRELUDE 

Precipitando [It.]. “With precipita- 
tion,” impetuously. 

Preface [L. Praefatio ] . A solemn ascrip- 
tion of praise sung at Mass, and leading 
without a break into the Sanctus [sec 
*Mass A], It includes short solo verses 
and choral responses [see GR, 118*; also 
LU, 3, 109]. 

Preg(h)ando [It.]. “Praying,” devo- 
tionally. 

Prelude [F. prSlude; G. Praeludium^ 
Vorspiel\ It. preludio]. Properly, a piece 
of music designed to be played as an in- 
troduction, for instance, to a liturgical 
ceremony or, more usually, to another 
composition, such as a fugue or a suite. 
This connotation, which prevails through- 
out the entire early history of the prelude 
(see below), was lost in the 19th century, 
when Chopin and his followers (Scriabin, 
Debussy) used the word merely as one of 
the numerous noncommittal titles of Ro- 
mantic pianoforte pieces [see ^Character 
piece]. How completely the term has lost 
its proper meaning appears from the fact 
that even the most pedantic listeners seem 
never to have objected against twenty-four 
preludes being played in succession. 

The history of the prelude is of par- 
ticular interest since it represents not only 
one of the earliest types of keyboard mu- 
sic, but the earliest type of idiomatic key- 
board music, as distinct from the vocally- 
influenced types such as *Intabulierungen, 
the riceicar or the canzona. The history 
of the p’-elude can be divided into three 
periods which may be designated, some- 
what fancifully, as the periods of I the 
unconnected, II the connected, and III the 
disconnected prelude. In the first period 
(c, 1450-1650) the prelude is a single 
composition which may be used for any 
suitable purpose, either in the church or 
in the home; in the second period (c. 
1650-1750) the prelude becomes the “first 
movement” of a special composition with 
which it is inseparably connected; in the 
third period (19th century) it becomes an 
independent piece to which no function 
or other composition is attached, 

I. The preludes of the 15th and early 


[597 1 



PRELUDE 


PRESTO 


1 6th centuries arc short pieces (lo to 20 
measures) which arc remarkable for their 
free keyboard style, mixed of passages 
and chords, and which thus offer a marked 
contrast to the strict contrapuntal style of 
contemporary vocal music. This repertory 
includes about 50 pieces in the Ileborgh 
tablature (1448); in Paumann’s *Funda- 
mentum (1452); in the *Buxheim Organ 
Book (c. 1460); in Kotter’s tablature (c, 
1520); and in lUeber’s tablature (c. 1520) 
[Ex. in HAMy no. 84; MQ xxiii, 213; 
ApMZ i]. Of a similar character, though 
frequently more extended, are the lute 
preludes preserved in the tablatures of 
Spinaccino and Dalza (Petrucci, Intavola- 
tura de lauto i, ii, 1507), Judenkunig 
(1523), Hans Neusiedler (1536), Gerle 
(1552), and others. The preludes of the 
first-mentioned publication are called 
ricercari [see *Ricercar II] or tastar de 
corde [Ex. in HAM, nos. 98, 99; SchGMBy 
nos. 63b, 93; ApMZ iij. Toward the end 
of the century William Byrd and John 
Bull wrote a number of preludes which 
are noteworthy for their virtuoso char- 
acter {Fitzwilliam Virginal Boo 1 ()y and 
to which the simultaneous lute pieces by 
Besardus (Thesaurus HarmonicuSy 1602; 
cf. ApMZ ii) offer a striking contrast of 
style and expression. 

II. Around 1650, composers began to 
combine the prelude with a special com- 
position. The prelude as an introduction 
to suites or suite-like series of pieces oc- 
curs with Louis Couperin who created a 
unique type of prelude, completely free 
in rhythm and, therefore, notated with- 
out the conventional note-values [cf. 
TaAM vii, 40; the “Transcription” of- 
fered on p. 43 completely obscures the 
basic character of the composition; for a 
similar prelude by d’Anglebert, cf. HAMy 
no. 232]. Particularly remarkable are the 
preludes to the lute suites of E. Reus- 
ncr (1636-79; Ex. in HAM, no. 233 and 
in RiMB; cf. also H. Riemann, in SIM vi). 
Handel preferred for his suites a prelude 
in a free and improvisatory style, while 
the introductory pieces to Bach’s suites 
and partitas arc full-sized concerto grosso 
movements, overtures, toccatas, or sin- 
fonias. The combination of the prelude 


with a fugue which received its classical 
codification by Bach can be traced back 
to organ preludes of the early 17th century 
which, after a section in free style, con- 
tinue and close with a short fugal section. 
A piece such as the 9th Praeludium of 
Heinrich Scheidemann (c. 1595-1663) 
in the collection Organum (Vierte Reihe, 
Heft I, ed. by M. Seiffert) or the Prae- 
ludium by Tunder in HAMy no. 215, may 
be considered as indicating the point of 
departure of this interesting development 
which, half a century later, led to the 
monumental “Praeludium and Fuga” of 
Buxtehude [Ex. in HAMy no. 234], and 
finally to those of Bach. For a closely re- 
lated form of keyboard music see ♦Toc- 
cata. 

III. The “disconnected” prelude is rep- 
resented by the preludes of Chopin and 
those of his numerous imitators, chiefly 
Scriabin (85 preludes), Debussy (24 in 
two books), and Rachmaninov (op. 23). 
As explained above, these are pianistic 
character pieces, usually based on a short 
figure or motive which is exploited by 
means of harmonic modulations. 

Prelude k TApres-midi d^un Faune. 

See ^Symphonic poem IV. 

Premier temps [F.]. See *Chronos 
protos. 

Preparation, A dissonant note is said 
to be prepared if it occurs immediately 
before as a consonant note with the pre- 
ceding chord. In the strict counterpoint 
of the Palestrina style dissonant notes al- 
ways are prepared, while in that of Bach 
this principle is largely discarded. See 
♦Nonharmonic tones, particularly appog- 
giatura. 

Presa [It.]. In canons a sign, usually 
like an 5 , which indicates the place at 
which the imitating voice or voices enter. 

Pressus. An ornamenting neume; sec 
♦Ornamentation II. 

Presto [It.]. Very quick, i.c., quicker 
than allegro. Prestissimo denotes the 
highest possible degree of speed. Sec 
♦Tempo marks. 


[598] 



PRIAMEL 

Priamel. Sixteenth-century German 
misspelling for Praeambel [sec ^Prelude] . 
The explanation given in Brenet’s Die- 
tionnaire de musique is erroneous. 

Prick song [Old Engl., to prick, i.e., to 
mark]. A 1 6th/ 17th-century English 
term for written or printed music, i.e., 
for composed music as distinguished from 
the oral tradition of plainsong, folk song, 
popular dance music, etc., as well as from 
improvised music. 

Prim [G.]. *Prime(i). 

Prima donna [It., first lady]. Origi- 
nally, the singer of the principal female 
role of an opera, as distinguished from 
the primo huomo, the leading male sing- 
er, and the seconda donna, the second fe- 
male singer. These designations played a 
basic role in the construction of the plots 
of 18th-century operas, as can be seen, e.g., 
from Mozart’s Don Giovanni and Figaro 
[see ^Neapolitan School]. In the 19th 
century the term adopted the somewhat 
derogatory meaning of a conceited, jeal- 
ous, and capricious operatic star, a mean- 
ing which is also extended to the male 
examples of the species, including its per- 
forming and conducting varieties. Cf. 
H. S. Edwards, T he Prima Donna (1888). 

Prima vista [It., at first sight] means 
unprepared playing with previous study. 
See *Sight-reading. 

Prima volta, seconda volta [It., the 
first time, the second time]. The differ- 
ent endings for the first and the second 
performance of a repeated section. In 
musical scores, abbreviations such as: 

' I. and ' 2. arc used. See *Ouvcrt (2). 

Prime [G. Prim, Prime], (i) The inter- 
val “zero,” i.e., unison. — (2) Sec ♦Office 
hours. 

Primgeiger [G.]. First violinist, also 
concertmaster. 

Primitive music. L General, Primi- 
tive music might be defined as the folk 
music of social groups which do not pos- 
sess a tradition of art music, such a lack 
being, of course, explained by the absence 


PRIMITIVE MUSIC 

of a higher cultural development in gen- 
eral. Wherever cultural progress has re- 
sulted in the development of an art music 
among the higher classes, this invariably 
reflects upon the folk music of the “lower 
classes” and shapes it in such a way that 
it cannot be considered primitive. This 
does not, of course, rule out the possibility 
that occasionally remnants of primitive 
music may be found in certain remote 
places in civilized countries where they 
have escaped the standardizing influence 
ot art music. For instance, the oldest 
strata of Hungarian folk music show fea- 
tures of irregularity, rhythmically as well 
as tonally, which might justify their clas- 
sification as primitive music, and a similar 
statement could be made with regard to 
certain primitive manners of perform- 
ance, e.g., the Tyrolean *yodeling and the 
blowing of the Swiss ♦alphorn. As a rule, 
however, primitive music is found mainly 
among the indigenous tribes of Africa, 
America, and Australia — much less fre- 
quently in the Orient where most nations 
possess a long-established tradition of art 
music [see under *Exotic music]. 

The study of primitive music is the 
most recent branch of musicology, and is 
known as ♦comparative musicology. Ow- 
ing to the fact that primitive music is al- 
ways transmitted orally and that its ir- 
regularities of rhythm, intonation, per- 
formance, etc., defy exact reproduction in 
our system of musical notation, a success- 
ful study of this field was not possible 
until the phonograph had been put into 
service {c. 1900). Equipped with this in- 
valuable device of research, scholars have 
traveled everywhere and have brought 
together a vast amount of records which 
form the basis of the study. According to 
a survey made by G. Herzog {Primitive 
and Folhjnusic in the United States, 
1936) there arc well over 14,000 records 
of primitive music in the principal collec- 
tions of the United States alone. 

The subsequent explanations arc not 
meant to represent a cross section of the 
whole field, but only to bring out some of 
the most important characteristics and 
aspects. 

II. Performance, It must be said at the 


[ 599] 



PRIMITIVE MUSIC 


PRIMITIVE MUSIC 


outset that perhaps the most characteristic acteristic is the range of the melodies, 
earmark of primitive music is one which The songs of the Patagonian Indians and 
is entirely lost in the written fixation, of the Weddas of Ceylon employ only two 
namely, the manner of performance as neighboring notes in alternation, while 
practiced in the various tribal or racial songs of more advanced tribes embrace a 
provinces. Two melodies, one from Cey- full octave, more or less. Regarding me- 
lon, the other from Brazil, may look pretty tion as well as range, Ex. 2, a song of the 
much alike “on paper,** but will sound 
very different in real performance. The 
intonation may be exact in one case and 
fluctuating in another; similarly, the one ^{ruum^ 

performance may be full of strong accents, 1 j .: ^ I ] J y 

the other flowing; one timbre nasal, the | to / J ^ ^ I -- . j i [ : 

other throaty; the rhythm steady in one 

case and free in the other, etc. More than Hopi Indians, offers a striking contrast to 
any other feature, the manner of deliv- the Wedda song of Ex. i. A tendency to- 
ery characterizes and distinguishes racial wards descending rather than ascending 
groups, and, moreover, connects the mu- motion has frequently been noticed as a 
sic of such a group with its general an- characteristic of primitive music in gen- 
thropological characteristics, such as pos- eral and of Indian songs in particular, 
ture, bodily movement, emotional char- (Here again, it may be pointed out that 
acteristics, etc. Thus, African music as the ancient Greeks read the scale down- 
well as motor behavior is characterized wards, not upwards as we do.) 
by an unbridled emotionalism which is IV. Rhythm, From the rhythmic point 
essentially different from the restrained of view the repertory of primitive music 
dignity of the American Indians and of falls into two clearly separated classes, one 
their music. of which employs free recitation, the other 

III. Melody, A basic consideration is strict rhythm. The former type is found, 
the distinction between melodies in con- among others, with the ceremonial songs 
junct and disjunct motion, i.e., between of the medicinemen (shamans) who use 
songs which move largely along the de- it to exert magic, to dispel evil spirits, to 
grees of the scale and those employing cure by hypnotic influence. Such “incan- 
wider intervals, thirds, fourths, fifths, etc. tations’* arc similar in function to the 
As a rule, melodics of the former type are ♦chant of the Christian Churches, and it 
dynamic and strongly emotional, full of is very interesting to see that this simi- 
cxcitement and tension, while those of larity of function leads to a certain like- 
thc latter type arc more “static** and re- ness in the musical character, with respect 
strained. There is reason to assume that, to rhythm as well as melodic motion and 
in general, the latter type represents a intonation. The strictly rhythmical type 
more advanced stratum than the former, is represented mainly by the music for 
(It may be remarked here that this state- dance. Here the rhythmic background is 
ment also applies to civilized music; Chi- usually provided by drums, which, how- 
nese music, e.g., with its four thousand ever, are used in different ways by differ- 
years of culture, shows a striking prefer- ent people. The Indians use a very simple 
ence for wide intervals, while in younger type of drum-beating consisting of single 
Oriental traditions of music, such as the strokes of equal force and at equal inter- 
Japanese, scalic motion is prevalent; Eu- vals. In Africa, on the other hand, drum- 
ropean music, likewise, shows a gradual beating is developed to a high degree of 
increase in the use of larger interval, as refinement, involving complicated cross- 
a comparison of the “scalic” Gregorian rhythms between two and more drums 
chant with the “chordal** design of clas- and dynamic shades produced by using 
sical music readily shows; see ♦Motion; the fingers in alternation with the palm, 
♦Melody IV.) Another important char- etc. In striking contrast to the European 

[ 600 ] 





PRIMITIVE MUSIC 


PRINTING OF MUSIC 


conception of dance rhythm, the beats of 
the drum frequently do not correspond 
to the natural accent of the melody but 
occur in syncopated position, as in mod- 
ern jazz. Still more interesting is the fact 
that the dance steps and movements them- 
selves frequently occur in a rhythm which 
overlaps that of the melody and that of 
the drums so that a very complex rhyth- 
mic phenomenon results. 

V. Polyphony, Primitive music is com- 
monly thought to consist of a melody only, 
and the absence of harmony and polyph- 
ony is frequently considered one of the 
most characteristic earmarks of non- 
European music. Recent investigations, 
however, have shown that polyphonic 
elements play quite an important part 
in primitive music, particularly in that of 
Africa. *Heterophony is, of course, very 
frequent. As has been mentioned above, 
the beating of the drums is frequently so 
elaborate that it assumes the character of 
an “added part” rather than of a mere 
rhythmic accentuation. A polyphonic 
element is still more clearly noticeable if 
percussion instruments possessing grada- 
tion of pitch are employed, such as *xylo- 
phones [see Ex. 3, from the South African 



the United States (1936); R. Wallaschek, 
Primitive Music (1893); C. Sachs, The 
Rise of Music (1943); id.. The History 
of Musical Instruments (1940); id., A 
World History of the Dance (1937); 
E. M. von Hornbostel, African Negro 
Music (1929); D. H. Varley, African 
Native Music: An Annotated Bibliogra- 
phy (1936); M. Schneider, “Ethnolo- 
gische Musikforschung” (in Th. Preuss, 
Lehrbuch der VolXer^unde, 1937); R. 
Lachmann, “Musik der aussereuropai- 
schen Volker” (in BiiHM); M. Schnei- 
der, Geschichte der MehrstimmigJ^eit i 
(^934); Stumpf, Anfdnge der Musil{^ 
(1911); O. Seewald, Beitrdge zur Kennt- 
nis der stetnzeitlichen Musil^instrumente 
Europas (1934); LavE i.5, 3197-3225 
(Africa); A. Schaefiner, Origine des in- 
struments de musique (1936); St. Chau- 
vret, Musique nbgre ( 1929) ; Ch. S. Myers, 
“The Study of Primitive Music” {MA 
>»)• 

For special periodical articles (which 
number over a thousand) the bibliogra- 
phies contained in most of the above 
books should be consulted. Cf. also D. H. 
Daugherty, A Bibliography of Periodi- 
cal Literature in Musicology . . . (1940), 
pp. i02ff. See also under *Comparative 
musicology; * American Indian music. 

Prime [It.]. First. Primo violino, first 
violin; primo uomo, sec *Prima donna. 

Principal. In German organs, the 
“open diapason,” in 8', 16', 32', and 4' [see 
*Foot]. In American and British organ 
parlance it means a 4'-open diapason only, 
or an 8'-open diapason on the pedal. 


Pangwe]. Finally, examples of singing 
in two distinct parts have been found in 
surprising number by recent investigators. 
Among the devices of primitive polyph- 
ony we find drones, parallel fourths and 
fifths [Ex. 4; East-African Bantu], an- 
tiphonal singing with overlapping of the 
two parts, and even canonic imitation of 
short motives [Ex. 5; from Malaka]. 

Lit.: Hirosi Endo, Bibliography of Ori- 
ental and Primitive Music (Tokyo, 1929); 
G. Herzog, Primitive and PoU^^ Music in 


Printing of music. The printing of 
music followed quickly upon that of ordi- 
nary letter types (Gutenberg’s Bible, c, 
1455). The earliest method used for 
music books was double printing, i.e., 
the staff lines and the notes were printed 
in two different processes, usually the 
former in red, the latter from types in 
black. Various printers of the 15th cen- 
tury used this method for liturgical books 
(missals), c.g., Ulrich Hahn (Rome, 
1476); Jorg Reyser (Wurzburg, 1481); 
Octavianus Scotto (Venice); J. Sensen- 


[ 601 ] 




PRINTING OF MUSIC PRINTING OF MUSIC 

schmidt (1485); Erhardt Ratdolt (1487). the stone was replaced by a copper plate 
In the early i6th century it was brought covered with beeswax on which the musi- 
to highest perfection by Ottaviano dci cal signs were scratched. When the plate 
Petrucci (first printed book the ^Odheca- was then etched with acid the signs ap- 

tOTiy 1501), the only music printer who peared as grooves in the copper plate. In 

can be compared to Gutenberg. He found the modern o^set-process (also called 
an emulator equal to his rank in Peter photo-lithography) the notes, etc., are 
Schoeffer who printed the beautiful pub- first hand-engraved (with the aid of 
lication of Arnolt Schlick’s Tabulaturen punches, of course) on a lead plate from 
(1512). Most printers, however, found which a clear proof on paper is drawn, 

double printing too difficult and replaced Eight or 16 such proofs are pasted on a 

it by two other methods which, with large sheet and a negative photograph of 
many variations and improvements, have this is made. This is reproduced photo- 
persisted side by side until the present graphically on a sensitive zinc plate (cov- 

day, namely (a), bloc\ or sheet printing ered with a photographic emulsion) 

diTid(h)i type printing. which, after treatment with an acid, 

(a) In hloc\ printing, the block for the shows the signs engraved, 

entire page of music is prepared as a total. (b) In type printing, movable types, 

While woodcuts, such as used in N. Bur- comparable in size to the letter types, arc 
tius’ Musices Opusculum (1487), gave put together in order to prepare the block 
extremely clumsy results [illustration in for the printing. In the i6th century 
GD iv, 254], hand-engraved metal plates these types consisted of a note combined 
(used first by A. de Antiquis, 1516) with a small section of the staff, as illus- 
proved very satisfactory, as is shown by _ 

the beautiful prints of Simone Verovio trated. ^ v Although this method 
in Rome (Diletto spirituale, 1586; Cl. 

Merulo’s to, 1598, 1604), of Nicola proved successful for the printing of 
Borbone, Rome {Toccatas of Fresco- *partbooks (vocal music), in which each 
baldi), by the ^Parthenia, etc. Not infre- staff carried only one melodic line, it was 

qucntly the composers themselves en- very tedious and costly in the case of key- 

graved their music, as, for instance, Ul- board music which frequently called for 
rich Steigleder (Ricercar Tabulaturen, chords. Examples of keyboard music 
1624). Throughout the 17th and i8th printed in this manner are Attaingnant’s 

centuries, engraving was the most com- books of 1529. Type-printing was largely 

mon method of printing. American pub- abandoned after 1600, but was reintro- 

lishers imported engraved plates from duced, in a greatly improved manner, by 
England (as early as 1690), Paul Revere Gottlob Immanuel Breitkopf (1755) who 
being the first American to engrave music used tiny pieces of type, one each for 
{c. 1760). An important advance was note-heads, stems, flags, etc., which were 
made in the early i8th century by John put together in a complicated mosaic. 
Walsh who around 1710 (1730?) mecha- This troublesome method is used today 
nized the process of engraving by the use chiefly for short musical examples in- 
of punches, i.e., long tools having a note, serted in printed books, 
etc., at one end, the other end being lAt.\'^.Gzm\At,MusicEngravingand 
struck by a hammer. A combination of Printing (1923); W. A. Fisher, /50 Years 
punching and hand-engraving (c.g., for of Music Publishing in the United States 
long lines) is still usual today. Around (1934); W. B. Squire, Notes on Early 
1800, Senefelder’s lithographic process Music Printing (1896); R. R. Steele, The 
(writing on a smooth stone with a greasy Earliest English Music Printing (1903); 
ink) was used for music publications; K. Meyer, “The Printing of Music, 1473- 
C. M. von Weber participated actively in 1934” {The Dolphin, 1935); Reese, in 
the perfection of this method, and litho- MQ xx; O. Kinkeldey, Music and Music 
graphed his opus 2 himself in 1800. Later Printing in Incunabula (1932; repr. from 

[602] 



PRIX DE ROME 

Papers of the Bibliographical Society of 
America, xxvi); M. Foss, in ML iv, no. 4; 
W. H. Cummings, in PM A xi; A. Thiir- 
lings, in VMW viii; H. Springer, in KIM, 
1906, p. 37, H. Riemann, “Notenschrift 
und Notendruck” (Festschrift . . . der 
Firma C, G. Roeder, 1896). WoHN ii, 
475 ^- 

Prix de Rome. See "^Scholarships, Fel- 
lowships, and Prizes II. 

Prizes. See ^Scholarships, Fellowships, 
and Prizes. 

Processional (e). See ♦Liturgical 
books I. 

Prodana Nevesta. See ♦Bartered 
Bride, The. 

Profession of music. I. Teaching, 
This is the field in which the greatest 
number of opportunities exist, and must 
be regarded as the surest and steadiest 
method of earning an income. The fol- 
lowing branches of teaching exist: 

a. Public Schools. The requirements 
for teachers in the public grade and high 
schools vary greatly, according to state 
and city regulations. The B.A. (or B.S.) 
degree is usually presupposed in larger 
cities and better schools. Many larger 
high schools are demanding an M.A. de- 
gree. A teacher’s certificate alone is suf- 
ficient to secure and hold a position in 
some smaller or musically less progressive 
communities. A teacher’s certificate, in- 
volving knowledge of public school music 
methods, is required in all states, regard- 
less of degrees. Very often the teacher 
must be able to give instruction in one or 
more subjects besides music. 

b. Private Schools, Elementary and Sec- 
ondary. The requirements for teachers 
in private schools vary greatly, according 
to the school in question. Most private 
schools require a B.A., often an M.A. de- 
gree. In some instances a single teacher 
is employed for all classroom teaching — 
theory, history, solfeggio, appreciation, 
etc. He may also be required to teach an 
instrument or voice, direct a chorus or 
band, etc. Some schools, especially smaller 
ones, require that the music master be 


PROFESSION OF MUSIC 

able to teach another subject in addition 
to music. 

c. Colleges and Universities. The B.A. 
degree is presupposed (or B.S., or 
B.Mus.). The M.A. is highly desirable 
and is coming more and more to be re- 
quired. The Ph.D. is valuable for obtain- 
ing positions in the top-ranking colleges 
and universities. A balance of musical 
knowledge (theory and history) with per- 
forming ability is ideal, the one or the 
other being stressed according to the 
teacher’s special abilities. A knowledge 
of the other arts is receiving ever wider 
recognition as an important part of the 
understanding of music. 

d. Music Schools. Here the emphasis 
is apt to be more specifically on perform- 
ance. Although the better music schools 
include on their staff teachers of theory 
and history, they have a place also for the 
sheer virtuoso, whose interest is primarily 
in performance and the training of per- 
formers. 

e. The Private Music Teacher. Except 
for a few “stars,” who have often distin- 
guished themselves first as performers, 
the private music teacher has a difficult 
time of it. Unassociated with any school, 
he depends for his living upon the stu- 
dents he may attract (or lure) to his 
studio. Anyone so minded may open a 
studio, with a result that many incompe- 
tents do so — to the detriment of the 
cause of music. The number of private 
music teachers has decreased in recent 
years and is likely to continue to decrease. 
Private teaching as a side line is a differ- 
ent matter. The church organist, the 
symphonic player, in some cases the 
school music teacher, may be able to in- 
crease their earnings by taking private 
pupils. It goes without saying that recog- 
nized concert artists and figures in the 
public eye will not lack for pupils nor for 
high fees. 

II. Performing. The variety of oppor- 
tunities for performing musicians is great, 
and only a few possibilities can be men- 
tioned here. Frequently performance is 
combined with teaching, as mentioned 
above. The number of musicians who 
earn their living from appearances on the 


[ 603 1 



PROFESSION OF MUSIC 


PROGRAM MUSIC 


concert or operatic stage is comparatively 
small, despite the considerable number of 
students who aspire to such a career. 
Many of those who are in the public eye, 
moreover, consider their concert appear- 
ances as a kind of professional advertise- 
ment. It is probable that there may be a 
good future for local concert artists — 
performers who appear principally in a 
given region, in which region they also 
participate, as teachers or otherwise, in 
the musical life of the community. 

Symphony orchestras (and a few opera 
and ballet companies) provide employ- 
ment for good instrumental players, and 
the growth in recent years of good orches- 
tras in the smaller cities has created new 
opportunities. Musical shows, operettas, 
and musical comedies, offer employment 
to orchestral players, but seldom on a 
permanent basis. Many musicians find 
semi-permanent work in small groups 
playing popular and dance music. 

Conducting offers a limited field for 
those who have this particular ability. 
Orchestras, choruses, and glee clubs pay 
various salaries, ranging from very little 
to very much for the first-rate organiza- 
tions. 

The churches employ a large number 
of musicians, singers, organists, and 
choirmasters. The singers usually do not 
receive enough salary to constitute a liv- 
ing; only a very few metropolitan church- 
es pay more than a few dollars a week 
for soloists. A considerable number of 
churches, however, pay a sufficient salary 
to their organist and choirmaster to en- 
able him (usually with the help of 
private lessons) to support himself from 
this income. 

III. Various other special activities are 
open to professional musicians. Some of 
them, such as composition, offer little in 
material returns. Others, such as writing 
and arranging for motion pictures or for 
the radio, recording for the phonograph, 
acting as commentator for radio pro- 
grams, or making arrangements of popu- 
lar music for “name bands,” pay in gen- 
eral very handsomely but employ a very 
small number of persons. Newspaper 
criticism pays very little, with a few im- 


portant exceptions. Opportunities for 
music librarians have increased during 
the past few years, and it may be that this 
field will become even broader in the 
future. 

Lit.: W. R. Anderson, Music as a Ca- 
reer (1939); E. B. Helm, Music (Voca- 
tional Monographs^ no. 6, 1940); W. 
Martin, T he Conditions of Life and Wor^ 
of Musicians^ 2 vols. (1924); K. Singer, 
Diseases of the Music Profession (1937); 
H. Taubman, Music as a Profession 
(1939). E.B.H. 

Program chanson. See *Chanson 
(3); ^Program music III. 

Program music. I. General. Music 
inspired by, and suggestive of, a program, 
i.e., an extramusical idea indicated in the 
title of the piece and sometimes substanti- 
ated in explanatory remarks or in a pref- 
ace. Thus, program music is the opposite 
of ^absolute music. Although examples 
of program music are found in nearly all 
periods of music history from at least the 
14th century, it was not until the 19th 
century that it assumed an importance 
which enabled it to appear as a serious 
rival of absolute music, even to oust the 
latter — at least temporarily — from its 
dominating position. Around 1900 there 
were many people, particularly writers on 
music, who believed that music, in order 
to be understandable, ought to “express 
something” or to “tell a story,” and who, 
in pursuit of this idea, provided Bach’s 
Forty-eight with descriptive titles (Queen 
Carmen Sylva of Rumania) or main- 
tained that the word giocoso at the head 
of a sonata movement was indicative of 
a particular mood of the composer, hence 
of a program (F. Niecks). Today such 
views are a thing of the past, at least 
among serious musicians and educated 
amateurs. It is generally agreed that 
music is basically an art in its own right 
and of its own substance; that its funda- 
mental purpose is to work with its own 
material, and that too great a reliance on 
outside program is likely to weaken 
rather than to enhance the artistic merit 
of a composition [see * Aesthetics III]. 
As a matter of fact, one cannot help feel- 



PROGRAM MUSIC 


PROGRAM MUSIC 

ing that a good deal of the interest which rauschend Wasser fliesst,” from the can- 

composers have taken in program music tata Ach wie fliichtig, no. 43 [Ex. i], and 

is but the avowal of a lack of truly musi- Debussy’s “Reflets dans I’eau” [Ex. 2] ~ 

cal imagination and constructive ideas, both using “water” as their source of in- 

a lack for which they hoped to make up spiration — illustrates very clearly this 

by an interesting program. In the final difference, a difference which might be 

analysis, there are two types of program briefly described as the difference between 

music: that which is good music regard- the transforming imagination of a painter 

less of the program; and that which is and the reproductive skill — an admirable 

poor music even with a “good” program, skill, to be sure — of a photographer. 

While in the former class there are such Finally, it is important to realize that 

outstanding works of musical art as Bee- early program pieces in which the pro- 

thoven’s Pastoral Symphony and Berlioz’ grammatic idea is pursued with a thor- 

Symphonie fantastique, together with re- oughness comparable to that found in 

markable compositions such as Richard modern examples are usually rather poor 

Strauss’s Pill Eulenspiegd, Dukas’ LAp- from the musical point of view and, there- 

prenti sorcier, and Debussy’s L'Apres- fore, disprove rather than strengthen the 

midi d'un faune, the great majority of position of the champions of program 

modern program pieces fall, no doubt, music. This is particularly true of the 

under the latter category. program chansons of Jannequin, or of the 

Champions of program music have de- battle pieces [see *Battaglia] by Byrd, 

rived satisfaction and encouragement Kerll, and others — Beethoven’s “Battle 

from the fact that programmatic ideas are of Victoria” being no exception, 

frequently found in the works of 17th- II. Methods. In the development of 
and 18th-century composers. Francois program music, a general trend leading 

Couperin with his numerous program from the pictorial to the psychological 

pieces [see below] and Bach with his can be seen. Prior to 1600, musicians 

word-painting in arias and choral prel- limited themselves to the imitation of 

udes have been frequently cited in this natural sounds (birds, battle-cries, thun- 

connection. It must be noted, however, der, trumpet fanfares, etc.), of bodily 

that the old masters approached the prob- movements (flight, running, hobbling, 

lem in an entirely different manner. Far throwing, falling, stopping), or of words 

from identifying themselves with the which immediately associate themselves 

programmatic thought, they used it only with movements (e.g., heaven = high; 

as a point of departure from which they death = fall; see *Word painting). Be- 

ginning with the 17th century we find an 
increased portraying of simple psycho- 
logical phenomena which are “trans- 
lated” into music by means of associated 
movements or sounds. For instance, an- 
guish is portrayed by a trembling or stag- 
gering motion, confidence by secure and 
wide steps, joy by a melody reminiscent 
of laughter, sorrow by descending steps 
in chromatic succession [see ♦Chromati- 
cism], etc. It appears, dien, that there 
exist only two possibilities of illustrative 
program music, namely, imitation of 
sounds and imitation of movements, and 
that these may be used either direedy, 
derived not much more than the general or indirectly by way of association. These 
design of the initial theme. A compari- devices are also the chief vehicles of 19th- 
son between Bach’s aria “So schnell ein century program music, in which, how- 

[605] 





PROGRAM MUSIC 


PROGRAM MUSIC 


ever, they are used with much greater mention some outstanding examples of in- 
subdety and refinement. In addition, the strumental program music of the Baroque 
orchestral palette of modern music opened period, such as Froberger’s beautiful 
possibilities for convincing portrayal and Lamento sopra la dolorosa perdita della 
faithful imitation which greatly enlarged R. Maestd di Ferdinando IV [cf. HAM, 
the potentialities of program music, no. 216; see also *Lamento; *Tombeau], 
While Beethoven’s Pastoral Symphony in- Poglietti’s fun-making Aria allemagna 
troduces the musical cry of the nightin- con variazioni . . . [DTOe i3.ii; also 
gale, the cuckoo, and the quail, Wagner TaAM viii], Johann Kuhnau’s Biblische 
imitated very skillfully the toad and the Historien (depicting the fight between 
serpent (in Rhine gold), and Richard David and Goliath, the marriage of 
Strauss a flock of sheep in his Don Jacob, etc.; cf. DdT 4; HAM, no. 262), 
Quixote, The climax of this trend and, the numerous descriptive pieces by Fran- 
one might say, the reductio ad absurdum ^ois Couperin {Pieces de clavecin, 1713- 
of program music occurs in Respighi’s 30; cf. HAM, no. 265) including an inter- 
The Pines of Rome where the problem esting anticipation of Schumann’s *Car- 
of imitating the nightingale is solved by naval [see *Menestrandise] , Rameau’s 
simply turning on a record taken from “La Poule” and “Les Cyclopes” (Pibces 
“real life.” de clavecin, 1706; cf. HAM, no. 277), 

III. History, Several of the Italian and Bach’s “Capriccio sopra la lontananza 
•caccias of the late 14th century show the del suo fratello dilettissimo” (Capriccio 
attempt to imitate in music the vivid on the Departure of his beloved Brother, 
scenes described in their texts, e.g., street c, 1704), a successful imitation of Kuh- 
cries, sounds of horns, and the general nau’s program pieces. Perhaps the most 
commotion of a hunting scene, a fishing startling example of Baroque program 
trip, a fire. From the same time dates a music is a “Tableau de I’operation de la 
“bird-motet” by Jean Vaillant which re- taille” for viol and harpsichord by Marais 
curs, vvith a German text, among the (1717), describing the painful details of 
compositions of Oswald von Wolken- a surgical operation [reproduced in LiZt'E 
stein [Ex. 3; cf. DTOe 9.i, p. 1 81]. More p. 1776]. Between 1750 and 1800, 

mediocre musicians served an easily satis- 
fied audience with the cheapest kind of 
battle pieces [see ^Battaglia]. 

Beethoven’s Pastoral Symphony of 
deliberate in approach, but much less 1808 marks the beginning of the program 
imaginative, are the program chansons music of the 19th century. His remark 
by Jannequin (1529): “Le Chant des “Expression of feelings rather than por- 
Oyseaux,” “La Chasse,” “L’Alouette” traying” [see ^Pastoral Symphony] char- 
(The Swallow), “La Guerre,” the last of acterized also Schumann’s approach to 
which, suggested by the famous battle of program music (Scenes from Childhood, 
Marignano (1515), was followed by a etc.), except for pieces such as the ’••'Car- 
host of imitations [cf. ^Editions XVI, 7; naval with its realistic references to the 
HAM, no. 107]. Newsidler’s Der Juden- scenes of a masked ball. There followed 
tanz (1535; ApMZ i) is an amusing ex- Berlioz with his autobiographical Sym- 
ample of caricature [see *Satire in music], phonie fantastique (1830-31) and Franz 
and Byrd’s The Bells is remarkable for Liszt who, in his numerous symphonic 

its artistic ingenuity, far superior to the poems, created that type of program mu- 

naiVe attempts of John Munday to imi- sic which was to become dominant in the 
tate “Lightning,” “Thunder,” and “Faire ensuing decades of the 19th century [see 
Wether” {zLFitzwilliam Virginal Boo\ ♦Symphonic poem]. The contemporary 
i, 274 and 23]. Passing over the numer- development known as ♦New Music 
ous instances of programmatic portraying brought about a sharp reaction against 

in operas, oratorios, etc., it may suffice to program music as a goal in itself and ex- 

[606] 


t7^cidbji^cuiupi7^cih u^c£c^cs$t 



PROLATION 


PROPORTIONS 


ploited the potentialities of musical por- 
traying chiefly as a means of caricature 
and jest [see ^Satire in music]. Sec 
*Word-painting. 

Lit.: F. Niecks, Programme Music in 
the last Four Centuries (i907);W. Klattc, 
Zur Geschichte der Programm-Musi\ 
(1905); O. Klauwell, Geschichte der Pro- 
gramm-Musif^ (1910); A. Wellek, Dop- 
pelempfinden und Programm Musi^ 
(Diss. Vienna 1928); W. P. James, “Mu- 
sic Pure and Applied” (ML ii, no. 4); 
H. Antclifle, in PM A, 37; M. D. Calvo- 
coressi, “Esquisse d’une esthetique de la 
musique a programme” (SIM ix); M. 
Brenet, “Essai sur les origines de la mu- 
sique descriptive” (RMl xiv, xv); K. 
Schubert, fD/e Programm Musil{ (1933). 

Prolation [L. prolatio] . See ^Mensural 
notation II. In the early 14th century the 
term had a somewhat different signifi- 
cance, denoting all the mensurations 
(modus, tempus, and prolatio), or else 
the four combinations of tempus and 
prolatio (Vitry’s “quatrc prolacions”). 
Cf. ApNPM, passim. 

Prologue. In early operas and ballets 
an introductory scene in which one or 
several narrators, representing deities, 
virtues, etc., give a brief expose of the 
following opera, a description of its sym- 
bolic meaning, or of its dedicatory signif- 
icance. The prologues sometimes devel- 
oped into a small play with an entirely 
independent action, designed to serve as 
a dedication to, or a eulogy of, the royal 
or princely patron. An example is the 
prologue of Lully’s Phaeton (1683) which 
consists of 12 different pieces. The simple 
narrative prologue of the earliest operas 
(Caccini’s and Peri’s Euridice, 1600; 
Monteverdi’s Orfeo, 1607) has been suc- 
cessfully revived by Leoncavallo, in his 
I *Pagliacci (1892). Cf. H. Leichtentritt, 
in PAMS, 1936. 

Prolongement [F.]. The sostenuto 
pedal of the pianoforte. 

Prometheus. ( i ) A ballet by Beethoven 
(op. 43, 1801); see ^Ballet II. — (2) A 
•symphonic poem by Scriabin (op. 60, 
1911). 


Pronto [It.]. Quick. 

Pronunciation. Cf. A. J. Ellis, Pro- 
nunciation for Singers (1877; E., F., G., 
It.); C. J. Brennan, Words in Singings 
E. Wilcke, German Diction in Singing 
(1930). 

Prooemium [L.]. Humanistic (16th- 
century) name for prelude. 

Proper, proprium. See •Ordinary. 

Proportional notation. Same as 
•Mensural notation. The term is mis- 
leading, to say the least, since the •propor- 
tions form only a part of the mensural 
system, and one the importance of which 
has been greatly overemphasized. More- 
over, it is unfortunate since it tends to per- 
petuate the apparently ineradicable idea 
that 15th-century composers such as Ock- 
eghem and Isaac did nothing but “in- 
dulge in proportional subtleties,” and 
that the composers of the “Golden Age” 
(Palestrina) finally succeeded in “casting 
away the fetters of the proportional sys- 
tem.” 

Proportions, (i) In •mensural nota- 
tion, the diminution or (more rarely) 
augmentation of the normal note values 
in arithmetic ratios. For instance, the 
sign ^ indicates that, in the subsequent 
passage, each note is reduced to three- 
fourths of its normal value (the so-called 
integer valor), or, in other words, that 
four notes of this passage equal in dura- 
tion three notes of the preceding passage 
[Ex.iJ. 

The most important proportions are 
proportio dupla, tripla, and sesquialtera, 
which call respectively for a diminution 
of the note values in the ratios of i :2, 1 13, 
and 2:3. The first is usually indicated by 
a vertical dash drawn through the sign of 
mensuration, thus: (f, 0 [Ex. 2,a], the 
others by figures [Ex. 3,a; 4,3]. In the 
accompanying illustrations. Ex. 2 shows 
proportio dupla (^S prop,= i S int. vaL); 
Ex. 3, proportio tripla (35 prop, = i 5 int, 
val^'. Ex. 4, proportio sesquialtera (3 5 



PROPORTIONS 


PROSLAMBANOMENOS 


prop, — 2 S int, val,), Ii 
that under the sign (j: t 

1 Ex. 
:he be 

2 it a 
at (* 

ppears 

tactuSy 

t c ^ a.^ 0:.^ " *4 

a 




a 


77— r-- 


a 




rendered as a quarter-note) is represented 
by the brevis^ while under the normal 
signs of mensuration, c, o, it falls on the 
semihrevis. Therefore, the latter were 
called alia semibreve^ the former, *alla 
breve^ a name which still persists, the only 
remnant of the proportional system. The 
reduction indicated by sesquialtera could 
also be produced by ^coloration. Regard- 
ing proportio tripla^ see also *Proportz. 
See also *Time signatures. 

The system of proportions, although 
relatively simple in principle, presents 
certain difficulties for which the reader 
is referred to the special studies on men- 
sural notation {WoHN\ ApNPM), Oc- 
casionally composers went quite far in 
the devising of proportional tricks, com- 
bined with canonic riddles. Nonetheless, 
these cases are, on the whole, not numer- 
ous and typical enough to justify the 
sweeping statements, current in many his- 
tory books, regarding the speculative and 
“purely intellectual” character of early 
Flemish music. The proportions, in their 
normal use, were by training and experi- 
ence just as familiar to the choir singer 
of the 15th century as are the operatic 
roles to a singer of today. In their more 
tricky application they offered him a com- 
bination of intellectual and artistic en- 
joyment for which our time has no anal- 
ogy [see under ^Proportional notation]. 

(2) In early treatises on musical acous- 
tics the proportions are used to indicate 
the Pythagorean relationships of vibrat- 
ing strings and, consequently, to denote 
intervals. For instance, dupla 2:1 is the 
octave, tripla 3:1 the twelfth (compound 
fifth), sesquialtera 3:2 the fifth, sesqui‘ 
tertia 4:3 the fourth. See "^Acoustics III. 


Proportz, Proportio. In the German 
dance literature of the i6th century a 
*Nachtanz in quick triple time, following 
a main dance in slower duple time. Both 
dances have the same melody in different 
meters. This is actually implied in the 
name which indicates the application of 
a ^proportion to the original melody. 
Nominally, this proportion was proportio 
tripla (another name for such a Nachtanz 
was Tripla); actually, however, it was — 
for reasons which cannot be considered 
here — proportio sesquialtera. There- 
fore, three notes of the Proportz equal in 
duration two notes of the main dance. 
The accompanying example shows the 



exact rhythmic relationship between the 
two [cf. W. Merian, Der Tanz in den 
deutschen T abulaturbuchern (1927), 
77]. Cf, H. Riemann, “Tiinze des 16. 
Jahrhunderts a double emploi” (DM 
vi.3). 

Proposta [It.]. Term for the subject 
{dux) of a fugue, in contradistinction to 
risposta, the answer {comes), 

Proprietas. See ^Ligatures. 

Proprium missae [L.]. Proper of the 
Mass. See under ^Ordinary. 

Prosa [L.], prose [F.]. A term, used 
particularly in France, for the medieval 
*sequence. The name, which is in a 
somewhat puzzling contradiction to the 
fact that the texts of the sequences are 
poetic, has been explained by the remark 
that they are more like prose than are 
the strictly metrical poems of the Latin 
hymns. Another explanation, more plau- 
sible, derives the name from Pro sa^ i.e.. 
Pro s{equenti)a [cf. RiHM i.2, 116]. 

Proslambanomenos [Gr., the added]. 
The lowest tone A (not G!) of the Greek 
scale, which was added beneath the low- 
est tetrachord. Sec *Greek music n(a)! 


[ 608 ] 




PROTESTANT CHURCH MUSIC 

Protestant church music (Ger- 
man). See ^Church music III. For lit- 
erature cf. MoML, 399. 

Ps. Short for psalm or, in German 
scores, for Posaune, i.e., trombone. 

Psalm [F. psaum; G. Psalm; It. salmo]. 
The Book of Psalms has been, no doubt, 
the most influential single source of text 
in all musical history. There is ample 
evidence that even in their original form 
the psalms were not pure poetry but 
songs, perhaps with an instrumental ac- 
companiment. Some information regard- 
ing the ancient Hebrew method of psalm 
singing is contained in the inscriptions 
given with many psalms. According to 
modern Biblical scholarship, these do not 
indicate “classification according to in- 
struments,’* but classification according 
to standard melodies. For instance, the 
inscription commonly translated “To the 
chief musician upon Gittith (Shoshan- 
nim, Alamoth, etc.)” [cf. Ps. 8, 45, 46] 
actually means: “To be sung to the strain 
‘Wine-press’ (‘Lilies,’ ‘Maidens,’ etc.),” 
these terms denoting *melody-types simi- 
lar to the Arabian maqams [cf. SaHMI, 
I24ff]. 

In its present state, the Book of Psalms 
consists of 150 poems; in the Latin version 
of the Bible (Vulgate) which is used in 
the Roman rites, the numbering is one 
less between no. 10 and no. 147, since the 
English nos. 10 and ii are united into one 
(no. 10) of the Vulgate, and the Vulgate 
nos. 146 and 147 are united into one (no. 
147) of the English version. 

The psalms are written in a style of 
“poetic prose.” Each psalm consists of a 
number of verses (designated Y 
liturgical books of the Catholic Church) 
which frequently fall into halves express- 
ing the same thought in two different 
ways (parallelismus membrorum). The 
psalms were accepted by almost all the 
Christian Churches as the textual founda- 
tion of their music, with the exception of 
the German Protestant Church, whose 
music is based on the ’•^chorale. For the 
psalm music of the Catholic Church see 
^Psalmody, *Psalm tones; for that of the 
Anglican, see ^Anglican Chant; for that 


PSALMODY, GREGORIAN 

of the Reformed Churches see ^Psalter; 
for the polyphonic composition of psalm 
texts see *Psalm composition. See also 
•Penitential psalms. 

Psalm composition. Aside from their 
strictly liturgical use, the psalms have been 
used innumerable times as texts for mu- 
sical compositions. Numerous *motets of 
the 15th and i6th centuries are settings of 
Latin psalms, and most of the •anthems 
use psalm texts in English translation [sec 
also •Psalter]. A high-point of psalm 
composition is the composition of all the 
•penitential psalms by Lassus, while the 
fame of Allegri’s •Miserere would seem 
to be less well-deserved. In the 17th and 
1 8th centuries paraphrased psalm texts 
were composed, e.g., in Benedetto Mar- 
cello’s Estro poetico-harmonico (8 vols., 
1724, ’27). Among the modern psalm 
compositions those by Schubert (Psalm 23, 
op. 132), Mendelssohn, and Liszt are out- 
standing. See also *Bay Psalm Book. 

Lit.: M. Cauchie, “Les Psaumes de Jan- 
nequin” (in *Editions XXIV B, 3/4); 
B. Widmann, “Die Kompositionen der 
Psalmen von Statius Olthof” (VMW v). 

Psalmody, Gregorian. The *psalms 
are by far the most important texts used 
in Gregorian chant [see •Gregorian chant 
II]. In the early days of Christian wor- 
ship the service consisted only of psalm 
singing, and in spite of the many and 
fundamental changes which took place in 
the ensuing centuries the psalms have re- 
tained their dominant position in the 
Catholic liturgy. This development, which 
may have taken place between the years 
400 and 800, led to a variety of forms and 
types for the different items of the chant, 
each item receiving that structure which 
was proper for it from the point of view 
of the liturgy. All these forms go back to 
three original types, namely: I. direct 
psalmody, II. responsorial psalmody, and 
III. antiphonal psalmody. The last two 
terms originally refer to two different 
methods of performance, one in which 
there was alternation between a soloist 
and the chorus (responsorial), the other 
in which there was alternation between 
two half-choruses (antiphonal). It must 


[609] 



PSALMODY, GREGORIAN 

be noted, however, that this distinction 1$ 
no longer valid [see ^Responsorial J and 
that the terms, therefore, have only his- 
torical and structural significance. 

I. Direct Psalmody means the singing 
of a psalm (or a number of verses thereof) 
straight, without any textual addition or 
modification. This method survives in 
two types, one belonging to the Mass, the 
other to the Office. The former is the 
•tract. The latter is known as psalmus 
directaneus (in. directum^ indirectum) 
and means the singing of a psalm to a 
psalm tone, but without antiphon [see 
under III; also •Psalm tone]. For this 
method, which is rarely used, special 
psalm tones are provided, under the 
name tonus in directum [cf. ARy 30*; also 
LU, 1 18, 1776]. 

II. Responsorial Psalmody. This meth- 
od of psalm-singing was directly taken 
over from the Jewish service. Originally, 
the entire psalm was sung by a soloist 
(cantor) y with the chorus (congregation 
or, eventually, the church choir, schola) 
responding after each verse with a short 
affirmative sentence such as Amen, Alle- 
luia, etc. (A direct model for this exists 
in the Psalm 136, in which each verse ends 
with the sentence: “For his mercy cn- 
dureth forever.”) The resulting form 
may be indicated as follows: 

(R) y R V R y...R 

(R is the recurrent response, V stands for 
the verses of the psalm; straight under- 
lining indicates choral performance; dot- 
ted lines, solo performance). Although 
originally the singing of the cantor was 
but a simple recitation in the style of an 
inflected monotone, similar to that of the 
psalm tones, there developed, probably 
in the 3d and 4th centuries, more elaborate 
methods of singing which finally led to a 
highly melismatic style in the singing of 
the psalm verses. A similar development 
took place with the responses which, 
originally sung by the congregation, soon 
passed over to the trained chorus (schola) 
and grew considerably longer, both in text 
and in music. Naturally the increase in 
length of the single sections, verses as 
well as response, necessitated a drastic 


PSALMODY, GREGORIAN 

reduction in the number of sections [for 
a similar development, see the one leading 
from the •canzona to the •sonata]. In- 
stead of singing an entire psalm, single 
verses were selected, varying in number 
from four to only one. Cuts were also 
made in the response in such a way that 
this was not repeated in full after each 
verse, but in a reduced form, its initial 
half (or third) being omitted. 

It is in these more or less radically re- 
duced forms that responsorial psalmody 
entered into the Gregorian collection. In 
only a few special chants does the original 
scheme survive to some extent. An un- 
usually full-shaped example is the •re- 
sponsorium Aspiciens a longe [respon- 
sorium for Matins on the First Sunday in 
Advent; cf. GD iv, 370]. Its scheme is: 

R Vi R' V2 R" Vs R'" D R"". 

R is the respond: Aspiciens a longe ecce 
video dei potentiam venientemy et nebu- 
lam totam terram tegentem, • he ohviam 
eiy et dicite: f Nuncia nobis si tu es ipscy 
$ qui regnaturus es § in populo Israel. In 
the four repetitions of the respond, this is 
successively shortened from the begin- 
ning, as is indicated by the signs •, f , if, §, 
the last repetition R"" being only: in po- 
pulo Israel. The verses Vi, V2, V3 are 
taken from three different psalms, and are 
sung, not to a specially composed melody, 
but to the seventh psalm tone (this is an 
archaic feature not to be found in any of 
the other chants of responsorial psal- 
mody). The letter D stands for the minor 
•doxology, the first part of which, Gloria 
patri et filio et spiritui sanctOy is frequently 
added in the forms of responsorial (and 
of antiphonal) psalmody as a final “verse.” 
A chant of almost equal completeness of 
structure is the responsorium Libera mcy 
which is sung at Exequies (GRy io3*; 
LUy 1767; HAMy no. 14). Following is 
its scheme: 

R Vi R' V2 R" V3 R . 

The text of the full respond is: Libera me, 
Dominey • de morte aeternay in die ilia 
tremenda: *quando caeli movendi sunt et 


1 610 ] 



PSALMODY, GREGORIAN 


PSALMODY, GREGORIAN 


terra: f Dum veneris judicare saeculum 
per ignem. Here the second ^ as well as 
the f indicates the cuts for the two middle 
responds (R': Quando-terra\ R": Dum- 
ignem) while the first asterisk, somewhat 
confusingly, indicates a difierent practice 
found with all the responsorial chants, 
i.e., the soloist opening (*Incipit) of the 
first (and last) choral response. In our 
schemes, this method is indicated by the 
symbol: — , instead of the plain: — . 
Likewise a choral ending of a solo section 

is indicated thus: . Still another 

responsorium showing the rondo struc- 
ture of the early responsorial psalmody is 
the Subvenite of the Requiem Mass [GR, 
io6*; LU, 1765]. 

Aside from such isolated examples, the* 
surviving categories of responsorial chant 
are still more reduced. The most impor- 
tant of these types are the *responsorium 
(prolixum), the responsorium breve ^ the 
^gradual, and the ^alleluia. The follow- 
ing table shows the usual form of these 
chants: 

( 1 ) Responsorium : R V R' or R V R' R 

or R y R' D R 

(2) Responsorium breve: R R' D 

V Ri 

(3) Alleluia; R' R JL 

(4) Gradual: ^ y_ (R) 

Examples for (i) are found in LUy 726, 
722, 375. The responsorium breve has a 


1 RChrislit flit Del vl-ot re tiobU 



5V.(2ui ee cUa ad dejf-te-rain Putrid 


3 



S'D.Gb-rt-A pA'irijct et Spii'ta-l Ssnetc . 



7 V €x^3urgCtOtristefad-ja-VA nos 

8 R. tiberft no* newen tuum. 


each section. The final V and R are sung 
to a new melody in repetition. The ac- 
companying example of a responsorium 
breve [AR^ 19; LI 7 , 229] will also help to 
clarify the structure of the other, more 
melismatic chants. In the Alleluias the 
response consists of the word “Alleluia” 
only. This is sung first by the soloist (R^), 
after which the chorus repeats it and con- 
tinues with the *jubilus on (allelui)a— 
(R). Actually, the structure of the alle- 
luias is somewhat more complex than our 
scheme suggests, since the melody for the 
verse practically always closes with that 
of the jubilus, thus leading to the follow- 
ing scheme: A, A+j, B-j-j, A+j. With 
the graduals the repetition of the response 
is optional [cf. LU, 320]. 

III. Antiphonal Psalmody originally 
consisted in the singing of the psalms 
by two alternating half-choruses. This 
method was introduced into the Western 
Church by St. Ambrosius (333-397)) in 
imitation of Syrian models. The exact 
procedure in the early antiphonal psal- 
mody is not known; there may have been 
alternating performance for the two halves 
of each single verse, or (more likely) for 
each pair of verses [sec * Antiphon (His- 
tory)]. 

The antiphonal method of psalm sing- 
ing was at an early time enriched by the 
addition of a short sentence which was 
sung by the whole chorus (or, perhaps, 
the congregation) after each two verses, 
and which was called antiphon (A). 
There resulted a rondeau-like scheme: 
A Vi V2 A V3 V4 A . . . A, similar in 
structure to that of the early responsorial 
psalmody. As in the case of the latter, the 
extended scheme survives only in certain 
special chants, such as the *invitatorium, 
which is sung at matins in the Office of 
the Dead and in which Ps. 94 Venite exuU 
temus Domino (Ps. 95, O come, let us 
sing unto the Lord, of the English num- 
bering) is sung according to the following 
scheme [cf. AR, (152)]: A A Vi V2 

A V3 V4 A' Vs Ve Vj A Vg Va 


fairly extended (somewhat variable) 
scheme, but short and simple melodies in 


A' Vio Vn A V12 A is the 

antiphon Regem cui omnia vivunty *Ve- 


[ 6ii 1 



PSALM TONES 


PSALTER 


nite adoremus) A' stands tor its second 
half alone; the verses of the Latin text 
(Vulgate) do not always agree with the 
divisions of the English version; the last 
verse is: Requiem aeternam dona eis 
Domine: et lux perpeiua luceat eis (re- 
placing the Gloria Patri in the Office of 
the Dead). A similarly extended struc- 
ture (A Vj A Vg A V3 A V4 A D 
A) occurs with the antiphon Lumen ad 
revelationem gentium which is sung in 
alternation with the verses of the canticle 
Nunc dimittis during the distribution of 
the candles on the feast of Purification 
[LU, 1357]. 

Aside from such special chants, there 
are four standard types of chants which 
are considered as derivatives of antiphonal 
psalmody, the office-psalms and the *in- 
troit^ *offertorium, and ^communion of 
the Mass. The office-psalms are complete 
psalms sung to a psalm tone (the same for 
each verse) and introduced and closed by 

a short antiphon: A Vi V2 Vn A 

[see ’*‘Psalm tones]. The form of the in- 
troitus is: A V_ D A. (D is the minor 

doxology, see above.) In the offertorium 
and communion the verse has been en- 
tirely lost, so that only the antiphon: A 
remains. 


Psalm tones. In Gregorian chant, the 
recitation melodies which are used for the 
singing of the (complete) psalms during 
the Office [see ^Psalmody III]. There 
arc eight such tones, one for each church 
mode, and all in the character of an in- 
flected ^monotone. The main note of the 
recitation, called tenor (repercussio, tuba, 
reciting note), is always the dominant of 
the mode [sec *Church modes]. Accord- 
ing to the binary structure of the psalm 
verses, the psalm tone falls into halves, 
the former consisting of initium (in- 




ceptio), tenor, and mediatio; the latter of 
tenor and terminatio. If the former half 


is too long to be sung in one breath, there 
appears another slight inflection at the 
breathing point, the fiexa. The accom- 
panying example (verse i of Ps. i: Beatus 
vir, qui non abiit in consilio impiorum, 
f et in via peccatorum non stetit, * et in 
cathedra pestilentiae non sedit; cf. LU, 
771) shows all these details. 

Each psalm is sung with an enframing 
♦antiphon which occurs in full at the end, 
and is reduced to its first word or two 
{incipit only, that is) at the beginning; 
except on greater feasts (“Doubles”) when 
the antiphon is sung entire before as well 
as after. The antiphon determines not 
only the psalm tone, which has to be in 
the same mode as the antiphon, but also 
its ending (terminatio), for which a num- 
ber of different formulae, called differen- 
tiae (differences), are provided. The one 
to be chosen is so designed as to lead back 
smoothly to the initial note of the anti- 
phon, as sung after the last verse of the 
psalm. It is indicated, e.g., as follows: 
Ant. 8.C (mode 8 with the ending on c). 
Since the Gloria patri . . . seculorum amen 
[see ♦Doxology] invariably serves as a 
last verse of the psalm, the liturgical books 
give the differentia with the syllables 
♦Euouae( = seewlorwm Amen). The 
antiphon Beatus populus with some verses 
of the psalm 143 serves as an example (it 
must be noticed that the initium is sung 
with the first psalm verse). Cf. also 
HAM, no. II, 



An exceptional psalm tone is the tonus 
peregrinus which has a different tenor for 
its first and second half. It is used only for 
the psalm In exitu Israel [AR, 28*; LU, 
160]. Cf. H. Gai’sser, in TG vii. For 
tonus directaneus see ♦Psalmody I. 


Psalter. Name for the Book of Psalms 
translated into the vernacular (English, 
French, Dutch Psalter), frequently in 


1 612 ] 



PSALTER 


PSALTER 

rhymed versions (metrical Psalter), and and not accent; rather does it lie in the 
provided with music for congregational greater flexibility and contrapuntal adapt- 

singing [for a Psalter of the 3d century, ability of the French melodies which were 

see*Hymns]. close enough in nature to Plainsong to 

To all branches of the Christian faith render them inviting to composers long 
as well as to the Jewish congregation, the trained in the Roman tradition of polyph- 
Book of Psalms has been a perennial re- ony. Among the composers who culti- 
source; and it was natural, therefore, that vated part settings of the French Psalter 
the Reformed Churches should, with one were Bourgeois, Goudimel, Jannequin, 
exception [see ^Chorale; ^Protestant mu- Lc Jeune, and the Dutchman Sweelinck 
sic], turn to it for the texts which were to [Ex. in HAM, nos. 126, 132] . The French 
supply them with material for congrega- Psalter was adopted in the Netherlands 
tional song. The fact that the words of in 1566, replacing here the collection of 
the Lutheran Chorales were not “in- *Soutcrliedekens of 1540. 
spired,” that is, were not drawn from the During the persecutions under Queen 
Bible, but from the poetic and religious Mary, about the middle of the i6th cen- 
feeling of ordinary human beings, caused tury, many English Protestants fled to 
them to be rejected outside of Germany. Geneva where they came under the influ- 
Instead, the other Reformed Churches ence of the French Psalter. The result 
turned to the Psalters. The most impor- was the so-called Anglo-Genevan Psalter 
tant and influential of the Psalters was with the publication of which both Eng- 
the French, the completed form of which lishmen and Scotchmen were connected, 
appeared in 1562, the metrical versions of The French style is strongly represented 

the texts being supplied by Marot and in this work, and after the return of the 

Beza. Bourgeois and Dubisson were sue- refugees to Britain the Scottish Psalter of 

cessively the musical editors. About Du- 1564 continued to perpetuate the French 

bisson’s comparatively brief connection influence, while the English Psalter pur- 
with the work little is known, and it is to sued a quite different course with regard 
Bourgeois that credit is generally assigned to both verse and music. Among the 
for the excellence of the music. Bour- better-known English Psalters are Stern- 
geois’ contributions consist of adaptations hold and Hopkins, completed and pub- 
of existing melodies, some of them drawn lished by Day in 1562; Ravenscroft 
from secular sources, and of composed (1621); Playford (1677); and Tate and 
tunes which are assumed to be his own. Brady (1696). The English type of psalm 
In conformity with the Protestant trend tune consists of a number of shorter notes 
toward musical simplification, the set- lying between two longer ones. Such an 
tings are almost uniformly one note to a invariable pattern is bound, after many 
syllable. Calvin was opposed to the set- repetitions, to prove monotonous and it 
ting of the Psalter melodies in parts, but it compares most unfavorably with the free 
was inevitable, of course, that they should flowing and infinitely varied melodies of 
be so treated. In this connection it is in- the French prototype, 
teresting to compare the part settings of Another group of refugees was to come 
Chorales by German Reformation com- under the influence of the French form, 
posers with similar settings of the French this time in Amsterdam, where Henry 
psalm tunes. In both instances the chief Ainsworth in 1612 brought out a Psalter 
voice is in the tenor; but where the Cho- for the benefit of the English “Separa- 
rale theme seems to generate a somewhat tists.” Thence it traveled to America with 
stiff and ungrateful counterpoint in the the Pilgrims in 1620. Its hold on its dev- 
surrounding parts, the Psalter lends itself otees must have been remarkable, for 
readily to a homogeneous musical treat- though the highly influential ^Bay Psalm 
ment. The root of the difference is not to Book, appeared in 1640, Ainsworth’s Psal- 
be found in the texts, for both the French ter was not entirely displaced for many 
and the German were based on quantity years after that date. 

[ 613 ] 



PSALTER 


PUBLICATIONS OF MUSIC 


It is significant that in the early i8th Psaltery, Name for ancient and medi- 

century in both England and America the eval instruments consisting of a flat sound- 

grace or ornament became popular in board over which a number of strings are 

psalm singing. The clerical protests which stretched which are plucked with the 

were made against this use are character- fingers. This manner of playing distin- 

istic of more than one attempt in the his- guishes the psaltery from the ^dulcimer 

tory of music to preserve a medium which which is similar in construction, but struck 

was becoming outmoded. In the first with hammers. The term is also used in 

place, the Psalter, while its range of ex- scientific classification of instruments for 

pression is certainly wide, is the language a group which includes, among others, 

and the feeling of another day. The wor- the harpsichord, a keyed psaltery [see 

shiper cannot be blamed for wishing to ♦Instruments IV, A, i (a)], 

sing words more expressive of religious The name psalterion is encountered in 
feeling cast in terms of contemporary Greek literature, possibly denoting a harp 

thought. Second, the music was formally [cf. SaHMI, 136, also ii5f]. In a letter 

monotonous, and while it was praise- attributed to St. Jerome (c. 330-420) a 

worthy for its pervading dignity, the man- psalterium decacordum (ten-stringed psal- 

ner of its performance was such as to in- terium) is depicted which has the shape 

spire revolt and encourage any relief from of a rectangle and which the writer inter- 

its monotony. Aside from the fact that prets symbolically, relating the strings to 

the pace was probably painfully slow, the the Ten Commandments and the four 

custom of *“lining-out” the psalm dis- sides of the frame to the four Gospels, 

rupted the sense of the text and destroyed From the 14th to the i6th century psal- 

musical continuity. In the i8th century teries were used in various shapes. The 

the ♦hymn began to make its way among normal type had the shape of a symmet- 

English-spcaking Protestant congrega- rical trapezoid, sometimes with the slant- 

tions in general. Its eventual adoption ing sides curved inwards. Such instru- 

wdth a corresponding neglect of psalm ments were called cano, canon^ after their 

singing was neither completely profit- Arabic model, the *J{anun, In another 

able nor wholly to be deplored. It is type the shape was one-half of the above 

noteworthy that Scotch devotion to trapezoid (thus with a rectangle to the 

the Psalter was so strong that it was left side), and this was called 

not until 1861 that the Established or micanon (sometimes perverted into 

Church of Scotland authorized the sing- medlcmale) , This shape, which persisted 

ing of hymns. in the winged form of the harpsichord 

Lit.: A. C. Welch, The Psalter in Life^ and of the pianoforte, had a certain like- 

W or ship and History Cross, ness to that of a pig’s head, hence the 

Modern Worship and the Psalter (1934); name istromento di porco given by Prae- 

C. C. Keet, A Liturgical Study of thePsal- torius {Syntagma Musicum ii, 1620). 

ter ( 1928); W. S. Pratt, The Music of the Among the more recent types of psalteries 

French Psalter of 1^62 (1939); J. War- are the Austrian ♦zither, the Finnish 

rington, Short Titles of Boo\s Relating to ♦kantele, and the Russian ♦gusli. See also 

the History of Psalmody in the United ♦Bell harp. See the illustrations on p. 

States, 1620-1820 (1898); G. R. Wood- 823. 

ward, “The Genevan Psalter of 1562 . . .” 

{PM A xliv); W. Truron, “The Rhythm Public school music. See ♦Music 

of Metrical Psalm Tunes” (ML ix, no. i); Education I. Cf. also article in O. Thomp- 

W. S. Pratt, “The Importance of the Early son. The International Cyclopedia of 

French Psalter” (Mp xxi); articles “Psal- Music and Musicians (1939); bibl. pp. 

ter” and “Bourgeois” in GD; article 227of. 

“Hymn and Hymn Tunes” in P. C. 

Scholes, The Oxford Companion to Mu- Publications of music. See ♦Editions, 
Wc (1940). A. T. D. historical. 

[ 614 ] 



PUBLISHERS 

Publishers, Music. I. Publishers of 
the Present Day, Following is a selected 
list of important firms, arranged alpha- 
betically according to countries. 

Argentina: Ricordi, Buenos Aires. 

Austria: L. Doblinger, Vienna. — Uni- 
versal Edition, Vienna (amalgamated 
with Wiener Philharmonischer Verlag), 

Belgium (all Brussels): Schott Freres. 

— A. Cranz. — Bosworth & Co. 

Brazil: Arthur Napoleao, Rio de Ja- 
neiro. — Carlos Wehrs, Rio. — Ricordi, 
Sao Paulo. 

Czechoslovakia (all Prague): Hudebni 
Matice, — Fr. A. Urbanek. 

Denmark^: Wilhelm Hansen, Copen- 
hagen. 

England (all London): Augener, i8 
Great Marlborough St., W. — Boosey & 
Hawkes, 295 Regent St., W. i. — Chap- 
pell & Co., 50 New Bond Street, W. — 
J. & W. Chester, ii Great Marlborough 
St., W. — J. Curwen & Sons, 24 Berners 
St., W. — Ernst Eulenburg, 36 Dean St., 
W. I. — Murdoch & Co., 463 Oxford St., 
W. I. — Novello & Co., 160 Wardour St., 
W. — Oxford Press, Amen House, War- 
wick Sq. — Schott & Co., 48 Great Marl- 
borough St., W. I. — Stainer & Bell, 58 
Berners St., W. 

France (all Paris): P. de Choudens. — 
Durand & Cie. — Max Eschig. — H. Heu- 
gel. — A. Leduc. — H, Lemoine fils. — 
Rouart, Lerolle et Cie. — M. Senart et 
Cie. 

Germany: C. F. Peters, Leipzig. — B. 
Schott’s Sohne, Mainz. — Breitkopf und 
Hartel, Leipzig. — Bote & Bock, Berlin. 

— Adolph Fiirstner, Berlin. — C. F. 
Kahnt, Leipzig. — Georg Kallmeyer, 
Wolfenbiittel. — Kistner & Siegel, Leip- 
zig. — Barenreiter Verlag, Kassel. — 
Simrock Verlag, Berlin. — Litolff Co., 
Braunschweig. — Steingraber, Leipzig. 

Holland: G. Alsbach Co., Amsterdam. 

Hungary: Rosznyai, Budapest. — Roz- 
savolgyi Co., Budapest. 

ltdy (all Milan): G. Ricordi Co. — 
Sonzogno. — A. Carisch. 

Mexico: Wagner y Levien Co. 

Norway: Norsk Musikforlag, Oslo. 

Peru: Guillermo Brandes, Lima. 

Russia: Russian State Music Publishing 


PUBLISHERS 

Department (known as Musgiz), Mos- 
cow. — Triton, Leningrad. 

Scotland: Paterson & Sons, Edinburgh. 

Spain: Union Musical Espahola, Ma- 
drid. — Ildefonso Alier, Madrid. — J. B. 
Pujol & Co., Barcelona. 

Sweden (all Stockholm): Lundqvists 
Fdrlag. — Abr. Hirschs Forlag. — Carl 
Gehrmans Musikforlag. 

Switzerland: Foetisch, Lausanne. — 
Henn, Geneva. — Hug, Zurich. — Chouct 
& Gaden, Geneva. 

United States: Associated Music Pub- 
lishers, New York (sales agents for for- 
eign publications). — Arrow Music Press, 
New York (Copland, Piston, Harris, Ses- 
sions). — Carl Fischer, Inc., New York 
(Bloch, Godovsky, Kreisler, etc.). — 
C.C. Birchard Co., Boston (school music; 
also Cadman, Chadwick, Hanson, Jans- 
sen, etc.). — Theodore Presser Co., Phila- 
delphia {The Etude; educational publica- 
tions). — E. C. Schirmer Music Co., Bos- 
ton (choral and a-cappella music). — G. 
Schirmer, New York (editions of the clas- 
sics; also Loeffler, Harris, Bloch, S. Bar- 
ber, W. Schumann). — Elkan Vogel 
(agent for French publishers). 

Uruguay: Editorial Cooperativa Inter- 
americana de Compositores, Montevideo. 

For a more complete list see the article 
in O. Thompson, The International Cy- 
clopedia of Music and Musicians (1943). 
Also Pierre Key’s Music Year Boo 1 { and 
Who is Who in Music (Lee Stern Press, 
1941), p. 673. 

II. History, The musical publishing 
business started with Octavianus Scotus 
of Venice (1480) and Ottaviano dei 
Petrucci of Venice who, in 1498, obtained 
from the Seignory a twenty years’ monop- 
oly for the printing of music (other than 
plainsong). His first publication was the 
famous *Odhecaton of 1501 which was 
followed by a score of most important 
books of masses, motets, and frottolas [cf, 
GD, “Petrucci”]. Thirty years after Pe- 
trucci, the French Pierre Attaingnant 
founded a publishing house at Paris 
which, from 1529 to 1549, issued books of 
lute music, organ music, motets, masses, 
and 35 books of chansons. In the later 
part of the i6th century quite a number 


[615] 



PUBLISHERS 


PUNCTUS 


of music publishers were at work, as a 
result of the generally rising economic 
conditions and the rise in music produc- 
tion and consumption: Gardano in Venice 
(1538-1619); Verovio in Rome (1586- 
1604; the first publisher of engraved mu- 
sic; see ^Printing of music); Jacques 
Moderne at Lyons ( 1532-67) ; Pierre Pha- 
lese at Antwerp (1545-after 1650); Tiel- 
man Susato at Antwerp (1543-60 and 
later); and the establishment of Ballard 
and Le Roy at Paris which, founded in 
1551, continued to exist until after 1776, 
using their first type for over 200 years. 
In England Tallis and Byrd were granted 
a monopoly for music printing in 1575 
which, in 1598, was transferred to Mor- 
ley. The publishing, however, was done 
by Thomas and Michael Este (East) who 
issued practically all the books of English 
madrigals, from 1587 till 1638. There 
followed Play ford, from c. 1650 to 1700, 
and, in the i8th century, the house of 
Walsh (^. 1705-66), the first music pub- 
lisher to use “high-pressure” methods, 
including a good deal of pirating [see 
Lit,, Pincherle], At the same time the 
house of Roger flourished in Amsterdam, 
that of Haffner in Nurnberg [see *HafI- 
ner collection]. About 1750 the world- 
famous house of Breitkopf (later Breit- 
kopf & Hartel) published its first music 
books, using a new typographical method 
which revolutionized the printing of mu- 
sic [see *Printingof music (b)]. In 1773 
the house of Schott (Mainz) was founded 
which, together with Artaria (1778, Vi- 
enna), published many of the works of 
Beethoven. There followed Simrock, of 
Berlin (1790), Peters, of Leipzig (1814), 
Bote and Bock, of Berlin (1838), and 
Steingraber, of Leipzig (1878). Modern 
music publishing in England started with 
Novello (1811), and continued with 
Augener (1853), Chester (i860), and 
many others. 

Music publishing in the United States 
started in the last two decades of the i8th 
century. Publishing houses known to 
have existed before 1790 were John Aitken 
(1785), Thomas Dobson (1785), and 
Alexander Reinagle (1787), in Philadel- 
phia; Thomas Dobson (1787) and George 


Gilfert (1787), in New York. In the fol- 
lowing decade about twenty more names 
were added to the list, e.g., Joseph Carr 
(1794), in Baltimore, and Gottlieb 
Graupner (1800), in Boston. [Cf. H. 
Dichter and E. Shapiro, Early American 
Sheet Music (1941), pp. 1651!.] The first 
publishing house of importance was Dit- 
son, in Boston (1835). There followed 
Schirmer, of New York (1861), Carl 
Fischer, of New York (1872), Theodore 
Presser, of Philadelphia (1888), and many 
others. 

Lit.: G. Dunn, Methods of Music Pub- 
lishing (1931); F. Kidson, British Music 
Publishers (1900); W. Arms Fisher, 
One-hundred-and-fifty Years of Music 
Publishing in the United States . . . 
(1933); R. Eitner, “Verzeichnis der Mu- 
sikhandler und Musikdrucker” (MfM, 
1909, Beilage); F. Kidson, “John Play- 
ford . . .” (MQ iv); id., “Handel’s Pub- 
lisher John Walsh . . .” (MQ vi); R. S. 
Hill, “The Plate Numbers of C. F. Peters 
Predecessors” (PAMS, 1938); K. Meyer, 
“Artaria Plate Numbers” (in Notes for 
the Music Library Association, no. 15); 
W. B. Squire, “Publisher’s Numbers” 
(SIM xv); M. Brenet, “La Librairie musi- 
cale en France de 1653 a 1790” (SIM viii) ; 
A. Cucuel, “. . . la librairie musicale au 
xiiie siecle” (SIM xiii); M. Pincherle, “De 
la piraterie . . . aux environs de 1700” 
(RdM, no. 47). See also ^Printing of 
music. 

Pui. See *Puy. 

Pumhart. Old German for *bombarde; 
see *Oboe family III. 

Punctum. (i) See *Neumes 1 . — (2) 
Same as *punctus. 

Punctus [L., dot], (i) In ^mensural 
notation, a sign like the dot of modern 
notation, but used in the meaning of the 
modern dot as well as in a function some- 
what similar to that of the modern bar- 
line. In the former meaning it is called 
punctus additionis or augmentationis, 
and is used for binary (imperfect) notes 
to which it adds one-half of their value. 
In the latter meaning it is called punctus 


[616] 



PUNCTUS 

divisionis, and is used only in triple meter 
(tempus perfectum, prolatio perfecta), in 
order to mark off groups of perfections 
(i.e., of three semibreves, or three minims) 
whenever this is desirable or necessary 
for the sake of clarity. In the accompany- 
ing example, the second, third, and fifth 



PYKNON 

which is repeated, are called punctus 
{primus punctus^ secundus punctus^ etc.). 

Punto, punta [It.]. Point. A punta 
d'arcOy with the point of the bow (of the 
violin); punto d'organo, the pause and 
its sign. 

Purfling. The inlaid border of violins, 
etc., consisting of three small slips of 
wood, the middle one black, the outer two 
white. Aside from its ornamental value 
it serves to prevent the chipping of the 
edges. 


dot are puncti additionis, the others are 
puncti divisionis. 

The system of puncti has been unneces- 
sarily complicated by early theorists who 
deal in detail with a number of other 
puncti, such as punctus perjectionisy im- 
perfectionisy alterationis, syncopationisy 
etc. The three first-mentioned puncti are 
nothing but the punctus divisionis, the 
various names indicating only certain sec- 
ondary effects upon the neighboring notes. 
For instance, the first punctus of the above 
example makes the preceding brevis per- 
fect, and therefore is called a punctus per- 
fectionis. The fourth punctus, however, 
may be called either a punctus imperfec- 
tionis or a punctus alterationis, according 
to whether its effect upon the preceding 
or the following notes is considered. Un- 
fortunately these unnecessary complica- 
tions have been perpetuated by modern 
writers. Especially misleading is the 
“simplified” explanation [see Lit., War- 
ner] which distinguishes only between 
the punctus divisionis and the punctus 
perfectionis, since a further distinction 
must be made between the punctus per- 
fectionis in perfect mensuration and the 
punctus “perfectionis” — properly, addi- 
tionis — in imperfect mensuration. Fi- 
nally, the punctus syncopationiSy which 
occurs only in music prior to 1450, is a 
punctus divisionis in displaced position, 
occurring somewhere in the middle of a 
measure. The details are too complicated 
to be briefly explained [cf. ApNPMy pas- 
sim; S. T. Warner, in PM A xlv]. 

(2) In the *estampies of the 13th and 
14th centuries the various sections, each of 


Puritans and music. See under 
* American music I. Also: P. Scholes, 
T he Puritans and T heir Music in England 
and New England (1934); W. S. Pratt, 
The Music of the Pilgrims (1901). 

Puy, pui. Medieval French festivals of 
literary and musical guilds, held regular- 
ly with competitions and prizes. They 
are documented as far back as the nth 
century (earliest troubadours), and ex- 
isted as late as the i6th century. The 
most famous was the Puy d'tvreuxy held 
annually from 1570 till 1614, on St. Cecil- 
ia’s Day. Among its laureates {roy de 
puy) were Orlando di Lasso, Titelouze, 
du Caurroy. The puys of the troubadours 
served as a model for similar competitions 
of the German Minnesinger, such as the 
“Sangerkrieg auf der Wartburg,” which 
forms the background of Wagner’s Tann- 
h'duscr. See also *Meistersingcr III; 
■•^Tenso. 

Pyknon [Gr., density]. In the Greek 
scale [see *Greek music II (b) ] the places 
of the greatest density, i.e., the two suc- 
cessive semitones of the chromatic scale, 
or the two successive quarter-tones of the 
enharmonic scale. For instance, the Hy- 
podorian chromatic scale (read down- 
wards) contains the following two pykna: 
a — fft-f-c — c#-c-^b — a. In each pyknon 
the highest of the three tones involved 
was called oxypy\nony the middle meso- 
py\nony and the lowest barypy\non. On 
the kithara these three degrees were per- 
formed on the same string, the bary- 
pyknon on the open string (e, b), the 
other two by stopping at the first or see- 


[617] 




PYTHAGOREAN SCALE 


QUADRIVIUM 


ond semitone. This method is reflected 
in the Greek instrumental notation, in 
which (as a rule) one and the same sign 
serves for all the three degrees, but in dif- 
ferent positions, e.g., K, 31, for b, c, 
and cl. Cf. C, Sachs, in ZMW vi, 289. 

Pythagorean scale. A scale, invented 
by Pythagoras (c, 550 B.C.), which de- 
rives all the tones from the interval of the 
pure fifth, % [see * Acoustics III]. The 
tones of the diatonic scale are obtained as 
a series of five successive upper fifths and 
one lower fifth: 


F c g 

2 3 

- I - 

3 2 


d' a' c'* b' 



By reducing these tones into one and 
the same octave (c~b), the following scale 
results: 


edefgab c' 
„ 9 81 4 3 27 243 

Frequency: i ^ _ _ — 2 

8 64 3 2 16 128 

Intervals: £ £ £ E E 

8 8 243 8 8 8 243 

(For the calculation of the frequencies 
and the intervals, see ^Intervals, Calcula- 
tion of, see also the tables under 

•Intervals, p. 362, and •Temperament). It 
appears that the Pythagorean whole-tone 


is slightly larger than that of the well- 
tempered scale (204 cents instead of 200), 
while the semitone is considerably lower 
(90 instead of 100). Likewise, the Pytha- 
gorean third is 8 cents higher than the 
well-tempered third which, in turn, is 
higher than the “pure” third (408, 400, 
and 386“ cents). 

The succession of the Pythagorean fifths 
can be continued beyond the tone b, lead- 
ing to chromatic tones, fl, cl, etc., and 
finally back to c, in the well-known •circle 
of fifths which, in the Pythagorean system, 
actually is a “spiral of fifths” since the 
twelfth fifth is 24 cents higher than the 
seventh octave ( 1 2 X 702 — 7X1 200 = 24 ) . 
This difference is the Pythagorean comma 
[see •Comma]. The difference between 
the (Pythagorean) whole-tone and semi- 
9 256 3^ 

tone was called apotome: ^ “ 

^ 243 

2187 

=114 cents. 

2048 

it appears as the interval between bb and 
b (a-b minus a-bb). The Pythagorean 

semitone was called limma (left- 

\ 243 / 

over), because it could be obtained as 
the difference between the tetrachord 
(fourth) and two whole-tones. Another 
name for the same interval was ^diesis. 


-,11 


In the Greek scale 


Q 


Qanun. See •Kaniin. 

Q.-L. Customary abbreviation for R. 
Eitner’s Quellen-Lexihpn [sec under 
•Libraries] . 

Quadratnotation [G.]. See ♦Square 
notation. 

Quadrible. See under •Treble. 

Quadrille [F.]. (i) A French dance 
of the early 19th century performed by 
two or four couples moving in a square. 
The dance consisted of five figures (“Le 
Pantalon,” “L’fit^,” etc.), the music for 
which, alternately in %- and %-meter. 


was usually chosen from popular tunes 
or operatic airs. The dance was very 
popular during the Napoleonic era and 
remained fashionable until it was re- 
placed by the •polka. — (2) In the 17th- 
century French ballet (Campra, Lully) 
quadrille is the name of each of the dance 
figures which make up an ^entrL See 
♦Dance music IV. 

Quadrivium [L., four ways]. In the 
medieval system of education, the four 
“mathematical arts,” namely: arithmetic, 
geometry, music, and astronomy, as op- 
posed to the trivium of the “rhetorical 
arts,” i.c., grammar, dialectics, and rhet- 


[618] 



QUADRUPLE COUNTERPOINT 

oric. In this scheme music was, of course, 
considered not as an art in the modern 
sense of the word, but as a science bor- 
dering on mathematics and physics 
(acoustics). 

Quadruple counterpoint. See 
^Double counterpoint. 

Quadruple-croche [F.]. See ♦Notes. 

Quadruple fugue. A fugue with four 
different subjects, such as the last (unfin- 
ished) piece of Bach’s ♦Art of Fugue. 
See ♦Double fugue. 

Quadruplet. A group of four notes, to 
be played in the time of three. 

Quadruple meter, time. See ♦Meter. 

Quadruplum. See ♦Duplum. 

Quality, (i) Tone quality, see ♦Tim- 
bre. — (2) As opposed to quantity, see 
♦Poetic meter III. 

Quantity. See ♦Poetic meter III. 

Quart, Quarte [G.]. The interval of 
the fourth. As a prefix to instruments 
the term indicates that the instrument is 
a fourth higher (QuartflotCy Quartgeige) 
or a fourth lower (Quartfagott; sec ♦Oboe 
family II, E) than the normal instrument. 

Quartal harmony. Recent term for a 
harmonic system based on the ♦fourth, as 
distinguished from the common system 
of ♦tertian harmony, based on the third. 
Quartal harmonies have been recom- 
mended to replace tertian harmonies in 
harmonizations of Gregorian chant [cf. 
J. Yasser, Mediaeval Quartal Harmony 
(1938); also in MQ xxiii, xxiv]. See ♦Ac- 
ompaniment V. 

Quarter-note. See ♦Notes. 

Quarter-tone. An interval equal to 
one-half of the semitone, there being 24 
to the octave. There has been a good deal 
of experimentation with quarter-tone 
music within the past fifty years. A 
quarter-tone piano was patented first in 
1892 (G. A. Behrens-Senegalden). In 
1923 A. Forster, in Prague, built an in- 
strument with two manuals, the second 
a quarter-tone higher than the first, which 


QUARTET 

has given considerable encouragement to 
the protagonists of quarter-tone music, 
foremost among whom is Alois Haba. 
He composed a considerable number of 
pieces (op. 7-op. 26) in the new idiom 
for string quartet for violin alone (op. 9), 
for pianoforte, for orchestra, for chorus. 



etc. (Cf. the list of his works in GD ii, 
489.) Other composers are Hans Barth 
(Concerto for quarter-tone piano and 
strings, 1930), who also built a quarter- 
tone piano [cf. N. Slonimsky, Music Since 
ipoo, p. 336] ; I. Vyschnegradsky {Dithy- 
ramby 1926; Prelude and Fuguey 1929); 
and the Mexican Julian Carrillo, who 
uses eighth- and sixteenth-tones. The ac- 
companying example shows the usual 
notation of quarter-tones and the begin- 
ning of Haba’s op. 9. 

The use of quarter-tones is far from 
being new. The enharmonic system of 
Greek music, which gained an ephemeral 
importance in the period of Euripides 
(c, 400 B.C.), included quarter-tones [sec 
♦Greek music 11 (b)]. In the nth century 
this system was revived in theory (Guido, 
Regino of Priim) and possibly in prac- 
tice (missal of Montpellier, H, 759; cf. 
WoHN i, 44; for a negative position in 
this question cf. Baralli, in Rassegna 
Gregorianay 1911). Another attempt at 
revival was made by N. Vicentino [sec 
♦Arcicembalo] . Finally, the microtonic 
intervals of Hindu and of Arabian music 
may be mentioned. In all these case^ 
quarter-tones appear, however, only a 
certain points of the scale as ♦pien-tones 
not equally distributed throughout the 
octave, as in the modern system. See 
♦Microtones. 

Lit.: A. Haba, Von neuer Musil{ 
(1925); id,y Neue Harmonielehre (1927); 
J. Wyschnegradsky, in RM xviii; A. Wel- 
lek, in MQ xii; A. A. Holde, in MQ xxiv; 
C. C. Pratt, in T he Pedagogical Seminary^ 
vol. 35 (1928), p. 286. 

Quartet [F. quatuor-y G. Quartett\ It 
quartetto], A composition for four in- 



QUARTFAGOTT 

strumcnts or voices. By far the most im- 
portant combination is the *string- 
quartet. Piano quartets (for piano, vio- 
lin, viola, and cello) exist in a limited 
number: 2 by Mozart, 4 by Beethoven, 
3 by Mendelssohn, i by Schumann, 2 by 
Brahms, 2 by DvoMk, etc. 

The ‘Vocal quartet,” i.e., polyphonic 
composition for four voices, was estab- 
lished around 1450 by the early ^Flemish 
composers, isolated earlier examples such 
as Perotinus’ organa quadrupla [sec *Or- 
ganum; *Ars Antiqua] and Guillaume 
dc Machaut’s Mass notwithstanding. 
Much of the music of the i6th century 
(motets, masses, madrigals, chansons, 
etc.) is written in four parts although 
there was a tendency towards increasing 
the number of parts to five, six, and more. 
In the 17th century, four-part writing 
was limited chiefly to the English *Glce 
and the German *Chorale. In the 19th 
century the a-cappella quartet was exten- 
sively cultivated by Glee Clubs, Lieder- 
tafel, etc. Four-part writing has always 
been considered the proper medium for 
studies in harmony and counterpoint. 

Quartfagott, Quartflote, Quart- 
geige [G.]. See under ♦Quart. 

Quartole [G.], quartolet [F.]. Quad- 
ruplet. 

Quartsextakkord [G.]. The second 
inversion of the triad (six-four chord). 

Quasi [It.]. “As if,” “almost.” E.g., 
allegro quasi presto-, allegro, almost 
presto. Quasi niente, “as if nothing,” 
i.e., ppp. 

Quatreble. See under ♦Treble. 

Quattro [It.]. Four. Quattro mani^ 
four hands; quattro voci^ four voices. 

Quatuor [F.]. Quartet. 

Quaver. See ♦Notes. 

Quempas. Abbreviation of L. Quern 
pastores adorahant (He, whom the shep- 
herds worshiped), a Christmas song 
which was popular in Germany in the 
1 6th century. The term was used as a 
generic designation for Christmas songs. 


QUINTET 

particularly in the connection Quempas 
Singen^ that is, the singing of carols by the 
students of Latin schools, an activity in 
which Luther is known to have partici- 
pated. The alms earned by singing from 
house to house were a welcome addition 
to the meager income of many students 
[see ♦Currende]. Quempasheft was the 
collection of carols which every student 
used to copy for himself. 

Querelle des bouffons [F.]. See 
♦Guerre des bouffons. 

Quer- [G.]. Querfldte (transverse), 
flute; Querpfeife, fife; Quer stands ♦false 
relation. 

Queue [F., tail]. The stem of a note. 
Piano d queue^ i.e., grand piano. 

Quick-step. In military parlance, a 
march in quick steps {c. 108 per minute). 
Also the music for such a march. 

Quiebro. See *Ornamentation I. 

Quilisma [from Gr, \ylindein^ to roll]. 
See ♦Neumes I; ♦Ornamentation II. 

Quindezime [G.]. The interval of the 
fifteenth, i.e., the double octave. 

Quinible. See under ♦Treble. 

Quinta falsa [L.]. False, i.e., dimin- 
ished fifth. 

Quintaton [G.]. Perversion of Quinta- 
denay an old mixture stop [see ♦Organ 
IX b]. 

Quinta vox [L.]. See *Part (2); *Part 
books. 

Quinte, Quint [G.]. Fifth. Quinten- 
paralleleny parallel fifths. Quintenzir^el, 
♦Circle of fifths. 

Quinte [F.]. (i) Interval of the fifth. 
— (2) French name for the viola {quinte 
de viol)y or for the ♦quin ton. 

Quinterne. German 1 6th/ 17th-century 
name for the guitar or similar instru- 
ments. Cf. K. Geiringcr, in AMW vi. 

Quintet [F. quintette y quintuor-y G. 
Quintett-y It. quintetto\. Chamber music 

[ 620 ] 



QUINTFAGOTT 

for five players. The string quintet is 
usually for two violins, two violas, and 
cello (i8 by Boccherini, 12 by Ditters- 
dorf, 6 by Mozart, 3 by Beethoven, 2 by 
Mendelssohn, 2 by Brahms, i by Bruck- 
ner, I by Vaughan Williams, i by Reger, 
etc.). The less usual combination of two 
violins, viola, and two celli prevailed in 
Boccherini (113), but survived only in 
Schubert’s famous Quintet in C, op. 163. 
A piano (clarinet, etc.) quintet is a com- 
position for piano (clarinet, etc.) and 
string quartet. The list of piano quintets 
includes Schubert’s op. 114 (Trout 
Quintet), Schumann’s op. 44, Brahms’s 
op. 34, and compositions by Dvorak, 
Franck, Reger, Pfitzner, Faure, Elgar, 
Hindemith, Bloch (in quarter-tones), 
Shostakovitch, etc. 

Vocal quintets are usually for two S, 
A, T, and B. A large literature of vocal 
music in five parts exists in the madri- 
gals, ballettos, etc., of the late i6th cen- 
tury (Lasso, Lechner, English madrigal- 
ists). 

Quintfagott [G.]. See *Oboe family 
II, C. 

Quintieren [G.]. See *Wind instru- 
ments III. 

Quintole [G.], quintolet [F.]. Quin- 
tuplet. 

Quinton [F.]. An 18th-century French 
violin (not viol) with five strings tuned 
g-d'-a'-d"-g" [cf. SaHMI], 

Quintoyer [F.]. See ♦Wind instru- 
ments III. 

Quintsaite [G.]. E-string of the violin. 

Quintsextakkord [G.]. See under 
♦Seventh chord. 

Quintuor [F.]. Quintet. 

Quintuple time. The measure of five 
beats. Quintuple time can usually be con- 
sidered as a compound of a duple and a 
triple measure or, less frequently, of a 
triple and a duple measure. Well-known 
examples occur in Chopin’s Sonata op. 4, 
in Tchaikovsky’s Symphony no. 6 [Ex. 
i], and in Wagner’s Tristan^ Act III, 


QUODLIBET 

Scene 2 [Ex. 2]. To those mentioned in 
GD iv, 310 the cavatina in Auber’s La 
Dame blanchcy Act II, may be added. 



Probably the earliest composition in this 
meter is a ♦Felix namque in the English 
MS, Brit. Mus. Roy, App. 56 (c. 1530). 
Quintuple time was common in ancient 
Greek music under the name Cretan 
rhythm [cf. AdHM i, 63] and forms a 
characteristic feature of certain folk 
dances, such as the *Zortzi\p and the 
Kochersberg, 

Quintuplet. A group of five notes 
played in the place of four. 

Quire. Obsolete spelling for choir. 

Qui tollis [L.]. Section of the ♦Agnus 
dei of the Mass [see ♦Mass B, III]. Medi- 
eval settings of the Agnus dei frequently 
begin with these words, the initial words 
being sung in plainsong. 

Quodlibet [L., what you please]. A 
humorous type of music characterized by 
the quotation of well-known melodies or 
texts which are combined in an advisedly 
incongruous manner. The following 
types can be distinguished: 

I. The Polyphonic Quodlibet. In this 
type, which is easily the most interesting 
one, different melodies or snatches there- 
of are used simultaneously in different 
voice-parts of a polyphonic composition. 
This method appears in some 13th-cen- 
tury motets in which refrains of trouvere 
songs occur in the upper voice against the 
liturgical melody (borrowed from Gre- 
gorian chant) in the tenor [see ♦Refrain 
III; also ♦Motet III]. In the 15th and 
1 6th centuries numerous quodlibets were 
written in which different folk tunes are 
combined contrapuntally, the only license 
being that the time-values may be length- 
ened or shortened, according to the re- 
quirements of consonance. One of the 
earliest examples, contained in the Glo- 

0 



QUODLIBET 

gauer Lie der buck of c, 1460 [see *Liedcr- 
buch], contrasts the then famous “O rosa 
bclla” melody with snatches of German 
folk songs [cf, HAMy nos. 80, 82]. An 
outstanding composer of such quodlibets 
was Ludwig Senfl [cf. SchGMBy no. 1 10] , 
and comprehensive collections were pub- 
lished by Wolfgang Schmeltzl {Guter, 
seltzamer und \unstr etcher teutscher Ge- 
sang ... 5 1544) and by Melchior Franck 
{Musi\alischer Grillenvertreibery 1622). 
These pieces proved extremely valuable 
as sources of 16th-century German folk 
song [see ’'•‘L.ied II]. An example by 
Goldel, in which five chorales are skill- 
fully combined, is quoted in GD iv, 31 1; 
for another (by Kindermann), using 
three chorales, cf. DTB 21/24, 13. The 
best-known example of this type is the 
final variation of Bach’s ’’^Goldberg Vari- 
ations, in which two popular melodies of 
his day: (a) “Ich bin so lang nicht bei dir 
g’west” (Long have I been away from 
thee) and (b) “Kraut und Riiben’’ (Cab- 
bage and turnips) are artfully combined 
within the harmonic frame of the theme 
[see illustration]. 


C<t) leh b«.n so Ung nuht bet itr gwest 


MJT L 1 1 

ICBZ22Lni3 
fw 1 / f • 

m 



L ^ » Z - ■ 1 


1 1 ' 

1 L 1. 1 


C^) ani Ru.- ben kaben muK vertt'tebFn 


II. The Successive Quodlibet, A sim- 
pler type of quodlibet is that in which 
various melodies are quoted in succession, 
much in the manner of a potpourri. To 
this category belong various pieces con- 
tained in the collections mentioned above. 

III. The Textual Quodlibet. The term 
quodlibet is also applied to pieces which 
show an incongruous mixture of bor- 
rowed textSy without involving the bor- 
rowing of musical material. As in the 
musical quodlibet, these texts may occur 
simultaneously or successively. The poly- 
textual motet of the 13th century is fre- 
quently cited as an example of the textual 
quodlibet, but it should be observed that 


QUODLIBET 

in all these motets (aside from the special 
type of the refrain motet) the texts of the 
upper parts are not borrowed, but freely 
invented, while the tenor has no full text, 
but only an ^incipit; and that the element 
of incongruity is present only in the 
“French” motets which use a French text 
(mostly amorous) against the liturgical 
melody of the tenor and (frequently) 
against a Latin text in the middle part. 
More clearly under the category of the 
textual quodlibet fall a number of 18th- 
century pieces whose fun consists in the 
succession of jocose and deliberately in- 
congruous texts. To this type belongs a 
“quodlibet” which is believed to be an 
early work of }. S. Bach [publ. by M. 
Schneider, in Veroffentlichungen der 
Neuen Bach-Gesellschajty xxxii.2]. It 
consists of a great number of short texts 
[the “seafaring allusions” which C. S. 
Terry mentions in an article in ML xiv, 
no. I, have a clearly obscene side-mean- 
ing] set to music evidently without using 
pre-existing melodies. There is a distinct 
possibility that this piece, rather than the 
truly polyphonic quodlibet from the Gold- 
berg VariationSy illustrates the “impro- 
vised quodlibet singing” which, according 
to C. P. E. Bach, was traditional in his 
family for many generations. Numerous 
examples of the same type occur in Val- 
entin Rathgeber’s Augsburger Tafel\on- 
fekjt of 1733 [repr. in E. O. Lindner, 
Geschichte des deutschen Liedes . . . 
(1871)]. Cf. also Moser, Cory don. 

The Italian terms misticanza and mes- 
sanza would seem to denote potpourris 
rather than quodlibets [see ^Ensalada]. 
The term *centone is also used for quod- 
libets. Cf. K. Jeppesen, in Papers Read at 
the International Congress of Musicology 
(New York, 1939), 1944, p- 62. See also 
’^'Pasticcio. For Quodlibet Mass see ’•^Mass 
B, II (b). 

Lit.: W. Biencnfeld, in SIM vi; R. Eit- 
ner, “Das deutsche Lied des 15/16. Jahr- 
hunderts,” i (MfM viii, ix, Beilage); 
H. J. Moser, 'fCorydon, 2 vols. (i93i/34)« 




R. In early orchestral music, *ripicno; 
in French organ music, ♦recit; in Gre- 
gorian chant (I}/), *rcsponsorium. 

Rackett. See *Oboc family III. 

Raddolcendo [It.]. Becoming dolcc. 

Raddoppiare [It.]. To double, usu- 
ally in the lower octave. 

Radel [G., from wheel]. German 
14th-century name for a canon or *round. 
Cf. ReMMAy 377; also *Rota (2). 

Radical bass. Same as ^fundamental 
bass. 

Radio broadcasting of music. The 
transmission of sound through space by 
radio, or wireless, telephony is used (i) 
to convey messages to specific receivers 
{radio communication) and (2) to send 
out information or entertainment in- 
tended for general reception {radio broad- 
casting). This article seeks to describe, 
in terms suited to the musician and music 
lover, the transmission and reproduction 
of musical sound in broadcasting. 

When music performed before a micro- 
phone is heard by listeners many miles 
away, a double transformation has taken 
place. Sound waves have been converted 
into electromagnetic waves, and these, 
after traveling through space at incredible 
speed, have been converted back into 
sound waves. In order to understand 
how this is accomplished it is necessary 
to know something of the nature of 
sound; therefore, the article on ^Acoustics 
should be read by way of preface to the 
following one. 

1 . Electromagnetic Waves. Wave mo- 
tion is a phenomenon with which we arc 
all familiar, at least in one manifestation. 
When water is disturbed, waves travel 
outward in concentric circles from the 
point of disturbance, gradually diminish- 
ing in amplitude (i.e., the height of their 
crests and depth of their troughs) as the 
energy which created them is dissipated. 
Since water is not compressible, waves 


travel only over its surface in the form of 
alternate ridges and depressions. Sound 
waves travel through air in the form of 
alternate areas of compression and rare- 
faction, expanding in all directions as 
concentric spheres. Their velocity (in 
warm air) is about 1100 feet per second. 
The precise nature of electromagnetic 
waves is still a scientific mystery, though 
their behavior is fairly well understood. 
They travel in all directions, as do sound 
waves, expanding as concentric spheres 
through a hypothetical medium, the 
ether. Their velocity is about 186,000 
miles per second. In radio transmission 
they are generated by oscillations of high- 
frequency alternating current in a trans- 
mitting antenna. This is usually a wire 
or tower located in the open at some point 
from which the waves can radiate with a 
minimum of interference or adsorption 
by conductors such as power transmission 
lines or steel-framed buildings. As the 
current flows along the antenna, first in 
one direction and then in the other, it 
generates waves of electromagnetic energy 
in the surrounding ‘ether,’* just as a vi- 
brating piano string generates waves of 
acoustic energy in the surrounding air 
[for more details, see, e.g., J. Langdon- 
Davies, RadiOy ch. IV]. In both cases the 
waves have the same frequency, or rate 
of occurrence per second, as the oscilla- 
tions which produce them; e.g., a piano 
string vibrating at the rate of 1000 oscil- 
lations, or cycles, per second generates 
1000 sound waves per second, and cur- 
rent in a transmitting antenna alternat- 
ing at the rate of 100,000 cycles per sec- 
ond generates 100,000 electromagnetic 
waves per second. 

The waves currently used for radio 
transmission in the United States range 
in frequency from 10 kilocycles (10,000 
cycles) to 300 megacycles (300,000,000 
cycles) per second. These waves are di- 
vided into bands which are allocated by 
governmental authority to various serv- 
ices. The lowest bands (from 10 kc to 



RADIO BROADCASTING OF MUSIC RADIO BROADCASTING OF MUSIC 

540 kc) arc assigned chiefly to communi- The first step in the conversion process 
cation services, and the highest (from having been accomplished by the micro- 
1610 kc to 300 me), to additional com- phone, the sound of the tuning fork is 
munication services, short wave broad- now represented by electrical current al- 
casting, ultra-short wave broadcasting, ternating at the frequency of 261.63 cycles 
television, and facsimile transmission, per second. This current is too weak to 
Standard wave broadcasting utilizes the perform the tasks required of it; therc- 
frcquencics between 550 kc and 1600 kc, fore it is conducted by wire to the ampli- 
with stations spaced at intervals of 10 kc. fiers, a series of vacuum tubes which in- 
II. Transmission of Sound. Let us creases its strength. The amplified cur- 
now follow the progress of a musical tone rent then continues through wires to the 
from its birth in a broadcasting studio to control panels where its volume is regu- 
its reproduction in the home of a distant lated by an engineer, and thence to the 
radio listener. To reduce the problem to transmitter. Up to this point the electri- 
its simplest musical terms we may assume cal vibrations are still at audio frequencies, 
that the original sound is Middle C, a but electromagnetic waves of such com- 
“pure” tone produced by a tuning fork paratively low frequencies do not radiate 

vibrating at the frequency of 261.63 cycles satisfactorily. Consequently, the trans- 

per second. The first step in radio trans- mittcr sends out a continuous high-fre- 

mission is to change the acoustic waves quency wave, called the carrier, which is 
generated by the vibrations of the tuning modulated by the audio-frequency cur- 
fork into electrical vibrations. This is rent received from the microphone. This 
done by a microphone, which is a specially means that the current generated by a 
sensitive telephone transmitter. Early sound wave is imposed on the carrier in 
microphones operated on the same prin- such a way that the latter undergoes a 
ciple as the telephone transmitter, which series of changes corresponding in fre- 
consists of a diaphragm with a quantity quency to the vibrations of the sound 

of granular carbon behind it. As pressure wave. Thus Middle C becomes a series 

of a sound wave forces the diaphragm of variations, at the rate of 261.63 per sec- 

backward the carbon granules are pressed ond, in a series of electromagnetic waves 
together and their resistance to the cur- of much higher frequency. The resulting 
rent flowing through the microphone is phenomenon may be likened to the nu- 
lowcred; as the diaphragm moves in the merous small ripples which are imposed 
opposite direction the granules tend to on the big waves of the sea. 
separate, thus increasing their resistance. The carrier may be varied, or modu- 
The result is a series of electrical impulses lated, either in amplitude or in frequency, 
corresponding in frequency and ampli- The former method is used by all trans- 
tude to the sound waves. This is called mitters in the standard broadcast band 
audio-frequency current, since its fre- and is called amplitude modulation (Ex. 
quency is the same as that of audible i). The other method is called 
waves. A later microphone, now widely modulation (Ex. 2) and is used only in 
used in the United States, is the so-called ultra-high-frequency transmission. 
velocity type. Instead of a diaphragm, The carrier, modulated by the audio 
this microphone has a thin metallic rib- frequency of 261.63 cycles, radiates from 
bon suspended between the poles of pow- the transmitting antenna at the speed of 
erful magnets. As sound waves cause the light. When it encounters the antenna of 
air molecules to move back and forth at a receiver the process which took place at 
velocities that vary according to the fre- the transmitter is reversed; i.e., a current 
quency and amplitude of the sound vibra- of the same frequency and having the 
tions, the ribbon oscillates in the magnetic same modulations is induced in the re- 
field of the magnets, thus generating by ceiving antenna. The effect is analogous 
electromagnetic induction an audio-fre- to the sympathetic vibrations of an un- 
qucncy current. damped piano string when the pitch to 

[624] 



RADIO BROADCASTING OF MUSIC RADIO BROADCASTING OF MUSIC 

which it is tuned is sounded near by. In frequencies called sidebands. One side- 
one respect, however, the receiving an- band frequency is equal to the carrier fre- 
tenna resembles an entire piano, rather quency plus the audio frequency, the 
than a single string, for it responds to any other sideband frequency is equal to the 



frequency of the radio scale; and since it carrier frequency minus the audio fre- 

is usually intercepting waves from many quency. For example, if a carrier wave 

different transmitters at the same time, of looo kilocycles is modulated by a fre- 

the receiver circuit is provided with a quency of one kilocycle, one sideband 

detector^ or tuning device, which selects will have a frequency of looi kilocycles, 

the frequency of the desired station and the other a frequency of 999 kilocycles, 

excludes all others. The transmitter will then require a chan- 

As the energy picked up by the receiv- nel two kilocycles wide. Modulation of 

ing antenna is only a tiny fraction of that the carrier wave by the full frequency 

sent out by the transmitter, the receiver range of musical sound produces side- 

circuit also includes amplifiers which bands of at least 15,000 cycles each and 

bring the antenna current up to the re- necessitates a channel at least 30,000 cycles 

quired strength. The current is then dc- wide. As standard-wave channels are 

modulated — that is, the modulations of only 10,000 cycles wide, transmitters in 

the carrier frequency are translated into that band are limited to an audio-fre- 

audio-frequency current, and this current quency range of 5000 cycles. If they ex- 

operates the diaphragm of a telephone re- ceed it their sidebands overlap those of 

ceiver or loudspeaker, causing it to vi- other stations, causing interference. Con- 

brate at the same frequency. The motions sequently, standard-wave receivers are 

of the diaphragm generate sound waves not ordinarily designed to reproduce fre- 

in the air, and the radio listener hears a quencies above 5000 cycles, 

more or less faithful reproduction of the A range of 5000 cycles is sufficient to 
tone produced in the studio by the tuning reproduce all fundamental pitches of the 
fork. orchestral instruments but not all of their 

III. Fidelity. The fidelity of sound re- harmonics. The oboe and violin, for ex- 
production by radio depends on various ample, produce harmonics above 15,000 

factors, chief of which is the efficiency of cycles, and nearly all musical instruments 

broadcasting equipment. Faithful repro- have harmonics above 5000 cycles. Fail- 

duction of music requires a system free ure to reproduce any portion of the har- 

of noise and distortion throughout an adc- monic components of a tone causes, of 

quate range of audio frequencies, and course, a proportionate loss of realism in 

the transmitter must have room in the its timbre. However, experience shows 

radio spectrum to utilize its full frequency that the characteristic qualities of musical 

range. When the carrier wave of an am- instruments arc adequately conveyed by 

plitude-modulation system is modulated a reproducer limited to 5000 cycles, pro- 

by audio-frequency current, its original vided it is efficient in other respects. In 

frequency is supplemented by additional any case, it is doubtful whether the aver- 

[625 ] 



RADIO BROADCASTING OF MUSIC 

age listener in a concert hall hears very 
many of the higher harmonics, owing to 
their low intensity, their rapid attenua- 
tion in air, and the blanketing effect of 
other sounds. 

In the ultra-high-frequency band 
(above 40 megacycles) the channels are 
wide enough for full-range sound trans- 
mission. This is often referred to as 
“high-fidelity” transmission, but the term 
is somewhat misleading, for realistic re- 
production of music involves various fac- 
tors other than pitch. Perhaps the most 
important difference between music as it 
is heard in the studio and the reproduc- 
tion of that music heard by the radio 
listener is that the latter is monaural, A 
normal human being hears binaurally\ 
i.e., his two ears receive sound vibrations 
from slightly different angles, and usu- 
ally at slightly different distances. This 
enables him to sense the direction from 
which a sound comes, and gives it a 
stereophonic (three-dimensional) quality 
comparable with that of a stereoscopic 
photograph. Broadcasting as yet employs 
only one “ear.” Sounds, whether picked 
up by a single microphone or by several, 
are fed into a single system of wires and 
amplifiers, radiated on a single carrier 
wave, and reproduced by a single loud- 
speaker. The result is equivalent to w'hat 
would be heard in the studio by a person 
deaf in one ear. 

In order to broadcast stereophonically, 
the sounds in the studio must be picked 
up by two or more microphones and fed 
through separate systems of lines and am- 
plifiers to separate transmitters operating 
on separate wave-lengths; and in order to 
receive such a broadcast stereophonically 
the listener must have separate receivers 
tuned to the several transmitters and so 
placed that the position of each loud- 
speaker corresponds to the position of the 
microphone whose output it receives. 
Stereophonic transmission has been suc- 
cessfully demonstrated under laboratory 
conditions, where wire lines could be 
used instead of radio transmitters, but the 
difficulty of obtaining dual channels has 
hitherto prevented its application to 
broadcasting in the standard band. De- 


RADIO BROADCASTING OF MUSIC 

velopment of the ultra-high-frequency 
band, where congestion is less acute, may 
remove that impediment to stereophonic 
radio transmission. 

For technical reasons it is sometimes 
necessary to control the volume of music 
transmitted by radio. Pianissimo passages 
may have to be amplified to enable them 
to override the extraneous noises that 
sometimes interfere with reception, and 
fortissimo passages may have to be re- 
duced in volume to prevent overloading 
of circuits. In the early days of broad- 
casting, volume had to be controlled to 
such an extent that often there was notice- 
able distortion of musical dynamics. 
This gave rise to a controversy as to 
whether the controls should be operated 
by an engineer or by a musician. Since, 
it was argued, the man at the controls had 
the power to alter dynamic effects planned 
by the musician, he should be qualified 
by training to perform the task with musi- 
cal taste and judgment. 

However, improved equipment has so 
increased the volume range of broadcast- 
ing that this issue has virtually ceased to 
exist. Current practice among studio en- 
gineers is to find, during rehearsal, a con- 
trol setting which will accommodate both 
the loudest and the softest passages in the 
music, thereby obviating the necessity for 
changing the volume controls during the 
broadcast. “Editing” of the performer’s 
dynamics is thus eliminated, and, at the 
same time, the man at the controls is left 
free to attend to the various important 
technical duties which only an engineer 
is qualified to perform. 

One of the most important factors re- 
lating to fidelity of transmission is micro- 
phone placement. In concert halls there 
are points which are specially advanta- 
geous acoustically. Experienced doncert- 
goers are well aware of this and often go 
to considerable lengths to secure “the best 
seat in the house.” The microphone will 
probably “hear” best at a point much 
nearer the source of sound than the hu- 
man listener would select. This is partly 
due to the fact that the microphone picks 
up and transmits, along with the music, 
extraneous noises which the human be- 


[626] 



RADIO BROADCASTING OF MUSIC 

ing hears but disregards. In the quietest 
auditorium there is usually a considerable 
amount of noise. Chairs creak, programs 
rustle, people cough, and traffic or other 
noises filter in from the outside. The 
listener is surrounded by noises but, 
thanks to his stereophonic hearing, he is 
able to concentrate his attention on the 
musical sounds coming to him from one 
direction and ignore the noises coming 
from other directions. The radio listener, 
to whom music and noise come from the 
same direction — that is, from his loud- 
speaker — finds it much more difficult to 
dissociate them. Consequently, it is essen- 
tial that the microphone be located near 
enough to the source of sound to main- 
tain a high ratio of music to noise. 

Acoustical conditions at the point of 
origin may affect the transmission of 
music in various ways. Excessive rever- 
beration is detrimental to clarity. Exces- 
sive adsorption tends to damp the sound 
waves prematurely, causing a loss of reso- 
nance and richness. Unequal adsorption 
of different frequencies may result in loss 
of brilliance. The clothing of an audi- 
ence, for example, is adsorbent to high 
frequencies. Consequently, when an or- 
chestra broadcasts from a crowded audi- 
torium the high-pitched instruments may 
sound less brilliant than they do when no 
audience is present. 

In this connection it may be noted that 
broadcasting studios are usually less 
“live” — i.e., reverberant — than concert 
halls, the reason being that a greater pro- 
portion of reflected sound is tolerated by 
the listener in the concert hall than by the 
radio listener. The former, hearing bin- 
aurally, has no difficulty in distinguish- 
ing direct from reflected sound, while the 
latter, hearing a monaural reproduction 
of the music, receives both direct and re- 
flected sound from the same direction and 
hence is unable to discriminate between 
them. 

There are no hard-and-fast rules of 
studio technique. So many variable fac- 
tors enter into the problem that each situ- 
ation must be studied individually and 
dealt with empirically; but a working 
knowledge of the principles governing 


RANGE 

niicrophone placement is essential to the 
production director who supervises the 
placement of the microphone and valu- 
able to the musician who performs before 
it. To the listener, an understanding of 
those principles may be helpful as a guide 
to the selection and efficient use of receiv- 
ing equipment. Published literature on 
this subject is not extensive. However, 
some material pertaining to it will be 
found in items 3, 10, and ii of the bibliog- 
raphy. 

Lit.: I. G. L. Archer, History of Radio 
to ig26 (1938); 2. id., Big Business and 
Radio (1939); 3. K. Henney, Radio Engi- 
neering Handhoo\ (1941); 4. J. Jeans, 
Science and Music (1937); 5. J. Langdon- 
Davies, Radio (1935); 6. John Mills, 
A Fugue in Cycles and Bels ( 1935) ; 7. id.. 
Letters of a Radio Engineer to his Son 
(1922); 8. A. Morgan, Getting Ac- 
quainted with Radio (1940); 9. W. and 
E. Watson, Understanding Radio (1940); 
10. E. La Prade, “The Technique of 
Broadcasting Instrumental Groups” 
{Proceedings^ Music Educators NatL 
Conf., 1935); II. id., “Problems in Micro- 
phone Placement” {ibid., 1938). E. P. 

Radleyer [G.]. '"‘Hurdy-gurdy. 

Ratselkanon [G.]. Riddle canon. 

Raffrenando [Tt.]. “Putting on the 
brakes,” checking the speed. 

Raga. See *Hindu music; ^Melody 
types. 

Ragtime. See *Jazz I. 

Rakoezy March. The Hungarian na- 
tional air [see ^National anthems], 
named after the national hero Francis 
Rakoezy (1676-1735), composed (pos- 
sibly after an older folk-tune) by Janos 
Bihari in 1809. The melody has been 
used by Liszt in one of his Hungarian 
Rhapsodies (no. 15) and by Berlioz in his 
Marche Hongroise and The Damnation 
of Faust. See *Tarogato. 

Rallentando, abbr. rail. Same as ritar- 
dando. 


Range. Sec •Voices, Range of. 
[627] 



RANK 


REBEC 


Rank. In organ parlance, a complete set 
of pipes of the same type, controlled by 
one *stop. A *mixture-stop, however, 
has several ranks, according to the num- 
ber of pipes combined in the production 
of a single tone. See ^Organ II; ^Register. 

Rankett. See *Oboe family III. 

Rant. A name of a lyth-century dance 
occurring, e.g., in the fantasies (suites) 
of John Jenkins and in Matthew Locke's 
Melothesia (1673). Judging from the 
type of the music, the term may well be 
an abbreviation of corranto, i.e., *cou- 
rante. 

Ranz des vaches [F.; G. Kuhreigen, 
Kuhreiheriy cow procession]. A type of 
Swiss mountain melody sung or played 
on the *alphorn by the herdsmen to call 
the scattered cows. There exist about 
fifty such melodies which are traditionally 
kept in the various districts of the Alps. 
They all show that irregularity of rhythm 
and of melodic design which is the ear- 
mark of ancient folk music. Indeed, one 
of them, beginning with the words “Loba, 
Loba,” occurs as early as 1545, in Rhaw’s 
Bicinia, 

The ranz des vaches has been repeat- 
edly used in operas dealing with Swiss 
subjects, e.g., in the overtures of Gretry 
and of Rossini's William Tell, and in 
Kienzl's Der Kuhr eigen, Cf. A. Gliick, 
in VMW viii. 

Rappresentativo. See under ♦Stile. 

Rasgado [Sp., scraping]. In guitar 
playing, sweeping the strings with the 
thumb to produce an arpeggio. 

Rasoumofsky Quartets. Sec ♦Rus- 
sian Quartets. 

Ratisbon Edition. See ♦Liturgical 
books II. 

Ratsche [G.]. ♦Rattle. 

Rattenando, rattenuto [It.]. Hold- 
ing back. 

Rattle. An instrument of the ♦percus- 
sion family, similar to the well-known 
children's toy. It consists of a wooden 


cogwheel which is revolved against a hard 
flexible spring of wood or metal. It is 
used in Richard Strauss's Till Eulen^ 
Spiegel, — In scientific classification the 
term rattle is used to denote shaken idio- 
phones [see ♦Instruments I, Bj. Such 
instruments, which represent almost the 
earliest stage in the making of instru- 
ments, are extremely frequent in primi- 
tive cultures. An example is the Cuban 
maracasy consisting of a gourd filled with 
pebbles or dry seeds and shaken by means 
of a wooden handle [see ♦Percussion in- 
struments B 8]. 

Rauschend [G.]. “Rustling,” exuber- 
ant. 

Rauscher [G.]. German 18th-century 
term for the French batterie [see ♦Bat- 
terie (3)] or quick figures involving re- 
peated notes. 

Ravvivando [It.]. Quickening. 

Razor Quartet [G. Rasiermesser-quar- 
tett\. Popular name of Haydn's string 
quartet no. 61 (op. 55, no. 2) in F minor, 
so called because it is said to have been 
given by Haydn to his publisher in ex- 
change for a new razor which he needed 
badly. 

Re. See ♦Solmization. 

Reading Rota. Name for the ♦Sumer 
canon, a ♦rota supposedly composed by a 
monk from Reading. 

Real answer, real fugue. See ♦Tonal 
and real. 

Rebab. Name for various bowed string 
instruments found in Moslem countries. 
They occur in a great variety of strange 
shapes with one to three strings. See the 
illustration, p. 800 (also SaRMy 317; 
SaHMly 245; GD v, 514). It is used in the 
♦Javanese orchestra as a conductor's in- 
strument. The European descendants arc 
the ♦rebec and the rubeba. 

Rebec, rebeck. A medieval bowed 
string instrument shaped like a long slen- 
der pear, also known as rubebuy lyra, 
gigue. See the illustration on p. 800 (also 
SaRMy 318; GD v, 514; AdHM, 593). 


[628] 



REBUTE 


About its relationship to the Arabic 
*rebab, cf. SaRM. The rubeba, which 
some scholars believe to be a larger type 
of rebec, has been described by Johannes 
de Moravia (CS i, 152). A i5th<entury 
rebec is preserved in Bologna; cf. B. 
Disertori, in RMI xlii. 

Rebute [F.]. *Jew’s harp. 

Recapitulation. See under ♦Sonata 
form. 

Recercada, recercar. See ♦Ricercar. 

Recit [F.]. Seventeenth'Century term, 
derived from ♦recitative, for a vocal solo 
piece, usually in aria style; e.g., recit de 
basse^ bass aria. In organ parlance, the 
term was used in similar connotations, 
i.e., for a solo organ stop and the entire 
solo organ {clavier de recit)\ also as a 
title for organ pieces with a distinct 
melodic part (in distinction from the 
earlier contrapuntal type of organ music). 
See also under ♦Taille. 

Recital. The term, which denotes pub- 
lic performances by one player (in dis- 
tinction from concert), was first used in 
connection with performances given by 
F. Liszt in London, around 1840. 

Recitative [It. recitativo\, I. A vocal 
style designed to imitate and to empha- 
size the natural inflections of speech. It 
is usually employed in connection with 
prose texts of a more or less narrative 
character, particularly in operas in which 
it serves to carry on the action from one 
aria (ensemble, chorus) to another. In 
accordance with its declamatory charac- 
ter, the purely musical principles of vocal 
melody, phrase, and rhythm are largely 
disregarded in the recitative; instead 
of beautifully designed lines one finds 
speech-like reiteration of the same note, 
slight inflections, short groups of quick 
notes in irregular rhythms, purely syl- 
labic treatment of the text, etc. The 
recitative is sung either to a ♦thorough- 
bass accompaniment, or to a written-out 
accompaniment of a more fully developed 
character. The former type is known as 
recitativo secco, the latter as recitativo ac- 
compagnato or stromentato. 


RECITATIVE 

In spite of the intrinsic limitation of 
recitative style its evolution shows quite 
a variety of types which are far from being 
adequately covered by the conventional 
classification just mentioned, as will ap- 
pear from the subsequent historical sur- 
vey. 

II. The recitative originated around 
1600 as the most startling innovation of 
the ♦Nuove Musiche, and in immediate 
connection with the development of the 
♦opera [see also ♦Monody]. The earliest 
operas (Peri’s, Caccini’s Euridice^ 1600) 
are written throughout in a carefully and 
impressively designed declamation, which 
is quite different from the later “par- 
lando” style. The accompanying example 
from Caccini’s Euridice (1600) is typical 
of this early Florentine recitative [Ex. ij. 
During the 17th century this style of 
singing evolved in three different direc- 
tions: 

(a) Taking on more distinct phrasing, 
melodic character, and definite form, it 
grows into the aria, of which examples 
are to be found in Monteverdi, the Ro- 
man and Venetian composers, though 
not yet fully set apart from the recitative 
portions (e.g., Cavalli’s Giasone^ 1649)* 



^ 0 

sz 



ft -4 






contcnti rtdvr pcrchc t!af- 


|annl,che ta-cluU> marti trjypp? ttyr-men-tt. 



U Mi parenabbiAU un’ 
Vi la.ch^ 


a.' ni-nta. di hr'cnio. 


(b) With the rise of the aria as a dis- 
tinct type, the recitative begins to assume 
a more rapid, less melodic character. Ex- 
amples of this style are already to be 
found in Cesti {Porno d*oro^ 1667) and 
Pallavicino {La Gerusalemme liber ata^ 
1687). It was not until the i8th century, 




RECITATIVE 

however, that this “parlando style” at- 
tained general importance, under the 
name of recitativo secco (secco, dry — 
with reference to the unexpressivc char- 
acter of the declamation, not to the lack 
of an elaborate accompaniment). This 
type remained in use throughout the pe- 
riod of the Neapolitan opera as well as in 
the operas of Mozart and Rossini [see 
Ex. 2, from Mozart’s Don Giovanni], 

(c) While the early Florentine as well 
as the secco recitative were sung to a thor- 
ough-bass accompaniment only, a fuller 
accompaniment (including strings) was 
introduced for recitatives of special im- 
portance. Monteverdi was one of the first 
to use this method in the closing measures 
of the famous '‘Possenti spirti” in his 
Orfeo (1607) and Schiitz used it con- 
sistently for the part of the Evangelist in 
his Auferstehungs Historic (1623). The 
use of an ensemble accompaniment natu- 
rally led a more strictly measured type of 
recitative, dramatic rather than declama- 
tory, the recitativo accompagnato or 
stromentato. It assumed considerable im- 
portance in 18th-century opera where it 
is usually reserved for the climactic scenes 



of the drama, and serves to introduce the 
most brilliant arias of the work. Bach, 
in his St. Matthew Passion^ uses it con- 
sistendy for the pairt of Christ and for 

[ 63' 


RECORDER 

the recitatives preceding an aria [Ex. 3]. 

(d) A special type of recitative, char- 
acterized by the frequent change of meter 

%)f developed in France 
under Lully [Ex. 4] and spread, with 
necessary adaptation to the language, to 
England (Purcell). This recitative pre- 
sents the attempt to set down in exact 
note values the rhythm, accentuation, and 
inflections of the French language, on a 
principle similar to the *vers mesurS of 
the i6th century [see also ^Rhythm II 

(e) Finally, it may be mentioned that 
Schiitz, in his latest works, the Passions, 
developed a highly impressive type of 
“archaic” recitative, entirely unaccompa- 
nied, a Baroque revival of the Gregorian 
psalm tones [cf. SchGMBy no. 192]. 

(f) The most outspoken adversary of 
the Italian opera and its stereotyped par- 
lando recitative, namely, Richard Wag- 
ner, was destined to bring about a new 
flowering of the truly musical recitative: 
his “unending melody” is indeed nothing 
but a recitative of the highest expressive- 
ness and dramatic significance. An inter- 
esting contrast to the emotionalism of 
Wagner’s recitative is formed by the 
mysteriously vague recitative of Debussy’s 
Pelleas et MSlisande. 

The free character of the recitative has 
repeatedly been imitated in instrumental 
music. Examples occur in Kuhnau’s 
Biblische Historien (1698), in Bach’s 
Chromatic Fantasie, in Beethoven’s Piano 
Sonata op. 30, i (first movement, recapit- 
ulation) and op. no (slow movement), 
in Schumann’s Scenes from Childhood 
(The Poet Speaks), etc. Sec also * Arioso. 

Lit.: Ch. Spitz, “Die Entwicklung von 
Stile Recitativo” (AMW iii); S. Wilson, 
“The Recitatives of the St. Matthew Pas- 
sion” (ML, xvi, no. 3); E. Borrel, ^*L’In- 
terpretation dc I’ancien r&itatife fran- 
9ais” (RdMy no. 37). D. J. G. and W. A. 

Reciting note. See under *Psalm tones. 

Recorded music. See *Phonograph 
and recorded music. 

Recorder [F. Flute douce ^ Fldte h bec\ 
G. Blochfldte^ Schnabelfldte\ It. fiauto 





RECORDER 


dolce, flauto diritto]. The most impor- 
tant type of whistle (or fipplc) flute, i.e., 
end-blown, with a “whistle” mouthpiece 
[see * Whistle flute]. Its tone-quality is 
highly individual, soft, and slightly reedy, 
in part produced by an inverted conical 
bore smallest at the lower end. The re- 
corder attained very nearly its final form 
in the late Middle Ages; in the i6th cen- 
tury it formed a complete family of in- 
struments from treble to bass which 
played an important part in the music of 
the late Renaissance. By the early i8th 
century only one size, with a range from 
f' to g'", remained in common use. This 
was called “Flauto” by J. S. Bach and 
most of his contemporaries; the trans- 
verse flute (the modern instrument) is 
normally distinguished as “Traverso.” 
Bach and Handel very occasionally made 
use of a “Flauto Piccolo,” a small re- 
corder usually an octave higher in pitch 
than the Flauto; the statement that this 
was a ^flageolet is erroneous. After 1750 
the recorder passed gradually out of use. 

In the early 20th century a revival took 
place, begun by Arnold Dolmetsch in 
England, to be followed after 1918 by 
German manufacturers using large-scale 
methods, and finally, on a much smaller 
scale, by makers in the United States. 
Modern instruments are generally made 
in four sizes, named by German and Eng- 
lish makers as follows: 


German 

English 

Range 

Soprano 

Descant 

c"_d"" 

Alto 

Treble 

f-g"' 

Tenor 

Tenor 

c' — d'" 

Bass 

Bass 

f — f" 


Two systems of boring the fingerholes 
have been used in modern instruments; 
that used by certain German makers to 
simplify the fingering of the first octave, 
usually called “German fingering,” has 
not gained wide acceptance, and the 18th- 
century system, today called “English 
fingering,” is now most used. The Alto 
(Treble), owing to its widespread popu- 
larity as a chamber-music instrument in 
the 1 8th century, possesses an important 
literature written expressly for it by com- 
posers of nearly every nationality; much 


REED 

of this music has been reprinted. See the 
illustrations on p. 272. 

Lit.: Ohr. Welch, Six Lectures on the 
Recorder (1911); C. Sachs, Handhuch 
der Musi 1 {instrumenten\unde (2d ed., 
1930); /W., The History of Musical In- 
struments (1940); F. J. Giesbert, Schule 
fiir die Altblocf(fldte (Mainz); Sebastian 
Virdung, Musica getutscht (1511, repr. 
1882); Michael Praetorius, Syntagma 
Musicum II (1618, repr. 1884); Sylvestro 
Ganassi, Opera intitulata Fontegara 
(1535, facs. ed. 1934); Jaques Hotteterre, 
Principes de la flute a bee (1707); 
H. Fitzgibbon, “Of Flutes and Soft Re- 
corders” {MQ xx); C. F. Dolmetsch, in 
ML xxii, no. i; A. Carsc, “Fingering the 
Recorder” {MR i); Ch. Welch, “Litera- 
ture Relative to the Recorder” (PM A 
xxiv). J.F. O. 

Recoeuilli [F.]. Collected, reserved. 

Recoupe [F.]. See under *Basse dance. 

Recte et retro [L.j. See *Retrograde. 

Redobles [Sp.]. See ^Ornamentation I. 

Redowa, rejdowak. A Bohemian 
dance in moderately quick triple meter, 
similar to the mazurka. It attained popu- 
larity around 1850. Cf- the example in 
GD iv, 340. 

Reduction [F.]. Arrangement. Piano 
reduction, arrangement for piano. 

Reed [F. anche; G. Zunge, Blatt, Rohr- 
blatt; It. ancia], I. A small elastic piece 
of thin reed (cane) or metal which is 
fixed at one end and is free to vibrate, by 
means of blown air, at the other end. 
The reed is the sound-producing agent in 
various musical instruments, chiefly oboes, 
clarinets, saxophones, bagpipe, harmoni- 
um, accordion, mouth harmonica, and the 
reed stops of the organ. Those of the first 
four instruments are made from cane, 
the others from metal. The best cane 
reeds are made from Arundo donax^ a 
tall grass growing in the south of France 
(Frejus). 

Two basically different types of reeds 
must be distinguished, namely idiophonic 
and heterophonic reeds [G. harte and 



REED 


REFRAIN 


weiche Zungen]. The idiophonic [Gr., 
own sound] reeds are made of a heavy 
and hard substance, usually metal, and 
are capable of producing a sound of one 
pitch only, this being determined by their 
length and thickness (similar to, e.g., a 
tuning fork). Such reeds are used in the 
•harmonium, the •accordion, the •mouth 
harmonica, the Chinese •sheng, the 
•regal, and the organ reed stops. In the 
latter they are combined with a pipe 
which, however, serves only to reinforce 
the sound [see •Organ VIII]. A hetero- 
phonic [Gr., other sound] reed is made 
of a light and soft substance, usually cane, 
and is capable of producing a wide range 
of pitches, but only if it is attached to a 
pipe, the length of which determines the 
pitch of the sound. In instruments such 
as the oboe or clarinet the sounding 
length of the pipe can be varied by cover- 
ing different holes, so that a whole scale 
can be obtained from the reed. It is this 
type of reed that the term usually refers to. 

II. Heterophonic reeds occur in two 
varieties, i.e., single reeds (clarinet, saxo- 
phone) and double reeds (oboe, bassoon). 

In the former type there is only one reed 
which vibrates against a slot of the pipe, 
while in the latter type there are two reeds, 
separated by a slight opening, which vi- 
brate against each other. It may be re- 
marked that the lips of the trumpet and 
horn player form, from the acoustical 
point of view, a pair of heterophonic dou- 
ble reeds. 

Another distinction of somewhat lesser 
importance (referring chiefly to the idio- 
phonic class) is that between jree reeds 
and beating reeds. In the former type, 
which is used in the harmonium, the 
reeds move outside and inside of a slot 
which is just wide enough to let the reed 
pass “freely’'; in the other type, used 
chiefly in the organ, the opening of the 
slot is somewhat smaller than the reed so 
that this “beats” against the frame of the 
slot. The reed of the clarinet also is a 
beating reed. 

A special type of reed is the covered 
reed, i.e., a (single or double) reed which 
is enclosed in a cap perforated by a hole 
into which the player blows, thus con- 

[63 


trolling the reed indirectly. This device 
which excludes expressive and dynamic 
nuances was used in various early instru- 
ments, e.g., in the •cromornes, while in 
the •pibgorn the reed is enclosed in a fun- 
nel-shaped mouthpiece which is pressed 
tightly around the lips. 

Reed pipes, stops. See •Organ VIII, 

X. 

Reel. A dance performed by two or more 
couples standing in a circle and describing 
a series of figures each in the time of eight 
measures. It is common in Scotland, Ire- 
land, and America, the American variety 
being known as the Virginia reel. The 
music consists of four or eight measures 
in moderately quick duple meter which 
are repeated over and over again. See 
under •Strathspey. 

Reexposition [F.j. Recapitulation. 

Refrain. I. A term of poetry, equivalent 
to burden, thus denoting one or two lines 
of identical text which occur at the end of 
each stanza of a strophic poem. In mu- 
sical composition the refrain is naturally 
set to the same melody, so that the term 
adopts the meaning of both textual and 
musical repetition. A popular name for 
the refrain is chorus, referring to the com- 
mon practice of singing the refrain in full 
chorus, the stanzas (verses) solo. 

II. The principle of the refrain was al- 
ready present in the antiphonal and re- 
sponsorial singing of the early Christian 
Church in which an exclamation such as 
Amen, Alleluia, etc., was repeated by the 
congregation or the choir after each verse 
or pair of verses of a psalm [see •Psalm- 
ody II, III]. The refrain poem developed 
particularly in the 12th and 13th cen- 
turies under the •troubadours and *trou- 
veres, leading to various refrain-forms, 
the simplest of which is the •ballade, usu- 
ally a poem of three stanzas of eight lines 
each, the last two of which are a refrain. 
Its musical scheme is a a b R for the stanza 
(refrains are usually printed in italics and, 
in schematic presentations, indicated by 
capital letters). Another refrain-form of 
die 13th century is the •virelai with the 
structure A b b a A for the stanza, the 

^l 



REFRAIN 

closing refrain serving also as the initial 
refrain for the next stanza. (In these 
schemes one letter, whether small or 
capital, always denotes identical music.) 
The situation is somewhat different with 
the medieval rondeau: ABaAabAB 
[see *Rondeau (i)] since this has nor- 
mally only one stanza within which the 
textual and musical reiteration takes 
place. In the Italian 14th-century *ballata 
the refrain is called *ripresa\ in the Span- 
ish ^villancico, ^estribtllo, 

III. The refrain lines, particularly of 
the rondeaux, are frequently borrowed 
material, i.e., sentences which were taken 
over from earlier poems and which, owing 
to their popularity, were in common use 
so that their “quotation” was a matter of 
courtly education. Thus, the term refrain 
adopts the meaning of a line of text taken 
over from some other literary product. 
There existed in the first half of the 13th 
century a whole stock of well-known re- 
frains, usually of amorous character, such 
as “Eai! ke ferai? Je mur d’amourette” 
or “En ma dame ai mis mon cuer, et ma 
pensee,” which were freely borrowed for 
new songs as well as for the upper parts 
of French motets [cf. HAM^ nos. 19b and 
32d]. Three such usages may be men- 
tioned here: (a) The chanson avec des 
refrains was a strophic song each stanza 
of which concluded with a “different re- 
frain” — if this self-contradictory term be 
permitted [Ex. in AdHM i, i95f]. (b) 
The refrain motet ^ i.e., a motet which in- 
cludes refrain-quotations in the text of the 
upper parts, usually at the end. This was 
a very common procedure in the French 
motets from about 1250. (c) The motet 
ente which begins with the first half of a 
refrain and ends with its conclusion, with 
new material in between [see *Ente]. 
There are even a few motets (and one 
conductus) the text of which consists en- 
tirely of refrains [Ex. in AdHM i, 240, E] , 
in the manner of a *cento. While the 
textual aspect of the borrowing in motets 
has been fully investigated by philologists, 
the question as to what extent musical 
borrowing went with it is much less clear. 
In quite a few instances, however, it has 
been shown that the refrain was incorpo- 


REGISSEUR 

rated into the motet together with a mel- 
ody. In such cases the technique is that of 
the *quodlibet since the tenor-melody is 
always borrowed (from plainsong). Fre- 
quently the method of borrowing was the 
reverse of that just described, i.e., the ini- 
tial phrase of a motet duplum became a 
refrain. The custom of refrain quotation 
persisted till the late 15th century [cf. 
M. F. Bukofzer, in Mp, 1942, p. 33]. 

The principle of alternation between 
variable and reiterated portions of a com- 
position reappears in the instrumental 
*ritornelli of the 17th century, as well as 
in the rondeaux of the French clavecin- 
ists [see ^Rondeau (2), and *Rondo]. 

Lit.: H. Orenstein, Die Refrainformen 
im Chansonnier de V Arsenal (Diss. Vi- 
enna 1937); F. Gennrich, Musif{wissen~ 
schajt und Romanische Philologie (1918). 

Regal. A portable organ invented prob- 
ably around 1450 and much used during 
the 1 6th and 17th centuries, which had 
reed pipes only [see ^Reedj. The repro- 
duction in GD iv, 344 furnishes a good 
view of the construction. The explana- 
tion of the name is uncertain [cf. the con- 
jectures in GD iv, 344; SaHMI, 308; 
SaRM, 318]. In the i6th century, the 
reed pipes of the regal were incorporated 
into the organ which theretofore had pos- 
sessed only flue pipes. Thus, the reed 
stops of the later organs are frequently 
called “regal” in general, many of them 
bearing names such as Geigenregaly Trich- 
terregal (from the funnel-like shapes of 
the pipes), etc. On the other hand, regals 
themselves were also enlarged by the ad- 
dition of flue pipes. Monteverdi pre- 
scrilxd the regal in his Orfeo (1607) to 
accompany the song of Charon [see *Or- 
chestration I] . — A particularly small type 
of regal was the bible regain so called be- 
cause it could be folded together like a 
book. Cf. SaHMly 309. 

Regisseur. German designation for the 
artistic or technical director of an opera. 
In German, “Regie” corresponds gener- 
ally to “production.” The Regiebuch con- 
tains the operatic text with the indication 
of the stage setting. 


[633] 



REGISTER 


RELISH 


Register. ( i ) In organ parlance, the full 
set of pipes controlled by one stop; hence, 
practically identical with organ stop. A 
register may include one or (in mixture 
stops, etc.) several ♦ranks. — (2) The dif- 
ferent ranges of the human voice are dis- 
tinguished, according to the method of 
their production and sound quality, as 
“head register,” “chest register,” etc. As 
in most matters concerning singing, there 
is considerable disagreement among sing- 
ers and voice teachers regarding the ques- 
tion of the vocal registers. Some say the 
voice has two registers, high and low. 
Many claim three registers, high (head), 
middle (throat), and low (chest). Others 
subdivide still further. While formerly 
the registers played a most prominent part 
in the teaching of, and writing on, sing- 
ing, there is a strong tendency at present 
to ignore the whole idea as of little im- 
portance and value. R. Y. R. 

Registration [G. Registrierung]. The 
art of using and combining the organ 
registers in playing on the organ. While 
modern organ composers frequently in- 
dicate the registration of their composi- 
tions (at least in a general way), such in- 
dications are rare in the literature of the 
Bach period. Authentic details regard- 
ing Bach’s registration are available in a 
few pieces, notably the chorale preludes 
“Ein feste Burg” (Peters VI, no. 22: piano 
and forte)^ “Christ lag in Todesbanden” 
(Peters VI, no. 15: piano and forte), and 
the Dorian Toccata (Peters III: Oberwer^ 
and Positiv), It should be noted that 
French organ composers of the 17th cen- 
tury were much more detailed in the in- 
dication of stops than German and Italian 
[see *Organ music II (c) ] . For literature 
see under ♦Organ playing. 

Regola deir ottava (the rule of the 




T 






V u ■ 


^ ^ 

0 

irsis n r 

II . 

\\y 0 

\\ — 


6 6 -f- 

octave). In the ♦thorough-bass practice 
of the 1 8th century a scheme according 


to which each tone of the octave is pro- 
vided with a suitable chord, as in the 
accompanying example. Such schemes 
proved helpful for the realization of sim- 
ple basses which had no figures indicating 
more elaborate chords. Cf. E. Borrel, in 
TG xxi, 175. 

Rehab. Same as *rebab. 

Reigen [G.]. Round dance. 

Reimofficium [G., rhymed office]. 
Rhymed versions of the liturgical texts 
for the offices of Saints. They were very 
popular during the nth through the i6th 
centuries, until they were abolished by 
the Council of Trent (1545-63). Cf. 
AdHM i, 89; P. Wagner, Einfiihrung in 
die Gregorianischen Melodien, i, 300; K. 
Meyer, in AMW iii. 

Reimsequenz [G.j. The rhymed ♦se- 
quences of the 1 2th century. 

Reine Stimmung [G.]. ♦Just intona- 
tion. 

Rejouissance [F.j. In 18th-century 
music (Bach, Orchestral Suite no. 4), 
name for light and playful pieces, gener- 
ally in quick triple meter. 

Related key. See ♦Key relationships. 

Relative keys. See ♦Key relationships. 

Relative pitch, (i) Acoustically, the 
pitch of a tone (e.g., E) in relation to a 
standard tone or to a given key (e.g., C). 
It may be expressed either as an interval 
(major third), or by means of solmiza- 
tion syllables (mi), or by relative fre- 
quencies (-). — (2) Psychologically, the 
4 

faculty to recognize and to indicate the 
relative pitch, e.g., to recognize the tone 
E as the major third above C, or to sing 
this tone, if the major third above C is 
demanded. This faculty is one of the most 
fundamental requirements of a musician, 
much more important, in fact, than the 
♦absolute pitch. 

Relish. An ornament used in the per- 
formance of early English music for lute. 


[634] 




REMETTEZ 

viol, and keyboard. The term Single Rel- 
ish was applied to any ornament formed 
by the alternation of two adjacent notes. 
The Double Relish^ a complex ornament 
similar to the French ^double cadence^ 
consists essentially of a trill upon each of 
two successive notes, as follows: 



P. A. 


Remettez [F.]. In French organ mu- 
sic, indication to take off a stop. 

Renaissance, Music of the. The 
counterpart in music of the Renaissance 
in the Fine Arts and in literature. Al- 
though the term is universally used, there 
will hardly be found even two interpreters 
who entirely agree as to its proper mean- 
ing and to its temporal as well as spatial 
limitations. If Renaissance means — as it 
originally did in the other arts — the re- 
discovery of ancient Greek culture, then 
Renaissance music can hardly be said to 
exist; phenomena such as the composi- 
tion in the Horatian meters [see *Ode; 
also ^Humanism] are, indeed, of a very 
subordinate importance and the efforts 
towards a revival of the Greek drama 
were purely imaginative, not to mention 
the fact that they led to a musical style 
(monody, opera, oratorio) which is gen- 
erally agreed upon as already represent- 
ing the beginning of the ^Baroque pe- 
riod. If the term means the liberation of 
music from the bondage to the Church 
and the rise of a secular aestheticism, then 
the music of the 14th century rather than 
that of the 15th might be termed Renais- 
sance music. As a matter of fact, even in 
the Fine Arts there has recently been a 
tendency towards dating back the begin- 
ning of the Renaissance as early as 1300 
(“Proto-Renaissance” of Giotto, etc.). A 
musical “proto-Renaissance” might be 
said to begin as early as 1250 (secular 
motets) and to continue throughout the 
14th century (*Ars Nova); however, a 
special difficulty, not paralleled in the 
Fine Arts, is presented by the even earlier 
existence of a markedly secular musical 


REPETITION 

tradition, namely, that of the troubadours 
and trouveres (12th to 13th century). 

The most satisfactory definition may be 
obtained on the basis of stylistic qualities, 
i.e., internal musical evidence. Clarity, 
balance, self-reliance, euphony, expres- 
siveness within well-regulated limits, fi- 
nally the development of artistic standards 
[see *Maniera], and of rational methods 
of composition (imitation, treatment of 
dissonances), are among the character- 
istic features of what is usually understood 
to constitute Renaissance style. If this 
view is accepted, the beginning of the 
musical Renaissance can scarcely be dated 
earlier than 1500, the time when Josquin, 
Isaac, Hofhaimer (all born about 1450), 
reached maturity of style. This leaves an 
unaccounted-for gap of 50 years between 
the beginning of the Renaissance and the 
end of the Gothic period (1450), a half- 
century which comprises the work of the 
earliest Flemish composers, Ockeghem 
and Obrecht (both born 1430). Of these 
the former will have to be considered as 
continuing the Gothic tradition, the latter 
as preparing the style of the Renaissance. 
See ^History of music; ^Flemish Schools; 
•Humanism; •Musica reservata; and the 
various countries. 

Renforcer [F.]. To reinforce, to in- 
crease. 

Renversement [F.]. Inversion (of in- 
tervals, chords, subjects). 

Renvoi [F.]. Sign of •Da capo. 

Repeat. The signs ||: at the beginning, 
and : || at the end of a section, which call 
for repetition of this section. If the latter 
sign alone appears, the repetition is meant 
to start from the beginning of the com- 
position (e.g., the exposition of sonata- 
form). 

Repercussa, repercussio [L.], Re- 
perkussion [G.]. See under *Psalm 
tone. 

Repetition, (i) A special device of 
the pianoforte-action which permits the 
quick repetition of a tone (invented by 
S. Erard). Sec *Pianofortc. 



R£P£TITION 

(2) As a device of musical composition, 
repetition is one of the most important, if 
not the most important, principles of mu- 
sical construction. This will be realized 
if it is remembered that the repetition of 
a musical idea or motive includes among 
its subspecies: sequential treatment, imi- 
tation, ostinato, variation, and repetition 
of entire sections. This last is the basic 
principle of nearly all the musical *forms 
(A B A; A A B A; A B A C A D A; etc.). 
In a wider sense, repetition is also present 
in the equal length and comparable 
rhythm of phrases (four measures); in 
fact, the very presence of a uniform meter 
throughout a piece already constitutes an 
element of repetition. It will easily be 
seen that this basic factor of music has no 
counterpart in painting, while in archi- 
tecture it appears, with more restricted 
significance, as symmetry. 

In contrapuntal music, four devices of 
repetition are used which may be distin- 
guished as follows: 

Repetition in the same part at the same 
pitch: *ostinato; 

Repetition in the same part at a different 
pitch: ^sequence; 

Repetition in a different part at the same 
pitch: *Stimmtausch; 

Repetition in a different part at a differ- 
ent pitch: ^imitation. 

Lit.: C. A. Harris, “The Element of 
Repetition in Nature and the Arts’" (MO 
xvii); R. Lach, “Das Konstructionsprin- 
zip der Repetition” (Sitzungsberichte der 
Wiener A\adeinie der Wissenschajtcuy 
Bd. 201, 1925). 

Repetition [F.], repetizione [It.]. 
Rehearsal. Repetition general^ dress re- 
hearsal. 

Replica [It.]. Repeat. Senza replica 
dicates omission of the repeats as is usual 
with the repetition of the menuet or 
scherzo after the trio. 

Repons [F.]. *Responsorium. 

Reponse [F.]. Fugal answer. 

Reports. A 17th-century English term 
for ^points of imitation or, at least, for 
some sort of contrapuntal treatment. 


REQUIEM 

ihus, in Playford’s Introduction to the 
Sl{ill of Music (i2th edition, 1694) refer- 
ence is made to “imitation or reports,” 
and the Scottish psalter of 1635 contains 
tunes treated in the style of an anthem 
and inscribed: “Psalmes in Reports.” 

Reprendere [It.]. To take up again 
(the tempo). 

Reprise [E., F., G.]. (i) Repetition. 
The term is particularly used in connec- 
tion with *sonata-form, unfortunately in 
two different meanings. Originally, it 
refers to the repetition of the exposition 
before the development usually indicated 
by the “repeat”-sign. This meaning exists 
in the case of Ph. Em. Bach’s Sonaten mit 
ver'dnderten Reprisen in which the repe- 
tition of the exposition is written out in 
a varied form. In present-day nomencla- 
ture, however, the term usually means the 
recapitulation, i.e., the repetition of the 
exposition after the development section 
[see under ^Durchfiihrung], — (2) In 
17th-century French music the second 
section of pieces in binary form is called 
reprise^ e.g., in practically all the dances 
in the suites of d’Anglebert. See also 
under ’‘^Ripresa (4). 

Reprisenbar [G.]. See *Barform II. 

Reproaches. See ^Improperia. 

Requiem [from L. requies, rest]. A 
composition of the text of the Mass for 
the Dead (Missa pro defunctis), so called 
because it begins with the Introit “Re- 
quiem aeternam dona eis Domine” (Give 
them eternal rest, O Lord). The liturgical 
structure of this Mass is essentially the 
same as that of any other *Mass, the main 
difference being that the Joyful portions 
of the Ordinary (Gloria and Credo) arc 
omitted, that the Alleluia is replaced by a 
Tractus and that, after the Tractus, the 
sequence Dies irae (by Thomas a Cclano, 
13th century) is added. For the plainsong 
music of this Mass, cf. GR, 95*. 

The polyphonic composition of the 
Mass for the Dead differs from that of the 
normal Mass chiefly because it includes 
not only the invariable portions of the 
Ordinary (Kyrie, Sanctus, Agnus Dei), 


[636] 



RESERVATA 

but also, and in fact more prominently, 
the items of the Proper (Introit, Gradual, 
etc.). The reason for this procedure is, of 
course, that in this special Mass these 
items have a fixed text, like those of the 
Ordinary. Compositions of the Requiem 
are not very numerous, but among them 
are works of the highest artistic signifi- 
cance. The earliest settings are from the 
1 6th century: Pierre de la Rue [^Editions 
V, ii], Johannes Prioris (publ. by At- 
taingnant, 1532), Antoine de Fevin, Cris- 
tobal Morales [’’•‘Editions XIII, i], Fran- 
cisco Guerrero {Liber primus missarum 
. . . , 1566), Palestrina {Missarum liber 
primus^ 1591 )> Lassus (1589), and finally 
Tomaso Vittoria’s great Officium defunc- 
forum, written in 1603 for the death of 
the Spanish Empress Maria. In all of 
these works the Dies irae is not composed, 
but sung in plainsong, as are the opening 
intonations of the various portions, while 
the composed sections use the liturgical 
melodies more or less freely as a cantus 
firmus. The dramatic mind of the 17th 
century was captivated particularly by 
the tremendous words of the Dies irae. 
The 17th-century requiems of Christian 
Straus (fl. 1616-27), Heinrich Franz 
Biber (1644-1704), and Joh. Kaspar Kerll 
(1627-93), reproduced in DTOe 30.!, all 
use tremolo effects for the words “Quan- 
tus tremor.’' Among the orchestral set- 
tings of the 1 8th century, Jommelli’s and, 
above all, Mozart’s Requiem are out- 
standing. The list of 19th-century com- 
posers of the Requiem includes Cherubini, 
Berlioz, Dvorak, Bruckner, Verdi, Saint- 
Saens, and Faure. Brahms, in his Deut- 
sches Requiem (op. 45, 1868), created an 
impressive work based on German texts 
freely chosen from the Scriptures [see 
♦German Requiem]. Cf. Ch. W. Fox, 
“The Polyphonic Requiem before 1615” 
{BAMS vii). 

Reservata. See ’•^Musica reservata. 

Res facta [L., completed work]. With 
reference to 15th-century music, a com- 
position fully written out in all its parts, 
as distinguished from improvised ♦faux- 
bourdon. 


RESONANCE 

Resolution. In harmonic analysis, the 
following-up of a dissonant note, e.g., an 
appoggiatura, by the corresponding con- 
sonant note [Ex. ij; or of a dissonant 



chord, e.g., a seventh-chord, by a con- 
sonant chord. If the seventh-chord is fol- 
lowed by the tonic, the resolution is regu- 
lar [Ex. 2]; otherwise, irregular [Ex. 3]. 
The last of our examples illustrates the 
resolution into another dissonance, a very 
frequent and important means of obtain- 
ing “harmonic flow.” 

Resonance. The transmission of vibra- 
tions from one vibrating body to another. 
This acoustical phenomenon takes place 
only when the two bodies are capable of 
vibrations of the same frequency. If, e.g., 
two tuning forks of the same frequency 
(i.c., of the same pitch) are placed close 
together and if one of them is struck with 
a hammer, the other will immediately 
begin to vibrate and to emit the same 
sound, as can be shown by silencing the 
former. In the case of vibrating strings 
the possibilities of resonance are consider- 
ably larger, owing to the existence of the 
harmonics. On the pianoforte, e.g., the 
string C sets up resonant vibrations in the 
strings c, g, c', e', etc., as can be shown by 
an experiment described under ’•^Acous- 
tics IV. The resonance in the numerous 
strings of the pianoforte is the cause of 
the change in timbre which results if, by 
means of the right pedal, the dampers are 
lifted from all the strings. See also ♦Sym- 
pathetic strings. Still more important in 
musical instruments are the so-called 
“general resonators,” i.e., bodies which 
react with sounds of any frequency or 
pitch. To this type belong the sounding- 
board of the piano and the belly and back 
of the violin which co-vibrate with any 
sound produced on the strings and rein- 
force it by resonance. Some writers, how- 
ever, do not consider this phenomenon as 
resonance but as “transmission by con- 
tact.” In true resonance, then, transmis- 
sion is effected only by the air. Resonance 



RESONANZSAITEN 

is one of the various factors which enter 
into the study of ^architectural acoustics 
[see this and * Acoustics for literature]. 
Cf. M. Seiflert, in ZMW xi. 

Resonanzsaiten [G.]. ^Sympathetic 
strings. 

Resonator. Acoustical implements, usu- 
ally in the shape of a hollow vessel, which 
serve to reinforce sounds by resonance. 
Resonators in the form of a glass globe 
with a small opening were used by Helm- 
holtz to prove the existence of the har- 
monics. Others, in the shape of hollow 
cylinders, are used with the Javanese 
xylophones and with the *marimba. The 
use of the term to denote globular flutes 
results from (or, at least, leads to) a con- 
fusion with Helmholtz’ scientific imple- 
ments. 

Respond. Used in the meaning of *re- 
sponsorium, or, occasionally, of ^response. 

Response. In the Anglican service, the 
replies of the choir to the prayers or state- 
ments of the priest, such as *‘Amen,” or 
“And grant us thy salvation.” They are 
not derived from the ^rcsponsoria of the 
Roman Church, but from the toni versi- 
culorum (AR, 32*) and the toni oratio- 
nutn (AR, 49*), simple recitations for the 
psalm verses or the prayers with respond- 
ing sentences or words. In Merbecke’s 
Boo^e of Common Praier Noted ... of 
1549, the English texts are given with the 
plainsong recitations of their Latin mod- 
els. Tallis, shortly after, wrote two har- 
monized versions of these, one in four 
parts with the melody in the treble, and 
one in five, with the ^ainsong melody in 
the tenor. These are known today as 
Festal responses. For weekdays and or- 
dinary Sundays, the Ferial responses are 
used which are modern harmonizations 
having the plainsong in the soprano. 

Responsorial. (i) In Gregorian chant, 
responsorial singing is the performance 
of a chant in alternation between a soloist 
and the chorus (^schola). This method 
of performance is in opposition to that by 
two alternating half-choruses, known as 
•antiphonal singing. Although originally 


RESULTANT TONES 

each method was restricted to special 
types of chant [see ’"'Psalmody II, III], 
they are used today more or less indis- 
criminately according to existing condi- 
tions. Antiphonal performance (North 
Choir and South Choir) is the most nor- 
mal. For responsorial psalmody see 
^Psalmody II. — (2) Older name for 
Graduale [see ^Liturgical books] or, 
more specifically, for a collection of the 
solo sections of the chants of Mass. 

Responsorium (responsory, re- 
spond). In the Roman service, name of 
various chants which grew out of the 
ancient form of ^responsorial psalmody, 
consisting of an alternation of solo verse 
and choral refrain: R V R V . . . R [see 
*Psalmody II]. Originally the ^Gradual 
{responsorium graduale^ as well as the 
* Alleluia belonged to this class; the Grad- 
ual is even today called “Responsorium” 
in the liturgical books of the Dominicans. 
More specifically, the name applies to two 
special categories of chants, the melis- 
matic responsoria prolixa and the much 
simpler responsoria brevia [regarding 
their form, see under *Psalmody II ] . The 
former arc sung at Matins or Nocturnes 
of high feasts, such as Christmas, Corpus 
Christi, Easter, etc., or, occasionally, in- 
troductory to the Mass (e.g., “Ingrediente 
Domino,” on Palm Sunday). Being 
chants of Matins, etc., they are not in- 
cluded in the Antiphonale, but are found 
in the Liber Usualis [see ^Liturgical 
books] . The responsoria brevia are sung 
during the daily hours and elsewhere. 
They are not indexed in the Liber Usualis, 

Rest [F. pause, silence", G. Pause; It. 
pausa]. See ’"'Notes. 

Restatement. Same as recapitulation 
in *Sonata-form. 

Resultant bass. Name of organ pipes 
in which the acoustical phenomenon of 
resultant (differential) tones is used for 
the production of the lowest registers. 
See *Combination tones. 

Resultant tones. Same as *Combina- 
tion tones. 


[638] 



RETARDATION 


RHYTHM 


Retardation. A rare term for *suspen- 
sion, or, particularly, the suspension re- 
volving upwards. 

Retenant [F.]. Holding back (im- 
mediately). 

Retrograde. The term denotes the 
backward reading of a melody, i.e., be- 
ginning with the last note and ending 
with the first one. Synonymous terms arc: 
crab motion [L. cancrizans\ G. Krebs- 
gang ] , al rovesciOy and recte et retro. Ex. i 
serves as an illustration. 

Although this procedure (unlike the 
effect produced by *in version) completely 
obscures, from the listener’s point of view, 
the original melody, it has been not in- 
frequently used by composers as a con- 
structive device. The earliest instance is 
a 13th-century clausula “Nusmido” the 
tenor of which has the liturgical melody 
“Dominus” in retrograde motion [cf. F. 
Ludwig, Repertorium ( 1910), p. 80] . Ret- 
rograde motion is one of the most fre- 
quent tricks in the riddle canons of the 
14th and 15th centuries in which it is in- 
dicated by inscriptions such as: “Ma fin 
est mon commencement” (Machaut), 
“Ubi a ibi oj” (with reference to the first 
and last letters of the Greek alphabet), 
“Cancriza” (walk like a crab), “Canit 
more Hebraeorum” (-sing as the Hebrews 
read, i.e., from the right to the left), 
“Vade retro Satanas” (Retreat, Satan), 
by backward spelling such as “Ronet” or 
“Nusmido,” etc. An example of out- 
standing ingenuity is Byrd’s motet Dili- 
ges Dominum [cf. Hawkins, History, 
chapter 96]. Bach has used retrograde 
motion only in some of the canons of his 
Musical Offering, in which it is called for 
by the clefs placed at the end as well as at 
the beginning of the piece. Another ex- 
ample, humorous rather than scholarly. 



is the ‘‘Mcnuetto al rovescio” of Haydn’s 
Sonata no. 4 for PF. and violin [cf. GD 


iv, 456; sec •Rovescio]. Beethoven re- 
vived crab motion as a device of fugal 
style in the final fugue of the Hammer- 
klavier Sonata, op. 106. More recently, 
Schonberg has introduced retrograde mo- 
tion as a basic feature of his •twelve-tone 
technique. 

Retrograde inversion is the combina- 
tion of retrograde motion and inversion. 
This can be achieved by turning the mu- 
sic sheet upside down, a possibility which 
has occasionally been used in jest canons 
showing one melody which is to be played 
by two players reading from the two op- 
posite sides of the sheet (Mozart). Ex. 2 
illustrates this musical joke. 

Reunis [F.j. In orchestral music, uni- 
son (after •divis&). In organ music, 
coupled. 

Revidiert [G.j. Revised. 

Rf., rfz. Short for •rinforzando. 

Rhapsody [Gr. rhaptein, to tear; ode, 
song]. A Greek term denoting a portion 
of an epic (e.g., the Iliad), as well as a 
free medley of such portions sung in suc- 
cession. Musicians have adopted this 
name in different meanings, chiefly for 
free fantasies of a somewhat epic, heroic, 
or national character (F. Liszt, Rhapso- 
dies Hongroises; Raff; Lalo; Dvorak; 
Bartok). In Brahms’s Rhapsodien for PF. 
(op. 79 and op. 119, 4) the name would 
seem to refer to their ballade-like char- 
acter, whereas, in his Rhapsodic in C, op. 
53, for alto, male chorus, and orchestra, 
the title may have been chosen with re- 
gard to the fact that it is written to a por- 
tion only of Goethe’s Harzreise im Winter, 
The free, “rhapsodic” element appears to 
be prominent in Gershwin’s Rhapsody in 
Blue. 

Rheingold. See *Ring des Nibelungen. 

Rhumba. Sec *Rumba. 

Rhythm. I. General, It would be a hope- 
less task to search for a definition of 
rhythm which would prove acceptable 
even to a small minority of musicians and 
writers on music. In view of this situation 
it is desirable to adopt, at least for the 






RHYTHM 


RHYTHM 


purpose of this article, a definition as in- which lacks regularly recurrent accent, 
elusive as possible, i.e., the following: Since, in modern notation, accent is in- 
Rhythm is everything pertaining to the dicated by bar-lines (the understanding 
temporal quality ( duration ) of the mu- being that the first note after the bar-line 
sical sound. Thus rhythm forms the receives an accent), this rhythm leads to 
counterpart of ^motion, i.e., everything a free alternation of different measures 
pertaining to the pitch quality of the mu- [see Example, e]. This type of rhythm is 
sical sound. Each melody can be sepa- much more important in music history 
rated into a rhythm skeleton and a motion than is generally recognized. Gregorian 
skeleton, as is illustrated under *Melody. chant, in its Solesmes rendering as well as 
There is, however, an additional ele- in the interpretation of the “mensuralists” 
ment of musical rhythm which enters into [see ^Gregorian chant VI], belongs to 
the picture as a fundamental factor, i.e., this category (the common reference to 
accent. In fact, one and the same rhythm Gregorian rhythm as being “free” is actu- 
pattern has entirely different meanings ally misleading; a certain freedom of per- 
depending upon where the accent or dy- formance, involving ritardandos and ac- 
namic stress falls [sec Example]. celerandos, may be applied to any type of 

rhythm). So does modern ^Russian and 
^Syrian chant as well as the humanistic 
*odc and the *vers mesure of the i6th 
century, the *plainchant musical, and the 
French ^recitative of the 17th century. 
Measured rhythm has gained considerable 
importance in the works of recent com- 
posers such as Stravinsky, Bartok, and 
Hindemith, in which it frequently is no- 
tated as ^syncopation, i.e., as a temporary 
displacement of regular meter and accent. 

(c) Free rhythm, i.e., the use of tem- 
poral values which have no common met- 
rical unit (beat). The existence of such 
rhythm cannot be disputed, as appears 
from a study of (recorded) Oriental, In- 
IT. Classification. On the basis of a dian, etc., songs and certain ancient types 
consideration of temporal values and of of European folk music, e.g., Hungarian 
accent, the following categories of rhythm [see ^Primitive music] . Obviously, such 
may be distinguished: a rhythm cannot be expressed in our mu- 

(a) Metrical rhythm, i.e., rhythm in sical notation which is essentially based 

which every time value is a multiple (or upon the idea of a common unit of time 
fraction) of a fixed unit of time, called (quarter-note or eighth-note). For an in- 
beat, and in which the normal accent teresting attempt to escape the rhythmic 
recurs in regular intervals, called measure, fetters of our notation, see ^Prelude II 
The basic scheme of time-values within (Louis Couperin). Free rhythm is also 
each measure is called *meter. In modern actually present whenever a striking devia- 
notation, the measures are marked off one tion from strict rhythm is demanded, e.g., 
from another by bar-lines. See the above by rallcntando, accelerando, rubato. 
Example, a-d. This is, aside from excep- III. History of (Metrical) Rhythm. 
tions mentioned below, the rhythm of (a) Prehistory. Whether Gregorian chant 
European music. For more details see had a free, oratoric rhythm or an essen- 
under III. dally measured rhythm is still an open 

(b) Measured rhythm, i.e., a rhythm question. At any rate, it is now generally 
in which every time value is a multiple agreed upon (in contrast to earlier theo- 
(or fraction) of a fixed unit of time, but ries, e.g., by Riemann) that it was not in 

[640] 




RHYTHM 


metrical rhythm, i.e., that it had no regu- 
larly recurrent accents. A different situa- 
tion is encountered in the case of the 
earliest poetic texts, the *hymns. As early 
as the 4th century the ^Ambrosian hymns 
had strictly metrical melodies, as we know 
from St. Augustine’s testimony. The nu- 
merous office hymns of the loth to the 
1 2th century as well as the rhymed 
^sequences of, e.g., Adam de St. Victor 
(d. 1192) introduced strictly metrical 
poetry, e.g.: O salutaris hostia. Quae caeli 
pandis ostium, etc. This, however, was 
not immediately accompanied by the in- 
troduction of metrical rhythm, as the ac- 
companying example shows, the rhythmic 
rendering of which leaves room for con- 
jecture, but is certainly not “metrical” (as 
indicated below the staff). 

(b) Modal Rhythm. It was not until 
shortly before 1200 that strict metrical 
rhythm became definitely established in 
the modal rhythm [see *Modes, rhyth- 
mic] of the organa, clausulae, etc., of the 


^ 0 frt- lu- iA- ris H«**K*4. 

iJinjpnujjpiJ JiJ 

School of Notre Dame. This epochal 
innovation must be credited to Magister 
Leoninus. While his organa (dupla) 
would seem to represent an intermediate 
type, including sections in modal rhythm 
alongside with others in the free rhythm 
of the earlier period (*St. Martial), his 
successor Perotinus established the exclu- 
sive use of modal, hence metrical, rhythm 
[see ^Organum; also *Ars antiquaj. At 
the same time modal rhythm appears in 
the songs of the trouveres although its 
application to this repertory is conjectural 
to some extent [see *Plainsong notation]. 
The system of the six rhythmic modes, 
w’hich developed shortly after 1200, is the 
first attempt towards a methodical treat- 
ment of rhythm. It prevailed throughout 
the rest of the century, being broadened 
later by the introduction of smaller values 
(two to six semibreves) in the place of one 
brevis (the quarter-note of % -meter). 

(c) Rhythm of the Polyphonic Era, 


RHYTHM 

1300-1600. Around 1250 the first at- 
tempts were made to introduce duple 
meter. An interesting remark in a con- 
temporary treatise (Pseudo- Aristotle; cf. 
CS i, 271) not only refers to this daring 
innovation, but also indicates the strength 
of the opposition it met: “. . . If somebody 
were to ask whether a song can be formed 
by imperfect (i.e., duple) longae (i.e., 
half-notes) exclusively just as it can be 
formed by perfect longae (i.e., triple or 
dotted half-notes), the approved answer 
is no; since nobody can sing a succession 
of pure imperfect longae'' In order to 
understand this position, it must be re- 
membered that, to the 13th-century mu- 
sician, triple meter was something “per- 
fect,” because it had “beginning,” “mid- 
dle,” and “end”; duple meter, on the 
other hand, had “beginning” and “mid- 
dle,” but no “end,” and was, therefore, 
“imperfect” in the true meaning of the 
word [cf. ApNPMy 292]. Progress did 
not stop, however, before such scholastic 
reasoning, and shortly after 1300 duple 
and triple meter were recognized as of 
equal right in all degrees, from the max- 
ima to the semiminima or, as we would 
say, from the whole-note to the quarter- 
note, so that all meters, %, %, %, %, 
became available. This system, which is 
the basis of the ^mensurations of *men- 
sural notation, was established by Philippe 
de Vitry (c, 1320). Hand in hand with 
this freedom of meter went a rapid ad- 
vance in the use of rhythmic subtleties 
and finesses, such as dotted rhythm (the 
13th century had given preference to the 
iambic, i.e., inverted dotted rhythm, at 
least in the smaller values), ^syncopation, 
and *polyrhythms Toward the end ot 
the 14th century, polyphonic music 
achieved a complexity of rhythm which 
has never been paralleled in all history 
[see *Poly rhythm. Ex. ij. These com- 
plexities largely disappeared in the *Bur- 
gundian School (Dufay) and in the sub' 
sequent ^Flemish Schools (Ockeghem, 
Obrecht, Josquin). While the 15th cen- 
tury preferred ternary meter, the i6th 
adopted binary meter as its standard me- 
ter and, within this general frame, de- 
veloped the technique of contrapuntal 


f 6^1 1 



RHYTHM 


RICERCAR 


rhythms which is the very essence of true 
counterpoint [see '•^Texture J. 

(d) Classical Rhythm. With the aban- 
doning of polyphonic music and the in- 
troduction of accompanied melody (1600; 
sec ^Baroque) the rhythmic life of music 
became greatly simplified. There devel- 
oped what might be called the classical 
type of rhythm, i.e., a simple rhythm com- 
bined with strong accents in regular re- 
currence (meter) which pervade and 
regulate uniformly the entire fabric. This 
rhythm, which is most clearly realized in 
the dance, becomes the rhythmic basis of 
all music from c. 1600 to 1900, Bach being 
practically the only one who succeeded in 
imbuing it with contrapuntal life. Around 
1700 there developed, particularly with 
Antonio Vivaldi (d. 1743), a precise and 
energetic rhythm in quick notes which 
is well known from many fugal themes 
of Handel and, especially, from the Bran- 
denburg Concertos of Bach. After 1750, 
the development of music offers little in- 
terest from the rhythmic point of view 
until Brahms who, familiar with the mu- 
sic of earlier periods, made ample use of 
rather complicated cross- rhythms, synco- 
pated formulae, unusual triplet forma- 
tions, change of accent [ particularly from 
% to %; see ’"‘Hemiola ] , etc. 

(e) The 20th Century. The 20th cen- 
tury has seen a tremendous rise of interest 
in rhythm as an essential factor of the mu- 
sical life. Slavic dances with their lively 
rhythms, jazz with its complicated synco- 
pations, the modern machine with its re- 
lentless motorism, the neo-classicism with 
its return to polyphonic styles, and the 
general tendency to explore to the limit 
whatever was neglected in the 19th cen- 
tury, all these factors contribute to giving 
rhythm a place in contemporary music 
such as it had not had for many centuries 
[see *New music]. For more details see 
*Jazz; ^Syncopation; *Poly rhythm. 

Related articles: Agogic; Beat; Meas- 
ure; Mensuration; Meter; Modes, Rhyth- 
mic; Poetic meter; Poly rhythm; Propor- 
tions; Rubato; Tactus; Tempo; Tempus; 
Time signature; Syncopation. 

Lit.: M. H. Glyn, Rhythmic Concept 
tion of Music ( 1907) ; E. Jacques-Dalcroze, 


Rhythm^ Music and Education (1921); 
M. Lussy, Short Treatise on Musical 
Rhythm (1909); Th. Taig, Rhythm and 
Metre ( 1930) ; C. F. A. Williams, Rhythm 
oj Modern Music (1909); H. D. Cowell, 
^euj Musical Resources (1930); H. Ric- 
niann. System der musikcilischen Rhyth- 
mi\ und Metri\ (1903); G. Becking, Der 
musiXalische Rhythmus als Er^enntnis- 
quelle (1928); R. Dumesnil, Le Rhythme 
niusicale (1921); C. Avogadro, Teoria 
mtisica del ritmo (1910); K. Wilson, in 
ML viii, no. i; M. Lussy, in VMW i; H. 
Cowell, in MM v, no. 4. 

Rhythmic modes. See *Modes, Rhyth- 
mic. 

Ribattuta [It.]. See ^Ornamentation I. 

Ribeba, ribeca. Same as *rebec. 

Ribible. Chaucerian spelling of *rebec. 

Ribs. The sides of instruments of the 
violin family, connecting the back and 
the table. 

Ricercar(e), ricercata [from It. ricer- 
carCy to search.] A term which, during 
the 1 6th and 17th centuries, was applied 
to various types of instrumental music 
for which it is difficult to find a common 
denominator since they differ widely in 
style and purpose. By far the most im- 
portant of these is the “imitative ricercar” 
discussed below under I. The other con- 
notations, however, should not be over- 
looked in order fully to understand the 
meaning of this rather puzzling term, 
w^hich, perhaps, can be best understood as 
the equivalent of our term “study,” cither 
contrapuntal (I), or technical (II). 

I. The Imitative Ricercar, This is the 
instrumental counterpart of the (vocal) 
motet of Josquin and his successors. Its 
chief characteristic is, therefore, the imi- 
tative treatment of several themes in suc- 
cession, corresponding to the ^points of 
imitation of the motet. Such pieces were 
written for ’•‘‘ensemble performance and 
for the organ. Since the former (called 
here “instrumental ricercar”) differ in 
certain details of style and form from the 
latter, they are here treated separately. 


[642] 



RICERCAR 


RICERCAR 

(a) The Instrumental Ricercar. Instru- viermusi\^ 1899, p. 33), according to 
mental pieces in the style of the motet which the fantasia is mono-thematic, the 
occurred as early as with Isaac {c, 1450- ricercar poly-thematic, does not stand the 
1517), Hofhaimer (1459-1537), and other test of thorough investigation. Prob- 
contemporary composers. Some of the ably no clear distinction can be made, 
former’s “Instrumentalsatze*’ [e.g., since the term fantasia was used for a 

i4.i, nos. 42, 51] and of the latter’s ^car- variety of types some of which approxi- 
mina [cf. H. J. Moser, Paul Hofhaimery mate the much more clearly defined ricer- 
WerJ^e, p. 102] might well be considered car [see ^Fantasia (5)]. 
the point of departure of the ricercar. It (b) The Organ Ricercar. The history of 
may, however, be noticed that some of the imitative ricercar for the organ begins 
Isaac’s instrumental pieces approach the with Girolamo Cavazzoni’s Intavolatura 
character of the ’••'canzona rather than that doe recercari canzoni himni magnificati 
of the ricercar [cf. HAM, no. 88]. The of 1542/43. The four ricercars contained 
earliest ensemble pieces named ricercar in this publication [cf. HAM, no. 116] 
(to be found in publications by Jacques are remarkable because they exhibit cer- 
Buus, 1547; Willaert, 1549, ’59; Tiburtino tain peculiarities of style and form which 
da Tievoli, 1549; Annibale Padovano, make the organ ricercar a form in its own 
1556) can also be characterized as textless right, not a mere “textless motet” as is 
motets, although some of them exceed largely the case with the instrumental 
the confines of proper motet style owing ricercar. The most important difference 
to their considerable extension or to a is their sectional construction which forms 
somewhat scholarly treatment (augmen- a marked contrast to the numerous short 
tation, stretto), traits which frequently and overlapping “points of imitation” of 
render these pieces rather unenjoyable, if the motet. As a consequence, there are 
not boring — an extreme example being usually many fewer “themes” in an organ 

a piece by Buus in which one single theme ricercar, but each of these is awarded 

is made the basis of a monotonous con- fuller treatment in a lengthy section which 
trapuntal texture of nearly 300 measures frequently closes with coloratura-like 
(Wasielewski, no. 18). Others however, runs in toccata style. There resulted 
particularly those by Willaert (new edi- around 1550 (Andrea Gabrieli) a type of 
tion by H. Zenck), are exquisite exam- organ ricercar which has remained rela- 

ples of 16th-century chamber music [cf. tively stable throughout the 200 years of 

HAM, no. 1 14; SchGMB, no. 56]. It its existence and which is characterized 
must be noticed that all the above publi- by the elaborate and learned treatment of 
cations are printed in part books, like the one theme (monothematic ricercar) or 
vocal music of that time. As a matter of several themes in succession, the themes 
fact, their relationship to vocal practice is being slow, and lacking rhythmic as well 
emphasized by inscriptions such as: “da as melodic individuality (the fugues in 
cantare e suonare,” inscriptions which C-sharp minor and E major from Bach’s 
doubtless indicate that these ricercares Well-tempered Clavier I and II may well 
could be sung (i.e., in ^vocalization) as serve as an example of 18th-century ricer- 
well as played on viols, recorders, cornetts, car style). After 1600 the organ ricercar 

etc. At any rate, it is a fundamental mis- was cultivated chiefly in Germany (Fro- 

take to interpret and to present these berger, Kerll, Buxtehude, J. Krieger [cf. 
pieces as organ music, as has been done in HAM, no. 249b] ), until Bach closed the 
the case of Padovano (ed. by N. Pierront, development with his famous ricercar 
1934) [see ^Ensemble]. (acrostic title: R— egis I— ussu C-antio E-t 

A much-discussed problem is that of R-eliqua A-rte C-anonica R-esoluta: 
the distinction between the 16th-century Upon the King’s Demand, the Theme 
ricercar and the contemporary fantasia, and Additions fosolved in Canonic Style) 
The theory, advanced by M. Seiffert from the ^Musical Offering, 1748. 
{Se\&txt-V^t\Xzm2imi,Geschichte der Kla- II. The Non-Imitative Ricercar, The 

1643] 



RICERCAR 


RICERCAR 


earliest pieces bearing the name ricercar 
as well as numerous later examples from 
the 1 6th and 17th centuries show traits of 
style and form which set them clearly 
apart from the type just described. It is 
difficult to find a common denominator 
for all these pieces. Perhaps they might 
be described as being designed to exploit 
the idiomatic resources of the various in- 
struments for which they were written, 
somewhat in the character of our etude. 

(a) For the Lute. The numerous lute 
ricercars contained in Petrucci’s Intabola- 
tura de lauto i, ii, iv ( 1507/8; iii is lost) 
are the earliest pieces bearing this name. 
They show no connection with the motet, 
being short pieces in free lute style, and 
consisting chiefly of passages and chords, 
much like a prelude. Coimterpoint is re- 
duced to a bare minimum, and imitation 
is practically absent [cf. HAM, no. 98; 
SchGME, no. 63b]. It must be noted, 
however, that a flat identification of these 
pieces with preludes (as suggested by 
various writers) is obviated by the fact 
that several pieces in Petrucci's book iv 
(Dalza) consist of a “’’^Tastar de corde” 
(touching of the strings) and a “Recercar 
dietro” (ricercar thereafter). Here the 
tastar evidently takes the place of prelude 
proper; in fact, the ricercar is, by com- 
parison, a good deal more “constructed” 
[cf. HAM, no. 99] . In the later literature 
for the lute [Francesco da Milano (1547; 
cf. SchGMB, no. 115); Simon Gintzler 
(1547; cf. DTOe i8.ii); Valentin Bacfarc 
(1552); Vincenzo Galilei (// Fronimo, 
^5^3)5 see ^Editions XIV, 4] the lute ri- 
cercar more and more approaches the 
style of the imitative ricercar, apparently 
owing to an increased ability of the lute 
players who by then regarded the poly- 
phonic style as idiomatic to their instru- 
ment. 

(b) For the Organ. The earliest organ 
pieces called ricercar are found in Marc- 
antonio da Bologna’s Ricercari moteti 
canzoni (1523). Like the lute pieces, they 
have no connection with the motet. They 
arc lengthy pieces written in the ^hordal 
and scalic style of the toccata rather than 
in the contrapuntal style of the motet. In 
spite of their length they apparently served 


somewhat in the function of a prelude, 
because each of the two ricercars is fol- 
lowed by a piece in the same key, a Salve 
Virgo and an O Stella marts — evidently 
the “motets” of the title. 

(c) For Viols, etc. Theoretical writers 
such as Ganassi {Regola Rubertina, 1542; 
newed. by M. Schneider, 1924) and Diego 
Ortiz {Tratado de glosas, 1553; new ed. 
by M. Schneider, 1913) use the term ri- 
cercar for instructive pieces designed to 
demonstrate the skillful playing of the 
viola da gamba. Ganassi’s pieces are in- 
teresting for the extensive use of double- 
stops [cf. HAM, no. 1 19], while those by 
Ortiz serve to illustrate the art of variation 
and ornamentation. Clearly to the same 
category belong 17th-century ricercars 
for vio»loncello solo (without accompani- 
ment), much in the character of a concert 
etude, by Giambattista degli Antoni and 
by Domenico Gabrielli (1689; cf. 
SchGMB, no. 228). 

(d) For Voices. The instructive con- 
notation is clearly indicated in an exten- 
sive repertory of 17th-century “ricercare 
a due voci” [Guami (1588); Metallo 
(1614, later editions till 1885); Gentile 
(1642); Piochi (1671)], i.e., of two-voice 
untexted compositions in imitative coun- 
terpoint. These pieces seem to be designed 
primarily for use by singers, since in sev- 
eral of the above publications they are 
referred to as vocal exercises — to be per- 
formed, of course, in ^vocalization. Or- 
lando di Lasso’s “Cantiones sine textu” 
[cf. Cpl. Ed. i, 8fl] belong to the same 
category. In this connection it is interest- 
ing to note that, as late as 1774, P^Are 
Martini in his Esemplare ossia saggio . . . 
(p. 295) speaks of “the masters who com- 
pose ricercars and solfeggios.” These 
pieces are particularly interesting as po- 
tential predecessors of Bach’s two-voice 
^inventions. 

Lit.: W. Wasielewski, Geschichte der 
lnstrum€ntalmusi\ im 16. Jahrhundert 
(1878), Beilage (nos. 12-15 ^7"' 

18 for ensemble, 20, 21, 24 for organ); 
O. Kinkeldey, Or gel und Klavier in der 
Musif{ des 16. Jahrhunderts (1910; exam- 
ples); G. Frotscher, Geschichte des Orgel- 
spiels ( 1935), passim; H. Opienski, “Quel- 



RICOCHET 

ques considerations sur Torigine des ri- 
ccrcarcs pour luth” (in ^Editions XXIV, 
B, 3/4); A. Einstein, “Vincenzo Galilei 
c il duetto didattico” {LRM xi). 

Ricochet [F.]. See ^Bowing (e). 

Riddle canon. See *Canon (i) II. 

Ridotto [It.]. Reduced, i.c., arranged 
(for PF., etc.). 

Riduzione [It.]. Arrangement. 

Rigaudon, rigadoon. A Provencal 
dance of the 17th century [see *Dance 
music III] used in the operatic ballets of 
Campra, Rameau, and also adopted into 
the optional group of the suite (Pachelbel, 
Bach). Among the earliest extant exam- 



ples is a Rigadoon by Purcell (1658-95; 
see illustration). The rigaudon also oc- 
curs in the suites of modern composers 
(Grieg, From Holbergs Time; Ravel, Le 
Tombeau de Couperin), Cf. V. Alford, 
in MQ XXX, no. 3. 

Rigo [It.]. Staff. 

Rigoletto. Opera in three acts by Giu- 
seppe Verdi (1813-1901), text by F. M. 
Piave (after Victor Hugo’s drama Le Roi 
s amuse) ^ produced 1851. The scene is 
16th-century Italy where the handsome 
and profligate Du\e (Tenor), aided by 
the humpbacked jester Rigoletto (Bari- 
tone), pursues the wives and daughters 
of his courtiers who resolve to take ven- 
geance on Rigoletto for his sneering in- 
vectives (Act I). They succeed in ab- 
ducting Rigoletto’s daughter Gilda (So- 
prano) into the Duke’s palace where he 
easily wins her love (Act II). Thirsting 
for revenge, Rigoletto hires the profes- 
sional assassin Sparafucile (Bass) to mur- 
der the Duke who (Act III) comes to 
Sparafucile’s inn in order to amuse him- 
self with the latter’s sister Maddalena 


RING DES NIBELUNGEN 

(Mezzo-Soprano). Implored by his sis- 
ter, Sparafucile agrees to murder, instead 
of the Duke, the first person who will 
enter the inn, and Gilda, overhearing this, 
sacrifices herself. Rigoletto receives from 
Sparafucile a sack which he believes to 
contain the corpse of the Duke until fi- 
nally, opening it, he discovers that of his 
own daughter. 

Its gruesome plot places Rigoletto in 
the category of the “horror-opera” which 
had a great vogue around 1850. How- 
ever, the action is full of moments of gen- 
uinely dramatic tension, and the music, 
in particular, elevates the opera far beyond 
the level of, e.g., Meyerbeer’s Robert le 
Diable. Together with // Trovatore 
(1853) and La Traviata (1853) repre- 
sents the crowning-point of the Italian 
opera with melodramatic plots, popular 
type melodies, and concentration on “ef- 
fective” vocal numbers. 

Rilasciando [It.]. “Releasing,” slow- 
ing. 

Rimettendo [It.]. Resuming the old 
tempo. 

Rinforzando [It., reinforcing], abbrev. 
r/, rfzy rinf. A sudden stress applied to a 
single note or chord, practically synony- 
mous with *sforzando. In early orches- 
tral music (Stamitz) the term is used in 
the meaning of a short but strong cre- 
scendo. 

Ring des Nibelungen, Der (“The 
Ring of the Nibelung”). Trilogy by 
Richard Wagner, consisting actually of 
four operas (hence also referred to as a 
tetralogy); Das Rheingold (“The Rhine 
Gold,” 1853-54; designated by Wagner 
as Vorspiel, i.e., prologue), Die Walkure 
(“The Valkyrie,” 1854-56), Siegfried 
(1856-71), and Gotterddmmerung (“The 
Dusk of the Gods,” 1869-74). The li- 
bretto is by Wagner, after legends from 
the Scandinavian Edda. First p)erform- 
ance of the whole Ring in Bayreuth, 1876, 
for the dedication of the Bayreuth Fest- 
spielhaus. 

Without even attempting a summary 
of the plots of these four operas, their col- 


[645] 




RING DBS NIBELUNGEN 

lective basic idea may be said to be the 
ancient Germanic conception of the 
world consisting of three realms strug- 
gling against each other: the light realm 
of the gods (Walhalla, with Wotan, his 
wife Fricka, the Fire God Loge); the 
realm of men (Earth, represented by 
Siegmund, Sieglinde, Siegfried, Hund- 
ing, Hagen, Gunther, Gutrune), and the 
dark realm of the Nibelungs, a race of 
dwarfs living beneath the earth ( Alberich, 
Mime). In addition there arc the Val- 
kyries, Wotan’s daughters (Briinnhilde 
and her sisters), the Giants (Fasolt and 
Fafner), and the Norns, goddesses who 
represent the eternal destiny to which 
even the gods are subjected. Two basic 
plots are merged in the libretto. The first 
is a legendary plot centering around the 
magic ring which, forged by Alberich, 
falls successively into the hands of Wotan, 
of Fafner (who guards it as a dragon), 
of Siegfried, who gives it to Briinnhilde 
as a sign of his love (in Siegfried) but, in 
the Gdtterddmmerung, takes it again 
away from her. The second is a human 
plot centering, in Die Wall{urey around 
the incestuous love of Siegmund and 
Sieglinde and, in Siegfried, around the 
love of their son Siegfried and Briinn- 
hilde, while, in the G otter d'dmmerung, 
Siegfried, blinded by a love potion, falls 
in love with Gutrune until immediately 
before his end, when he once more re- 
members Briinnhilde and calls her name 
with his last breath. 

In order to forge together this gigantic 
plot Wagner relies here more than in any 
other of his operas upon the ^leitmotif 
as a means of unification. Not only has 
each of the characters his own character- 
istic motive, but also basic ideas, such as 
“the curse,” “the ring,” “the sword,” are 
thus represented. Moreover, in contra- 
distinction to earlier operas such as 
Tannhduser and Lohengrin, Wagner 
completely discards here the last remnants 
of the aria or the lied as an ingredient of 
operatic structure, replacing it by an “un- 
ending melody” which, purposely avoid- 
ing definite cadences and sectional con- 
struction, continues almost from the be- 
ginning to the end of each act in an un- 


RITMO 

interrupted flow [see *Opera X; ♦Reci- 
tative; ♦Leitmotif]. 

Ripieno [It., filled up]. In 17th- and 
18th-century orchestral music, particu- 
larly in the *concerti grossi, the term de- 
notes the “reinforcing section” of the or- 
chestra, comparable to the “rear section” 
of the violins, etc., in the modern orches- 
tra. Therefore, “ripieni” indicates the 
full orchestra {tutti, concerto grosso), as 
distinguished from the soloists {concern 
tino). The term “senza ripieni,” how- 
ever, is not identical with “orchestra si- 
lent,” but calls for the leading members 
only of the orchestra, i.e., for a smaller 
ensemble used for the accompaniment of 
the soloists (concertino). Ripienista (Ri- 
pienist) is an orchestral player. 

Riposato [It.] . With a feeling of repose. 

Riprendere [It.]. To take up (the 
original tempo). 

Ripresa [It.], (i) Repeat or repetition 
(also of a performance, opera, etc.). — 

(2) Recapitulation (in sonata form). — 

(3) In the 14th-century ♦ballata (and in 
its descendant, the ♦frottola) the ♦refrain. 
— (4) In 16th-century dances, a repeti- 
tion in varied form fcf. Th. Norlind, in 
SIM vii] . See also ♦Reprise. 

Riservata [It.]. See ♦Musica reservata. 

Risoluto [It.]. Resolute. 

Risposta [It.]. Fugal answer. 

Ris-qolo. See ♦Syrian Chant; also 
♦Melody types. 

Ristringendo [It.]. Quickening. 

Risvegliato [It.]. “Wakened up,” ani- 
mated. 

Ritardando [It.], abbr. rit., ritard. 
Gradually slackening in speed, also indi- 
cated by rallentando. Ritenuto properly 
indicates a different effect, i.e., immediate 
reduction of speed. 

Ritenuto [It.]. See under ♦Ritardando. 

Ritmo [It.]. Rhythm. Beethoven’s in- 
dication “ritmo di tre (quattro) battute” 


[646] 



RITORNELLE 

(Ninth Symphony, Scherzo), indicates 
groups of three (four) measures, the 
speed of the piece being so fast that there 
is one beat only to the measure. 

Ritornelle, ritournelle [F.], ritor- 
nello [It.], (i) In the 14th-century 

“^madrigal, the last two lines of the stanza. 
This ritorncllo is not a refrain; as a mat- 
ter of fact, the madrigal never has a re- 
frain, in contradistinction to the *ballata 
and its later derivative, the *frottola, the 
refrain of which is called *ripresa. — 
(2) In early 17th-century operas [Monte- 
verdi, Orfeo (1607)] an instrumental in- 
terlude preceding or following after an 
aria, scene, etc. Aside from the ^sin- 
fonias which serve a somewhat different 
purpose, the ritornelli are the only in- 
strumental pieces in the early operas. 
Later there is frequently thematic rela- 
tionship between the ritorncllo and the 
aria. — (3) In the German 17th-century 
strophic songs, called *aria (Erasmus 
Kindermann, cf. DTB 21 1 2^; Adam 
Krieger, cf. DdT 19), an instrumental 
interlude of four to eight measures played 
after each stanza; thus, an instrumental 
•refrain [cf. HAMy no. 228; SchGMBy 
nos. 209a, 210]. — (4) Modern writers 
occasionally use the term for the recurrent 
tutti portions of the concerto grosso or of 
the rondo. — (5) The ritournelle is a 
17th-century dance in quick triple time, 
by far the most frequent dance type in 
the ballets of Lully. — (6) Ritorncllo also 
denotes a type of Italian popular poetry, 
consisting of three-line stanzas, the first 
and last in rhyme (similar to Dante’s 
terza rima). 

Riverso, rivolto [It.]. Terms denot- 
ing properly •inversion (of intervals, 
chords, or parts), but also used in the 
meaning of •retrograde motion. See •Ro- 
vescio. 

Rivolto [It.]. Inversion (of intervals, 
chords, and subjects). 

Rococo [from F. rocaillcy shell]. In the 
Fine Arts and applied arts (interior deco- 
ration, cabinetmaking) a designation for 
the 18th-century outgrowth of the *Ba- 


ROLLSCHWELLER 

roque, characterized by an abundance of 
merely decorative scroll and shell work 
and by a general tendency towards ele- 
gance, hedonism, and frivolity. These 
traits arc also patent in 18th-century 
music, in which Rococo designates the 
period of the ‘‘gallant style,” which, with 
its emphasis on pleasantness and pretti- 
ncss, forms a marked contrast to the im- 
pressive grandeur of the true Baroque 
style. The main period of Rococo may 
be said to extend from 1725 to 1775. It 
must be noted, however, that the move- 
ment started at a considerably earlier time 
in France, where Francois Couperin 
(1668-1733) represents the musical 
counterpart of the first Rococo painter, 
Watteau (1684-1721). From France it 
spread to Germany (Telemann, 1681- 
1767; Mattheson, 1681-1764) and Italy 
(Domenico Scarlatti, 1685-1757). The 
wholehearted adoption of the Rococo style 
resulted in a deterioration of artistic 
standards under musicians such as Bal- 
bastre, Daquin, Nichelmann, Grazioli, 
Sacchini, and many others who fill the 
volumes euphemistically called “The Old 
Masters of the Pianoforte.” Although as 
early as 1740 Johann Stamitz, the founder 
of the •jMannheim School, established a 
novel style of a more vigorous nature, 
Rococo elements are still present in the 
works of C. P. E. Bach, Haydn, and Mo- 
zart. See •Gallant style; •Empfindsamer 
Stil. Cf. LaMWCy 53off. 

Rogue’s March. A tune of English 
origin which was used when a soldier 
was expelled from the army. Cf. GD iv, 
416, and iii, 316. 

Rohrblatt [G., strip of cane]. The 
•reed of the clarinet, oboe, etc., instru- 
ments which are called Rohrblattinstru- 
tnente, 

Rohrstimmen, Rohrwerk [G.]. The 
reed department of the organ. 

Rolle [G.]. German 18th-century term 
(Tiirk) for the •turn. 

Rollschweller [G.]. The crescendo 
pedal of the organ. 



ROMANCE 

Romance [F.], Romanze [G.], Ro- 
manza [It.]. In French (Italian) ro- 
mance {romanzd) means a lyrical and 
usually sentimental song; romances sans 
paroles^ i.e., songs without words. The 
German term is used chiefly for instru- 
mental pieces of a particularly tender 
character (Mozart, Pianoforte Concerto 
D minor; Beethoven, Romanzen, op. 40, 
50) or (probably with reference to the 
medieval origin of the word romance) for 
songs in which an adventure as if “of 
olden times” is told (e.g., Pedrillo’s Ro- 
manza in Mozart's Abduction from the 
Seraglio). Romancero (the Spanish word 
for troubadour) is used as a designation 
for a collection or songs, such as might 
have been sung by a romancero. 

Roman chant [L. cantus RomanuSy can- 
tilena Romana], That branch of Chris- 
tian chant which developed in Rome. It 
is usually called ^Gregorian chant, after 
Pope Gregory I (c. 540-604), who put it 
in final order. It was gradually adopted 
in almost all the Western places of Chris- 
tian worship. See under *Chant. 

Roman de Fauvel. See Sources, no. 8. 

Romanesca. A famous melody of the 
i6th century which appears first in Span- 
ish lute books [Narvaez ( 1538) ; Mudarra 
(1546); Valderrabano (1547)], under 
the name “O guardame las vacas” or 
“Romanesca O guardame las vacas” as a 
theme for continuous variations [see 
•Variations I] in the character of a cha- 



conne or passacaglia. It was used by 
numerous later composers (Trabaci, 1603; 
Mayone, 1609; Frescobaldi, 1615) for the 
same purpose (Partite sopra la Roma- 


ROMAN SCHOOL 

nesca\ cf. HAMy no. 192). The basic mel- 
ody is the descending tetrachord (which, 
in the 17th century, was widely used as a 
♦ground), this motive coming to a tonic 
close in the repetition: a-g-f-e-a~g-fe- 
d [see the accompanying example, by 
Valderrabano]. The Romanesca, there- 
fore, belongs to the category of soprano 
ostinato [see •Ostinato] rather than 
basso ostinato (ground) as it is usually in- 
terpreted [cf. MoMLy 702; RiMLy 1539]. 
In 17th-century examples the structure is 
frequently obscured by the then customary 
barring in duple meter, as, e.g., in the 
Romanesca by Marini [see ♦Editions II, 
7; cf. HAMy no. 199] . Cf. also RiHM ii.2, 
88f (Rossi), and 353f (Kittel); IfRiMB, 
no. 81 (Rossi). The Romanesca melody 
is also used in numerous ♦passamezzos. 

Roman Festivals. See *Symphonic 
poem. 

Romanian letters [G. Romanus-buch- 
staben], A system of letters said to have 
been invented by a legendary 8th -century 
papal singer called Romanus. The sys- 
tem is explained by Notker Balbulus 
(GS i, 95) and others, and is used in 
various neumatic MSS from St. Gall, 
Metz, and Chartres. These letters were 
designed to be used in connection with 
the neumes in order to clarify certain 
details of pitch, rhythm, or performance 
not indicated by the neumes themselves. 
Among the numerous letters mentioned 
by Notker only a few gained practical 
significance, chiefly those which refer to 
temporal values: c (celeritery quick), / 
(tenerCy slow), and m (mediocriter). 
They play a central part in the present- 
day discussion of Gregorian rhythm [see 
♦Gregorian chant VI] . Cf. WoHN i, 140; 
ReMMAy 140®. 

Roman music. For a full account of 
what little is known about the music of 
the ancient Romans sec ReMMAy 5 iff 
and G6HMy See also *Hydraulis; 

♦Lituus (i); ♦Tuba (2); ♦Buccina. 

Roman School. The term is used to 
denote the tradition of a cappella church 
music which was established in Rome 




ROMANTICISM 


ROMANTICISM 

by Palestrina (1525--94) [see *Palestrina was achieved by five composers born 
style] and was continued, with incorpo- shortly after 1800, namely, Berlioz (1803- 
ration of the poly choral elements of the 69), Mendelssohn (1809-47), Schumann 
* Venetian style, by a long series of (1810-56), Chopin (1810-49), Liszt 
strongly conservative musicians, mostly (1811-80), and Wagner (1813-83). 
in Rome, such as Giov. M. Nanini There followed Franck (1822-90), 
(1545-1607), Francesco Suriano (1549- Bruckner (1824-96), Brahms (1833-97), 
1621), Ruggiero Giovanelli {c. 1550- and Tchaikovsky (1840-93), composers 
1625), Felice Anerio (i56o?-i6i4), Gre- whose work represents a certain reaction 
gorio Allegri (1582-1652), Domenico against the full-fledged Romanticism of 
Mazzochi (1592-1665), Orazio Benevoli the earlier group, as is indicated by their 
(1605-72), Francesco Foggia (1605-88), return to the great forms of the classical 
Ercole Bernabei (1620-87), Tommaso symphony and sonata, as well as by their 
Baj (1650-1714), Giuseppe Pitoni (1657- emphasis on absolute music. In fact, 
1743), Johann Fux (1660-1741), Antonio some of them are sometimes labeled as 
Lotti (1667-1740), Antonio Caldara classicists (GD iv, 420) or as *neo-classi- 
(1670-1736), and others. These musi- cists. Among them Tchaikovsky would 
cians rejected, in general, the current seem to be the most Romantic, Bruckner 
styles and forms of Baroque music (aria, the least. The Romantic movement was 
recitative, oratorio, cantata, opera, sonata, continued with renewed emphasis by a 
toccata, etc.) and devoted themselves to great number of composers born between 
the composition of strictly liturgical 1850 and 1880, who are sometimes called 
music: Masses, motets, requiems, psalms, neo-romanticists or post-romanticists [G. 
etc. Based on the principles of vocal style Neuromantif^er; see *Modern music], 
of the Palestrina period, their technique It will suffice to characterize this group 
tended to scholarly treatment (canonic by a few names such as Edward Elgar 
contrivances) as well as to pompous dis- (1857-1934), Edward MacDowell (1861- 
play: Masses in 16, 24, and more voices 1908), Richard Strauss (b. 1864), Jean 
are no rarity in what has aptly been called Sibelius (b. 1865), Max Reger (1873— 
“colossal style,” and some composers used 1916), Gustav Holst (1874-1934). 
up to eight choruses, which were placed The Romantic movement as well as 
all over the huge building of St. Peter’s the term Romantic originated in a Ger- 
[cf. the 53-voice mass by Benevoli in man literary school of the late i8th cen- 
DTOe 9.i]. For the continuation of this tury, formed by writers such as Wacken- 
style throughout the 1 8th century, leading roder (1773-98), Ludwig Ticck (1773*- 
to Palestrina’s well-known biographer 1853), Novalis (1772—1801), who, in 
Giuseppe Baini (1775-1844), cf. G. Fel- search for relief from the supposed or 
lerer, Der Palestrina stil im 18, Jahrhun- real prosiness and shallowness of their 
dert (1928); also O. Ursprung, in ZMW surroundings, went back to the literature 
vii. See *A cappella; ^Palestrina style. and culture of the Middle Ages, with its 

valiant knights, gracious ladies, and 
Romanticism [F. romantisme; G. Ro- pious monks, adopting the term roman- 
manti\\ It. romanticismo]. Designation tisch as an expression of the spirit of the 
for an important movement embracing Romanesque [G. romanisch\ era (nth, 
the last three-quarters of the iQth cen- 12th centuries). From this movement, 
tury, and following after the Viennese musicians took over the general feeling 
^classical school. Foreshadowed in the of “longing for something non-existent,” 
late works — particularly the piano so- a propensity for dream and vision, for 
natas — of Beethoven (1770-1827), it the fanciful and emotional. In fact, 
found its first champions in Weber music soon proved to be a much more 
(1786-1826) and Schubert (1797-1828), fertile ground for these tendencies than 
both of whom died too young to carry the literature or any of the other arts, owing, 
new ideas to their fullest realization. This no doubt, to the intangiWc character of 

[649] 



ROMANTICISM 


ROMANTICISM 

its material, i.c., sounds. E. T. * ua^ made two outstanding additions, the 

mann, writer as well as musician, de- *character piece for piano, and the *sym- 
clared music to be '"the Romantic art” phonic poem for orchestra, both true 
and others added that “music is always images of the all-pervading subjectivism 
Romantic.” of Romantic composers. While the melo- 

Musical Romanticism may, therefore, dies of Romantic music are frequently of 
be characterized as an art which empha- inferior quality (Bruckner being a note- 
sizes the subjective and the emotional worthy exception), the development of 
possibilities of music and neglects the harmony and of orchestral colors has been 
formal and structural point of view, greatly furthered. Finally, it may be 
This does not mean to imply that non- noticed that many features of Romantic 
Romantic music lacks in emotional ap- music can be understood as the result of 
peal. However, while a composition by a general tendency to what might be 
Bach or Mozart stimulates the emotions called blurring of border lines. Among 
through its musical qualities, Romanti- these is the amalgamation of literature 
cism tries to cut short the road from the and music which shows itself in such 
composer to the listener by eliminating general designations as “symphonic 
what is believed to be mere “unneces- poem” or “tone poem,” in the choice of 
sary formalism” in the expectation of literary subjects for program pieces 
increasing by that much the emotional {Mazeppa, Till Eulenspiegel), and, most 
volume. Not unlike a real short circuit, clearly, in Wagner’s conception of the 
music has by this method immensely opera as a Gesamtkunstwer\, Technical 
gained in “high tension,” but, as might concomitants of this trend are found in 
well be expected, at the ex-pense of sus- the blurring of melodic, rhythmic, and 
taining power. It is a common experi- harmonic contours, examples of which 
ence that the appeal of much truly Ro- are frequent in many Romantic pieces, 
mantic music (Schumann, Chopin, Liszt) In the first part of this article a remark 
wears out rather quickly upon repeated was quoted to the effect that “all music 
listening, while the greatest works of the is romantic.” Although such a statement 
Romantic era are, no doubt, those which is either a falsification or a triviality, de- 
derive substance and balance from the pending upon how seriously the term 
classical principles of form and structure, “Romantic” is taken, there have been 
$uch as the symphonies of Brahms and earlier periods of music history which 
Bruckner. Shortly after 1900 there be- bear an unmistakable resemblance — in 
gan a reaction against Romanticism which their general character — to 19th-century 
has continuously gained impetus. While Romanticism and which, therefore, might 
Debussy’s ^impressionism, directed large- well be termed “Romantic,” in contrast 
ly against the “Teutonic” element of to others which must be considered as 
Romantic music, did not achieve much “classical” periods [see ^Classicism], 
more than to supplant this by a “Gallic” See also ^Modern music. 

Romanticism, the movement known as T>.G,MdiSon, The Romantic Com- 

•New Music was a radical negation of posers (1930); W. H. Hadow, Studies 
Romanticism in all its aspects, technical in Modern Music ^ 2 vols. (1894-95); 
as well as ideal. LaMWC, 734!!; E. Istel, Die Bliitezeit 

In spite of all its limitations, Roman- der musikjzlischen Romanti\ in Deutsche 
ticism has, of course, brought about re- land (1909); R. Dumesnil, Musiciens ro- 
suits of the greatest importance. There mantiques (1928); Cl. Laforet, La Vie 
is no need here to point to the many musicale au temps romantique (1929); 
outstanding compositions of Romantic E. Kurth, Die romantische Harmoni\ 
composers which still supply the greater und ihre Krise in Wagner's Tristan 
half of the repertory of our pianists and (1920); P, Roeseling, Die Grundhaltung 
conductors. Suffice it to say that, in the romantischer Melodien (Diss. Cologne 
province of musical forms, Romanticism 1928); H. Eckardt, Die Musi\auffassung 

[650] 



ROMANUS-BUCHSTABEN 


RONDO 


der jranzdsischen RomantiJ{ (Diss. Hei- 
delberg 1932); E. J. Dent, “The Ro- 
mantic Spirit in Music” (PM A lix); 
P, Lang, “Liszt and the Romantic Move- 
ment” (MQ xxii); A. Schcring, “Kritik 
des romantischen Musikbegriffs” (JMP 
xliv); V. Basch, “Le Romantisme de 
Schumann” (RM v); A. Coeuroy, “De- 
bussy et I’harmonie romantique” (RM 
ii); A. Farinelli, “II romanticismo e la 
musica” (RMI xxxiii). 

Romanus-buchstaben [G.]. See *Ro- 
manian letters. 

Romanze, Romanzero. See ^Romance. 


Rondador. See ^Panpipes. 

Ronde [F.]. See *Notes and rests. 


Rondeau, (i) An important form of 
medieval French music, frequent in the 
monophonic songs of the trouveres (13th 
century) as well as in the polyphonic 
music of the 14th and 15th centuries. The 
musical structure of the rondeau is always 
ABaAabAB (capital letters indicating 
the ^refrain), except in the earliest period 


1.4^. 7. &n-ma ^nieal wistiwn coeur a.e. li man wn-ser 


t.^. 7 . &n-ma wistiwn coeur a.e. Ei man pen^ 

Ifmptr-U- rvi. a, nul fucr 6. ii-Aitt tt ciair 
5 . Sv mont sorjpris sv vair oeil 


when the shorter scheme, a A a b A B, 
i.e., without the initial refrain, prevailed. 
The accompanying example shows the 
complete rondeau. 

Monophonic rondeaus exist in the 
Codex Florence, plut. 29.1 [cf. AdHM i, 
183], and in the various *chansonniers 
of the trouveres. Polyphonic settings (ac- 
companied solo songs) were composed 
by Adam de la Halle (1220-87), 
chaut (1300-77), Baude Cordier (c, 
1400), Dufay (1400-74), Binchois (1400- 
60), and still figure prominently in the 
collections of the late 15th century 
(Kopenhagener Chansonnier^ ed. by K. 
Jeppesen; *Odhecaton; Petrucci’s collec- 
tions of *Frottole). Examples in HAM, 
nos. 17c, 19b, 36, 48, 68, 69, 71, 72. See 
*Rondellus (i). 

Lit.: F. Gennrich, Rondeaux^ VirelaiSy 


Balladen\ P. Aubry, “Refrains et ron- 
deaux du Xllle siecle” (Riemann Fest- 
schrift, 1909); ReMMAy 22ifl, 3220 ; 
RiHM ii.i, 57ff. 

(2) An instrumental form of the 17th 
century, consisting of a reiterated ^refrain 
and different “couplets”: A B A C A D 
. . . A. Whether this form is an out- 
growth of the medieval rondeau is, to say 
the least, doubtful; no connecting links 
exist between the old and the new form. 
This rondeau is the most frequent form 
of the French clavecinists (Chambon- 
nieres, Louis Couperin, d'Anglebert, 
Francois Couperin, Rameau), as well as 
of contemporary orchestral and operatic 
music (Lully). The refrain as well as 
each couplet is a well-marked strain of 
8 or 16 measures. Each couplet usually 
emphasizes a different key, e.g., the first, 
tonic; the second, dominant; the third, 
relative minor; etc. [examples in HAM, 
no. 277]. In the late i8th century, the 
17th-century rondeau developed into the 
*rondo form of the sonata. 

Rondellus. Medieval Latin term desig- 
nating (i) the monophonic *rondeau 
[cf. HAM, no. 17c] or (2) a canonic 
form similar to the '“'Round. 

Rondena. See ^Fandango. 

Rondo, rondo form, rondo-sonata 
form. A form frequently used in the 
classical sonatas, symphonies, concertos, 
for the final movement. It was developed 
from the ^rondeau of the French clave- 
cinists by cutting down the number of 
“couplets” to three, by using the same 
material for the first and the third coup- 
let, and by elaborating the middle coup- 
let in the style of the development section 
of the ^sonata form, so that the following 
scheme results: R A R B R A' R. It ap- 
pears that in this form the principle of 
the rondeau merges with that of the so- 
nata form, inasmuch as A and A' corre- 
spond to exposition and recapitulation, B 
to the development. The recurrent sec- 
tion is usually called rondo, the inter- 
mediate sections, episode or diversion. 
The rondo form has frequently been used 
for the last movements of sonatas and con- 


[ 651 1 



ROOM ACOUSTICS 


ROTROUENGE 


certos when a joyful and playful conclu- 
sion was desired. Numerous examples of 
rondo form exist in the final movements 
of Beethoven’s earlier pianoforte sonatas 
(op. 2, no. 3; op. 13, etc.) and in prac- 
tically all the concertos of the Viennese 
classics. Earlier less-developed examples 
occur in the sonatas of Johann Christian 
Bach (e.g., no. 6 of the new ed. by L. 
Landshoff), in the independent rondos of 
Ph. Em. Bach (e.g., Clavier-Sonaten 
neb St einigen Rondos fiirs Pianoforte, 
1780), and in the early works of Haydn 
(e.g., Sonata no. 24, op. 17, 3). See *So- 
nata B III (b). 

The term rondo form is also used, par- 
ticularly by English writers, for shorter 
alternation schemes than the true rondo, 
namely the ternary form ABA and the 
five-part form ABABA(orABAC 
A), these being called respectively “first” 
and “second” rondo form, in distinction 
from the “third rondo form” explained 
above. This terminology is objectionable 
mainly on historical grounds, as only the 
“third rondo form” developed from the 
rondeau. The “first rondo form” consti- 
tutes a form in its own right, the ternary 
form [see ^Binary and ternary form], 
while the “second rondo form” repre- 
sents a broadening thereof. See *Eorms, 
Musical. 

Lit.: W. Chrzanowski, Das instrument 
tale Rondo und die Rondo-formen des 
j8 Jahrhunderts (Diss. Leipzig 1911); 
F. Piersig, fDas Rondo; C. F. Abdy Wil- 
liams, in PM A xvii; G. Clercx, “La Forme 
du rondo chez C. P. E. Bach” (RDM, 
no. 55). 

Room acoustics. See ^Architectural 
acoustics. 

Root. The generating note of a triad or 
any of its inversions and modifications 



(seventh-chord). For instance, in the 
following chords the root is always C: 


A triad, seventh-chord, etc., is said to be 
in root position if the root is the lowest 
note; otherwise, it is in *in version. Sec 
♦Harmonic analysis IV. 

Rosalia. A disparaging term denoting 
the schematic and unimaginative appli- 
cation of sequential treatment, such as 
occurs frequently in the works of second- 
class composers of the period 1750-1850. 
The word applies in particular to se- 
quences which, owing to the exact repe- 
tition of the intervals, involve modula- 
tion of the key to the higher second, e.g., 
G-C-A-D-B-E, etc. The poor effect of 



such passages is probably due to the facile 
symmetry of melody, harmony, and phras- 
ing. The German equivalent of the term 
is Schusterflecl^ (cobbler’s patch). 

Rose. Ornamental scutcheon inserted in 
the circular soundhole of instruments 
such as lutes, guitars, and early harpsi- 
chords, frequently serving as the maker’s 
trade mark. See *Soundholes. 

Rosin, resin [F. colophane, G. Kolo- 
phonium]. A preparation made from 
turpentine which is applied to the hair 
of the violin bow in order to give it the 
necessary grip upon the strings. 

Rota [L., wheel], (i) Medieval name 
for a round, particularly the ♦Sumer- 
canon, probably with reference to the 
“turnover” of the melody in the differ- 
ent parts f see also ♦Round] . — (2) Name 
for the ♦hurdy-gurdy which is operated 
by a wheel. — (3) See ♦Rotta. 

Rote. See ♦Rotta. 

Rotrouenge, rotruenge [possibly 
from L. retroientia, repetition]. A type 
of medieval French poetry and music 
which seems to have been current chiefly 
among the popular singers (jongleurs) 
of the 1 2th century. Seven poems, con- 
sisting of from three to seven stanzas, 
can be definitely identified as rotrouenges, 
on the basis of textual references such as 


[652] 




ROTTA 


RUBATO 


“Ma rotrucngc finira . . . Only one of 
these, Chanter mestuet (Raynaud, no. 
636), is preserved with music and shows 
the following structure: a a a B c, B being 
an internal refrain “Oies pour quoi.” 
From this evidence it has been construed 
that the musical form of the rotrouenge 
was characterized by the repetition of the 
same melody for all the lines of the 
stanza, except for the two last, or the 
last, e.g.: a a a a B [cf. AdUM, 195]. 
The same structure occurs in the •laissc. 
Other pieces, probably belonging to the 
same category (though not originally re- 
ferred to as rotrouenge), anticipate the 
refrain melody for the last line of the 
body, e.g.: a a a b B [cf. HAM, no. i9d] 
or a a b B [ReMMA, 220]. The latter 
type, which is relatively frequent, ap- 
proaches the ^ballade (a a b); in fact, 
various pieces which have been repro- 
duced as rotrouenges are clearly ballades, 
* 7*3 nus hons pris” of Richard the 
Lion-hearted [cf. HAM, no. 19a]. Cf. 
F. Gennrich, Die altfranzoslsche Rotrou- 
enge (1925): id., “Das Formproblem des 
Minnesangs” {Deutsche Vierteljahrs- 
schrift fur Literaturgeschichte ix, 306). 

Rotta, rotte, rota. A medieval instru- 
ment usually identified with a ’“‘lyre (in 
some books even with a lute!). Accord- 
ing to recent studies, however, it was 
more likely a harp [cf. SaHMI, 262; also 
GD ii, 542 and iv, 450]. See also under 
*Crwth. — The name rotta also appears 
as a denomination for a dance (*Nach- 
tanz) of the 14th century [cf. SchGMBy 
no. 28; also BeMMR, 155]. 

Roulade. A disparaging name for mean- 
ingless coloraturas, such as occur in 
operatic arias of the i8th and i9ih cen- 
turies. Originally, the term denoted an 
ornament, consisting of rapid passing 
notes inserted between two principal 
melodic notes. 

Round. Common name for a circle 
canon, i.e., a canon in which each singer 
returns from the conclusion of the mel- 
ody to its beginning, repeating it ad 
libitum. The result of a three-voice round 
is indicated in the following scheme: 


label a b c I 
II a b I : c a b : I 
III a| b c a 1 

It appears that the melody of a round al- 
ways consists of sections of equal length 
which arc so designed as to make good 
harmony with each other. Accompany- 
ing is an example (by M. Praetorius, 
1571-1621) together with the resulting 
harmony. The earliest and most famous 



round is the *Sumer-canon of the 13th 
century which is designated as rota 
(wheel). The *rondellus of the 13th cen- 
tury was much the same thing, possibly 
lacking the initial imitation, i.e., with all 
the voices starting simultaneously (after 
the repeat sign); cf. OH i, 319. For a 
14th-century example, notated in the form 
of a circle, cf. RiHM i.2, 352; also P. Au- 
bry, Les plus anciens monuments de la 
musique fran^aise (1903; facsimile). 
Rounds enjoyed an extreme popularity in 
England, particularly in that variety 
known as *catch. 

Rounded chanson. See ^Barform II. 

Roundelay, A 14th-century Anglicism 
for F. rondelet, i.e., ^rondeau (i). 

Rovescio [It.]. Retrograde motion or 
inversion. E.g., “Menuetto al rovescio” 
in Haydn’s Sonata no. 4 for pianoforte 
and violin (identical with the Piano So- 
nata no. 26, B.a.H.) is to be played back- 
wards, in retrograde motion [cf. GD iv, 
456; sec also ^Retrograde], while that in 
Mozart’s Serenade K.V. 388 uses imita- 
tion in the inversion. 

Royal counterpoint. See under ♦Dia- 
phonia. 

Rubato [It., robbed]. The term denotes 
a certain elasticity and flexibility of 
tempo consisting of slight accelerandos 
and ritardandos which alternate accord- 
ing to the requirements of the musical 


[653] 




RUBATO 


RUGGIERO 


expression. Tlicre has been a great deal 
of discussion regarding the nature of the 
tempo rubato, and writers have gone so 
far as to maintain that the term rubato 
is the most difficult to define of all musi- 
cal terms. Actually, all the supposed dif- 
ficulties and perplexities disappear if it 
is remembered that there exist two types 
of rubato, one which affects the melody 
only, and one which affects the whole 
musical texture. 

The existence of the former type does 
not have to be demonstrated to anybody 
familiar with modern jazz. It is surpris- 
ing, however, to see that it was also uni- 
versally known in the second half of the 
1 8th century, as appears from remarks 
in the writings of Tosi (1723), Quantz 
(1752), C. P. E. Bach (1753), Leopold 
Mozart (1756), and D. G. Turk (1789), 
all of whom maintain that the rubato 
applies only to the melody and should 
not affect the accompaniment. Chopin 
is also reported to have practiced and 
taught this type of rubato, which, natu- 
rally, is restricted to the limits of one or 
two measures, after which the accents of 
melody and harmony will again coincide. 

The second type of rubato, i.c., that 
which affects the whole musical fabric, 
would hardly need any further comment 
were it not for the fact that several 
writers, studying the above-mentioned 
books, have applied the “give-and-take'* 
principle of the i8th- (and 20th-) cen- 
tury type to the “full” rubato of Liszt or 
Chopin, maintaining that here also the 
accelerandos and ritardandos must com- 
pensate each other so that, after six or 
seven measures of free tempo, the player 
arrives in exactly the same moment as if 
he had played in rigid tempo. This mis- 
interpretation has given rise to one of 
the most heated controversies in music, 
continuing to the present day. Once its 
source is understood it should be allowed 
to fall into oblivion rather than to be 
perpetuated as a “problem.” 

The preface to Frescobaldi’s Fiori 
musicali (1630) contains interesting re- 
marks regarding the rubato-performance 
of his toccatas [cf. TaAM iv, p. x]. The 
earliest examples of tempo change as a 


means of expression occur in the lute 
fantasias of Luis Milan's El Maestro 
(1535), in which alternation of quick 
and slow is prescribed by a priesa and 
a espazio [cf. ApNPM, 190]. 

Lit.: Henry T. Finck, Musical Progress 
(1923), chapter vi; John B. McEwen, 
Tempo Rubato or Time-variation in 
Musical Performance (1928); J. A. John- 
stone, Rubato (1931); B. Bruck, Wand- 
lungen des Begriffs tempo rubato (Diss. 
Erlangen 1928); L. Kamienski, “Zum 
tempo rubato” (AMW i). 

Fubeba, rubible. Same as *rebec, or 
possibly an instrument of the same design 
but of a larger size. 

Ruckpositif [G.]. In German organs 
of the 1 6th to the i8th century, a small 
structure located at the back of the organ- 
ist, screening him from the nave. 

Riicksichtslos ; ohne Riicksicht 
[G.]. Without consideration. Ruc\sichts- 
loser Kontrapunkt, the modern “reckless” 
counterpoint, without regard to har- 
monic considerations. 


Rueda. A Spanish (Castilian) round 
dance in fast quintuple time. See *Zort- 
ziko. Cf. H. Collet, “La Musique espa- 
gnole moderne” {BSIM iv). 

Ruhrtrommel [G.]. The tenor drum; 
see ^Percussion instruments B, 2. 


Ruggiero. A melody used by numerous 
17th-century composers as a Aground for 
arias or instrumental pieces; see Ex. i. 
One may reasonably assume that origi- 
nally the name Ruggiero referred not to 

1 













this rather unmelodic bass-line but to a 
popular song melody for which it served 
as a bass. As a matter of fact, in a col- 


1 654] 




RUHELOS 

lection of 17th-century *laudc {Corona 
di sacre canzoni o laude spirituali . . . 
1710), a melody called “Aria dell’ Orto- 
lano o Ruggieri” is given which fits per- 
fectly with the famous bass melody 
[Ex. 2; cf. Alaleona, in RMl xvi, 26]. 

Probably the earliest extant Ruggiero 
composition is that by Diego Ortiz 
(1553)* Later examples include vari- 
ations by Gio. Macque {c, 1580; see *Edi- 
tions XVII, 4), a “Sonata” by Salomone 
Rossi (1613; cf. RiHM ii.2, 94), a two- 
voice aria by Antonio Cifra {Scherzi^ 
1613), keyboard variations {* partite) by 
Frescobaldi (1615; cf. TaAM iv), a “Can- 
zon Ruggiero” by Tarquinio Merula 
(1637; cf. H. Ricmann, Old Chamber 
Music III), and a virtuoso solo aria by 
Kaspar Kittel {RiHM ii.2, 349), the lat- 
ter in the extended form of the *strophic 
bass. 

According to A. Einstein, the name 
Ruggiero refers to a stanza “Ruggier 
qual sempre fui . . .” from Ariosto’s Or- 
lando furioso. At some time in the 17th 
century the term must have been used as 
a generic term for variations in general, 
since Johann Kindermann (1616-55) has 
a piece called “Ruggiero sopra Fillis” 
[cf. DTB 21/24, p. 94] which is a set 
of variations on the 17th-century tunc 
“Fillis sass in einen Botgen” [cf. ApMZ 
i; ApNPM, 36]. Cf. A. Einstein, in SIM 
xiii, and in RMI xli. 

Ruhelos [G.]. Restless. 

Ruhig [G.]. Quiet. 

Ruins of Athens, The. See ♦Inciden- 
tal music. 

Rumanian music. The main represen- 
tative of present-day Rumanian music is 
Georg Enescu (b. 1881), well known as 
a violin virtuoso and composer of orches- 
tral and chamber music. 

Lit.: LavE i.4, 2656!!; AdHM ii, ii82ff; 
article “Rumania” in P. A. Scholes, The 
Oxford Companion to Music (1938); B. 
Bartok, “Die Musikdialekte der Ruma- 
nen von Hunyad” {ZMW ii). 

Rumba. A Cuban dance which, around 
1930, became incorporated into jazz [see 


RUSSIAN MUSIC 

♦Jazz III] . It is of African character, with 
a strong emphasis on rhythm, complicated 
syncopations, and indefinite repetitions of 
an eight-measure theme, while melody 
and text are of subordinate importance. 
The dancing consists of movements of the 
body, rather than of the feet. 

Rundkanzone [G.]. See ♦Barform II. 

Russian bassoon. An obsolete instru- 
ment which has no connection with the 
bassoon, but is a brass instrument simi- 
lar to the bass horn. See *Brass instru- 
ments V. 

Russian horns. Hunting horns, straight 
or slightly bent in form, which were used 
from about 1750 to about 1825 in groups 
of from 30 to 60, each horn playing a 
single note only, i.e., without making use 
of the overblown tones. These unique 
orchestras, which have been compared 
to a living organ, were established by a 
Czech horn player, Marech, in 1751 and 
attained a high degree of perfection, as 
appears from the rather complicated 
pieces they played. Two examples are 
reproduced in LavE i.5, 2499. 

Russian music. I. Prior to c, 1700 mu- 
sical activity in Russia was, aside from 
folk music, restricted mainly to the 
Church. The adoption of the Christian 
faith by Prince Vladimir (988) and his 
son Jaroslav (1016-54) brought with 
it an influx of elements of Byzantine 
chant, probably through the intermedi- 
ation of Bulgarian monks. There en- 
sued, from the 12th century, a develop- 
ment which gradually led away from the 
Byzantine models and resulted in the 
establishment of the Russian chant, also 
known as ♦Znamenny chant, the classical 
period of which embraced the 13th and 
14th centuries. Chants from this period 
are preserved in a number of liturgical 
MSS which have so far withstood all at- 
tempts at deciphering. They are written 
in neumatic symbols, called kriuki ( = 
hooks), which are evidently derived from 
the Byzantine neumes but which devel- 
oped into a complicated system compris- 
ing a great number of different signs 


[655] 



RUSSIAN MUSIC 


RUSSIAN MUSIC 

(more than 8o), most of which appar- of highly popular songs, and the latter 
ently denote melodic formulae. In cer- is still remembered as the composer of 
tain MSS two rows of symbols appear, “The Red Sarafan.” Alexei Verstovsky 
which have tentatively been interpreted (1799-1862) deserves mention as a fore- 
as indicative of singing in two parts runner of the first great Russian com- 

[see also *Kondakarion] . In the i6th poser, Glinka. W. A. 

century this notation was improved by II. Michael Glinka (1804-57) is the 

Shaidurov, who added letters in red ink acknowledged father of Russian music, 
(hence the name “cinnabar letters”) The pre-Glinka composers were feeble 
which fixed the intervallic meaning of imitators of the Italians or Germans, 
the kriuki symbols, a development com- In Glinka’s music, however, there is a 
parable to that leading from the stafHess new element of nationalism, revealed 
to the intervallic neumes of Gregorian particularly in his patriotic opera A Life 
chant [see ^Neumes II]. Unfortunately, for the Czar (1836), produced in Soviet 
at the same time the Znamenny chant Russia under the title Ivan Susanin\ his 

deteriorated, through the interpolation second opera, Russian and Ludmilla 

of meaningless vowels, syllables, and un- (1842), has some Oriental elements, 

authentic coloraturas resulting from the Alexandre Dargomizhsky (1813-69), a 
license and rivalry of ambitious singers younger contemporary of Glinka, was 
[sec *Anenaiki]. A reform was carried the precursor of the modern period of 
out by Mesenetz, who in 1668 codified national Russian music. His operas 
the chant and adopted for its fixation Russalka (1856) and The Stone Guest 
the five-line staff with distinctive notes (1867) are remarkable for the realism of 
(“Kiev signs”; cf. WoHN i, 120 f). At their music. Alexandre Serov (1820- 
about the same time, polyphonic singing 71) wrote in the Western tradition. His 
was officially adopted by the Russian opera Judith (1862) is conceived in the 
church. All these reforms were rejected, monumental style of Meyerbeer, but his 
however, by the raskplni\i (Old Be- later operas Rogneda (1865) and Evil 
lievers), among whom the old chant and Power (1870) are imbued with Russian 
the kriuki notation survive to this day. song clement. Anton Rubinstein (1829- 
The majority of the Russian chants are 94) was chiefly known as a great pianist, 
based upon a system of eight echoi [see but his numerous operas {Dmitri Don- 
*Echos] each of which consists of me- s^oy, Feramors, Nero, The Maccabees), 
Iodic figures (called popiev\t) which written in the conventional style, were 

form the basis of all the chants written in very popular. The opera Demon (1871) 
that particular echos [see *Melody types] . still survives in the Russian operatic reper- 
Peter the Great, the “civilizer” of toire. 

Russia, was active in the introduction of Glinka, Dargomizhsky, Serov, and 
Western operatic music. Under Gath- Rubinstein were operatic composers par 
erine II (1762-96) Italian composers excellence. The first great Russian sym- 
dominated in St. Petersburg, among them phonist was Tchaikovsky (1840-93). Of 
Manfrcdini, Galuppi, Traetta, and Paisi- his six symphonies, the last three are 
ello, who reigned supreme over the im- widely known, although lately the Sec- 
perial opera from 1776 to 1794. The ond and Third symphonies have been 
earliest Russian composers, such as revived. The somberness of Tchaikov- 
Maximus Bercsovsky (i 745-77) > Dimitri sky’s personal philosophy is revealed in 
Bortnianski (1751-1825), and J. Fomin these symphonies, which are marked by 
(1761-1800), all studied with Italians a feeling of tragic helplessness and de- 
and wrote operas in the Italian style, spair. Tchaikovsky’s operas on Pushkin’s 
while Alexei Titov (1769-1827) imitated subjects, Eugene Onegin (1879) and 
Mozart to some extent. His son Nikolai Pique Dame (1890), are extremely popu- 
Titov (1800-75) and Alexander Var- lar in Russia. The continuator of Tchai- 
lamoff (1801-48) wrote a great number kovsky’s tradition was Rachmaninov 

[656] 



RUSSIAN MUSIC 


RUSSIAN MUSIC 

(1873-1943). Close to Rachmaninov in and Sergei Vasilenko (b. 1872) have writ- 
musical philosophy stands Nicolas Medt- ten symphonic and operatic music in the 
ner (b. 1880), who writes chiefly for piano manner of the Russian National School, 
and whose style veers toward neo-classi- Alexandre Scriabin (1872-1915), a 
cism. Anton Arensky (1861-1906) and composer-mystic, is an isolated phenome- 
Vasily Kalinnikov (1866-1901) also fol- non in Russian music. His musical style 
lowed in the Tchaikovsky tradition. stems from Wagner and Chopin, and in 
Contemporaries of Tchaikovsky were his symphonic and piano works he 
Mily Balakirev (1837-1910), Nicolas reaches the threshold of atonality. His 
Rimsky-Korsakov (1844—1908), Alexan- symphonic poem Prometheus (1910) is 
der Borodin (1833-87), and Modest based on a six-tone chord, derived from 
Moussorgsky (1839-81). With a second- the upper harmonics of the natural scale, 
ary composer, Cesar Cui (1835-1918), The greatest of Russian modernists, 
these names are known as the Mighty Igor Stravinsky (b. 1882), is the Icgiti- 
Five, so described by the music critic mate successor of the Rimsky-Korsakov 
Vladimir Stassov (1824-1906), or, more line, his symphonic poem The Firebird 
broadly, as founders of the Russian Na- (1910) being closely related to Rimsky- 
tional School. Moussorgsky, although in- Korsakovas last period. Stravinsky’s Le 
ferior in technique to his colleagues, tow- Sacre du Printemps (1913) has exercised 
ers above them in sheer genius. His opera profound influence on the development 
Boris Godunov (1872) exercised pro- of modern music. Stravinsky abandoned 
found influence on new music every- the Russian style in favor of *neo-classi- 
where. The unfinished opera The Wed- cism in 1924. He lived in Western 
ding foreshadows the modern develop- Europe from 1914 to 1939, and since then 
ment of short opera. Balakirev wrote has settled in America. Serge Prokofiev 
two symphonies and a symphonic poem, (b. 1891) has, since 1933, associated him- 
Tamara, the latter in an orientalistic self \yith Soviet music. His music is 
style. Borodin is the author of two sym- optimistic, with a considerable admix- 
phonies and an opera, Prince Igor, The ture of sarcasm and irony. He has writ- 
“Polovtzian Dances” from Prince Igor ten operas {Love for Three Oranges,, 
exemplify Russian orientalism at its best. 1921; War and Peace, 1941), symphonies, 
Rimsky-Korsakov, the most prolific of several concertos for piano and violin, 
the Five, composed nine operas. The seven piano sonatas, etc. His symphonic 
last three, Kastshei the Immortal (1902), fairy tale Peter and the Wolf (1936) has 
The Invisible Town of Kitezh (1907), been extremely successful. Nicolai Mias- 
and The Golden Coc\€r€l (1908), consti- kovsky (b. 1881) belongs to the Moscow 
tute an introduction to the modern pe- school of neo-romantic composers; he is 

riod of Russian music. His symphonic the author of twenty-four symphonies, 

poem Scheherezade (1888) is an out- Of the post-revolutionary composers, 
standing example of modern orchestral the greatest star is unquestionably 
colorism. Cesar Cui is a romantic com- Dmitri Shostakovitch (b. 1906). His 
poser, whose association with the Rus- operas {The Nose, 1930; Lady Macbeth 

sian National School is a historic acci- of the District of Mzens\, 1934), were 

dent. His opera William Ratcliff takes severely criticized in Russia, but his sym- 
for its subject an early drama by Heine phonies received great acclaim. The 
from Scottish legends. Seventh Symphony, written in Leningrad 

The continuator of the Russian na- under siege in 1941, is regarded as the 
tional tradition in the symphonic field greatest single work issued from the pres- 
was Alexandre Glasunov (1865-1936). ent war, and its performances in Russia, 
He wrote eight symphonies but no operas. England, and America were sensational 
Ipolitov-Ivanov (1859-1935), Reinhold events. The Eighth Symphony, composed 
Gliire (b. 1875), Alexandre Gretchaninov in 1943, has aroused as much enthusiasm 
(b. 1864), Nicolas Tcherepnin (b, 1873), ns the Seventh, a fact which demonstrates 

[657I 



SAGBUT 


S 

the powerful hold whidi Shostakovitch 
exercises in the musical world. Among 
other Soviet composers to be mentioned 
are Ivan Dzerzhinsky (1909), Alexandre 
Mossolov (1900), Aram Khatchaturian 
(1903), Tikhon Khrennikov (1913), Leo 
Knipper (1898), Alexandre Krein (1883), 
his brother Gregory Krein (1880), Julian 
Krein (1913), son of Gregory, Michael 
Gniessin (1883), Vissarion Shebalin 
(1902), Michael Starokadomsky (1901), 
and Dmitri Kabalevsky (1904). 

Lit.: G. Abraham, Studies in Russian 
Music (1935); id,y On Russian Music 
(1939); M. D. Calvocorcssi and G. Abra- 
ham, Masters of Russian Music (1936); 
M. Montaguc-Nathan, A History of Rus- 
sian Music (1914); /J., Contemporary 
Russian Composers (1917); R. New- 
march. The Russian Opera (1914); L. 
Sabaneyeff, Modern Russian Composers 
(1927); id,^ Geschichte der russischen 
Musik, (1926); LavE i.5, 2486!!, ii.i, i59ff 
(modern), ii.4, 23551! (church music), 
ii.5, 2745^ (folk music); P. Panof!, Die 
altslavische Voiles- und Kirchenmusi\ 
(BuHMy 1929); G. Abraham, *The Ele- 
ments of R. Music” (ML ix, no. i); id,y 
“The Foundation Stone of R. Music” 
(ML xviii, no. i); R. Ncwmarch, “The 
Development of Russian Opera” (PM A 


xxviii-xxxi); N. Findeisen, “The Earli- 
cst Russian Operas” (MQ xix); id., in 
SIM ii; E. Oliphant, “A Survey of Rus- 
sian Song” (MQ xii); A. Lourie, “The 
Russian School” (MQ xviii); L. Saba- 
neev, “Music and Musicians in the 
U.S.S.R.” (ML XV, no. i); W. J. Birbeck, 
“Some Notes on Russian Ecclesiastical 
Music” (PM A xvii); V. Belaiev, “The 
Folk Music of Georgia” (MQ xix); P. 
PanofI, “Die Volksmusik der Grossrus- 
sen” (DM xxi, no. 5). For detailed bibli- 
ography cf. Orlov’s Musicalnaya Liter a- 
tura (I^ningrad, 1935). N. S. 

Russian Quartets. Beethoven’s string 
quartets op. 59, nos. 1-3, composed in 
1807, also known as “Rasoumofsky 
Quartets” because they were commis- 
sioned by the Russian Count Rasoumof- 
sky. In nos. I and 2 Beethoven has used 
a “Theme Russe” which he took from a 
collection of 150 songs published by Ivan 
Pratch in 1790. — The name is also ap- 
plied, for an unknown reason, to Haydn’s 
quartets nos. 37-42, following after the 
Sonnenquartette, nos. 31-36. 

Rute [G., rod]. A sort of birch brush 
used by R. Strauss and others to obtain 
a peculiar effect on the bass drum. 


s 


S. (i) Short for ♦segno, •sinistra, *su- 
bito. — (2) In liturgical books, short for 
•schola, i.e., choir. — (3) In Riemann’s 
system of harmonic analysis, short for 
subdominant. — (4) In 16th-century 
•part books, short for superius (i.e., 
soprano). 

Saebut, sackbut, sagbut, saque- 
boute. The medieval type of the trom- 
bone. See *Trombone II. 

Saccade [F.]. “Jerked,” sharply ac- 
cented. 

Sackgeige [G., pocket fiddle]. The 
•kit. 


Sackpfeife [G.]. Bagpipe. 

Sacre du Printemps. See under •Bal- 
let III. 

Saeta, saeto [Sp., arrow]. A southern 
Spanish (Andalusian) type of song, sung 
in improvised coloraturas to texts such 
as “Lord, pity us” by young girls during 
the procession on Good Friday. The 
girls remain unseen in their rooms. The 
name of this type of song obviously re- 
fers to its deeply touching effect upon 
the hearers. Cf, F. Pedrcll, \Cancionero 
musical popolare espanol i, 119!!. 

Sagbut. See •Saebut. 


[658] 



SAINETE 

Sainete. A Spanish type of comic opera, 
approaching the character of low com- 
edy, and portraying scenes from every- 
day life. Among the composers of 
sainetes were Antonio Soler (1729-83), 
Bias Laserna (1751-1816), and others. 

St. Anne’s Fugue. Popular designation 
of Bach’s great organ fugue in E-flat 
major (ed. Peters, vol. iii), on account 
of the similarity of its theme to the be- 
ginning of a 17th-century hymn known 
as St. Anne’s tune [cf. GD iv, 499]. The 
fugue appears at the end of Bach’s 
^Clavieruhungy part III (1739) and is 

i j' r i '^ f 

usually played together with the mag- 
nificent prelude in the same key which 
opens the publication. The statement 
that Bach “used the St. Anne’s tune” is, 
needless to say, misleading, as is also the 
contention that the tune is “based upon 
a motet by Palestrina.” Subjects of such 
a simple and natural design are bound 
to recur in different works, without any 
intention on the part of the composer. 
See ^Double fugue. 

St. Martial, School of. An important 
music school of the loth to the 12th cen- 
tury domiciled at the abbey of St, Mar- 
tial in Limoges (southern France), also 
known as the School of Limoges. Aside 
from a remarkable activity in the field of 
*sequences and ^tropes (chiefly loth and 
nth centuries), its main importance lies 
in its contribution to the development 
of ^organum, in which the polyphonic 
School of St. Martial {c. 1100-50) im- 
mediately precedes that of *Notre Dame. 
Cf. ReMMA, passim; ApNPM, 209S; 
AdHM, i77ff. 

Saite [G.] . String. Saitenchor^ ♦course 
of strings. Saiteninstrument^ stringed in- 
strument. 

Salendro. See ♦Javanese music. 
Salicus. See ♦Neumes I. 

Salmo [It.]. Psalm, psalm composition. 


SALVE REGINA 

Salomon Symphonies. Sec ♦London 
Symphonies. 

Salpinx. See ♦Brass instruments V (a). 

Saltarello [from It. saltare, to jump]. 
An Italian 16th-century dance in quick 
triple meter which usually appears as a 
♦Nachtanz of the ♦passamezzo (passa- 
mezzo con il suo saltarello) or of other 
dances in even meter. Sometimes both 
dances use the same melody in different 
rhythm [cf. SchGMB, 95, 119; W. Mer- 
ian, Der Tanz in den deutschen Tabu- 
laturbuchern, p. 92; see also ♦Proportz]. 
The saltarello continued as a popular 
dance throughout the 19th century, but 
came to be executed much more rapidly 
and violently than the older dance. It is 
from this later type that Mendelssohn 
borrowed the idea for the last movement 
of his Italian Symphony (op. 90). Dances 
named saltarello occur as early as the 
14th century; these are even slower than 
those of the i6th century [cf. SchGMB, 
no. 28]. 

Saltato, saltando [It.]. Sameas*Sau- 
tille. 

Saltbox. A popular noise-producing in- 
strument in the form of a box with a 
revolving mechanism. It was used by the 
English clowns of the i8th century. 

Salterio [It.]. ♦Psaltery. Salterio te- 
desco is the ♦dulcimer. 

Salve regina. One of the four anti- 
phons B.V.M. [see ♦Antiphon (2)], 
probably written and composed by Her- 
mannus Contractus (1013-54). The 
chant, which really is a hymn with a free 
poetic text sung to a Dorian melody of 
great beauty [Lf/, 276], became quickly 
famous and popular, particularly among 
the religious societies of the 14th to the 
i6th century which had as their main 
object the worship of the Virgin (Salve 
Societies). Polyphonic compositions of 
the text, with or without utilization of 
the plainsong melody, are fairly numerous 
(e.g., Dunstable, cf. DTOe 27.!, pp. 39!!; 
Ockeghem, cf. BeMMRy 238; Obrecht; 
Josquin). Of particular interest are the 




SAMBA 

compositions for organ (Hofhaimcr, 
Kottcr, Schlick; cf. H. J. Moser, Fruh- 
mcister des deutschen Orgelspiels) which 
usually include only the odd-numbered 
verses (Salve regina; Ad te clamamus; 
Eia ergo; O clemens; O dulcis), the 
others (Vita dulcedo; Ad te suspiramus; 
Et Jesum; O pia) being sung alternatim 
in plainsong. Cf. HAM, nos. lOO, 139. 

Lit.: J. Maier, Beitrdge zur Geschichte 
der Marienantiphon Salve Regina ( 1934) ; 
K. Dezes, in ZMW x; P. Rungc, in 
Liltencron Festschrift (1910). 

Samba. A Brazilian dance in square 
time, derived from the ♦maxixc, fre- 
quently used for the Carnival festivities. 
It appeared in New York in 1938. There 
also exists a rural type which is faster and 
more violent. 

Sambuca. An ancient Greek instru- 
ment, harp or psaltery, probably of Phoe- 
nician or Hebrew origin. The name was 
also used for a small flute made from the 
elder bush [L. sambucus] and in the 
Middle Ages for the •hurdy-gurdy (sam- 
buca rotata; sambuca probably corrupted 
from •symphonia). 

Sambute [F.]. •Sacbut. 

Samisen. See •Japanese music V; •Gui- 
tar family. 

Sampogna. Same as •zampogna, 

Sanctus. The fourth of the five items of 
the Ordinary of the •Mass. In the 15th 
century it was frequendy composed as 
a single movement [cf., e.g., the numer- 
ous examples in the *Old Hall MS^ new 
ed. by Ramsbotham, vol. 3]. 

Sanft [G.]. Soft, gende. 

Sanglot [F., sigh]. French i8th<entury 
name for an appoggiatura or passing 
tone sung to plaintive words such as 
“Oh” or “Hflas.” 

Sangsaite [G.j. See •Cantino. 

Saqueboute [F.j. See *Sacbut. 

Saraband [F., G. Sarabande], a 17th- 
and 18th-century dance [see •Dance 


SARABAND 

music III] in slow triple meter and of 
dignified expression, usually without up- 
beat, frequently with an accent or pro- 
longed tone on the second beat and with 
feminine endings of the phrases. 

The saraband probably came from the 
Orient (Persia) and appeared in Spain 
in the early part of the i6th century. 
Originally it must have been a wild and 
even lascivious love dance, since it is de- 
scribed and severely attacked as such by 
various writers, among them Cervantes. 
Particularly characteristic is the follow- 
ing passage from a Tratado contra los 
Juegos Publicos (Treatise against Public 
Amusements) of Mariana (1536-1623): 
“. . . a dance and song, so lascivious in 
its words, so ugly in its movements, that 
it is enough to inflame even very honest 
people.” The dance was actually sup- 
pressed in Spain, c. 1590, by Philip II, 
but continued to exist under the name 
zarabanda throughout the 17th and i8th 
centuries as a quick dance with a char- 
acteristic alternation of % and % 
meter. [Cf. LavE i.4, 2098, 2247.] As 
late as 1676, Thomas Mace, in his Mu- 
sic}(s Monument^ says that “Sarabandes 
are of the shortest triple time, but are 
more toyish, and lighter than corantes.” 

About 1600 the saraband made its ap- 
pearance in France and England. Or- 
lando Gibbons wrote a “Sarabrande” 
which , is the earliest preserved example 
and which, being quicker in speed and 
gayer in character than the classical type. 



may be considered as representing the 
transition from the original character of 
the dance to its later dignity (similar 
examples appear in Praetorius, Terpsi- 


[660] 



SARDANA 

chore y 1612). Examples of the slower 
type occur in Chambonni^res (r. 1650). 
At the same time (Froberger) it was in- 
troduced into the ^suite as the third of 
its four standard dances. The accom- 
panying example [from Handel’s Suite 
no. 7] illustrates the normal type of the 
saraband, whereas the saraband from 
Bach’s sixth Partita shows it in its final 
stage of artistic idealization. 

Sardana. The national dance of Cata- 
lonia (northeastern Spain), usually in 
quick % -meter and danced in a circle 
to the accompaniment of the *pipe and 
tabor. Cf. LavE i.4, 2379. 

Sarinda. See ^Violin II. 

Sarrusophone. See *Oboe family II, F. 

Sarum use. The practice of the cathe- 
dral of Salisbury [L. Sarum\ in England 
which differed in details from that of the 
Roman liturgy. It prevailed during the 
later Middle Ages throughout a great 
part of England, until it was abolished 
by decree in 1547. Two plainsong MSS, 
dating from the 13th century, have been 
published in facsimile by W. H. Frerc 
under the titles Graduale Sarisburiense 
(1894) and Antiphonale Sarisburiense 
(1901-25). Cf. his The Sarum Gradual 
and the Gregorian Antiphonale Missarum 
(1896). 

Sassofono [It.]. Saxophone. v 

Satire in music. Satire, irony, and 
caricature are by no means as foreign to 
music as one might think at first. While 
fifty years ago writers of philosophical 
and aesthetic dissertations were able to 
“prove” that such things had no place in 
musical expression, the development of 
the past 30 years has brought forth abun- 
dant evidence of the contrary. In fact, 
satirizing is one of the most characteris- 
tic features of 20th-century music, and no 
account of the revolutionary movement 
known as *New Music would be com- 
plete without pointing to the important 
place which satire, irony, and caricature 
played in the efforts to overthrow the tra- 
dition of the 19th century. French com- 
posers particularly have used ridicule as 


SAUDADE 

a weapon, notably Erik Satie in the nu- 
merous whimsical and barren sketches in 
which he seems to deride the ♦impres- 
sionism of Debussy. The new harmonic 
style with its unlimited exploitation of 
discords naturally offered unprecedented 
opportunities for caricaturing effects. Ex- 
amples are Debussy’s Golliwoggs Cake- 
walk, with its allusion to the Tristan 
theme; Stravinsky’s Petrouchka with the 
caricaturing Valse; Casella’s Puppazetti; 
Goossens’ Kaleidoscope; Shostakovitch’s 
Polka (from The Golden Age) which 
satirizes the Geneva disarmament confer- 
ence. 

Perhaps the first example of musical 
caricature (usually acomplished by delib- 
erately “wrong” harmonies, rhythm, etc.) 
is Hans Neusiedler’s Judentanz of 1536 
[cf. ApMZ i, 10] . In the late i6th cen- 
tury parallel fifths were deliberately used 
in the ♦villanella, as a means of enhancing 
the parodying nature of the text. Aside 
from the innumerable examples of oper- 
atic scenes the comical nature of which 
usually lies mainly in the text and in the 
action, further examples of truly musical 
satire exist in Mozart’s charming Ein 
musikalischer Spass (1787, K.V. 522), 
with its good-natured mockery of peasant 
music, in the Beckmesser Scene of Wag- 
ner’s Meistersingery and in Berlioz’ Sym- 
phonie phantastique in which the dis- 
torted presentation of the ♦Dies irae por- 
trays hellish despair and fiendish laugh- 
ter. One of the first modern composers 
to write satirical music for its own sake 
was Enrico Bossi {Pezzi satirici). 

Lit.: H. F. Gilbert, “Humor in Music” 
(MQ xii); R. D. Chenneviere, “Eric Satie 
and the Music of Irony” (MQ 1919); 
A. Einstein, “Die Parodie in der Villa- 
nella” (ZMW ii). 

Satz [G.]. (i) Movement (of a sonata, 
symphony, etc.); e.g., erster SatZy first 
movement. However, HauptsatZy Seiten- 
satz (Nebensatz) denote the first and sec- 
ond theme within a movement. — (2) 
Style, manner of writing; e.g., strenger 
(freier) SatZy strict (free) style. 

Saudade. Portuguese term for longing, 
nostalgia; hence, denomination for Bra- 


[661 ] 



SAUTILUE 

zilian dances of such character (Villa- 
Lobos, Milhaud). 

Sautille [F.]. See ♦Bowing (d). 

Savart. The unit of a system of loga- 
rithmic pitch-determination introduced 
by the Frenchman Savart (1791-1841). 
It is based upon the facts that the loga- 
rithm of 2 (frequency of the octave) is 
0.30103 and that, therefore, the logarith- 
mic frequencies of all the intervals lie 
between 0 and 0.30103. For greater con- 
venience all figures are multiplied by 
1000, so that the octave measures 301 
Savart. This system is very convenient, 
particularly since for all practical pur- 
poses the figure 301 can be replaced by 
300, so that each semitone equals 25 
Savart. It was later supplanted by Ellis" 
system of *Cents, in which all the figures 
are four times as large (exact relationship; 
I Savart = 3.99 Cents). See ♦Intervals, 
Calculation of, V. 

Saxhorn. See ♦Brass instruments III 

(f). 

Saxophone. A family of hybrid instru- 
ments invented by Adolphe Sax of Brus- 
sels in 1840. They are played by a single 
beating reed, as are the clarinets, but are 
conical in bore, as are the oboes. The 
body of the instrument is of metal, as in 
the brass instruments. The saxophones are 
especially valuable in bands, in which they 
blend well either with the wood winds 
or the brass. The complete family num- 
bers six instruments, alternately in E-flat 
and B-flat, as follows: (i) Sopranino in 
E-flat; (2) Soprano in B-flat; (3) Alto in 
E-flat; (4) Tenor in B-flat; (5) Baritone 
in E-flat; (6) Bass in B-flat. All are treated 
as transposing instruments, written in the 
treble clef, and with the written chro- 





matic compass shown. The Sopranino 
sounds a minor third higher than writ- 
ten, the Soprano a major second lower 
than written, etc. Nos. i and 6 are rare, 


SCALE 

and nos. 3 to 5 are most commonly seen. 
Illustration on p. 152. 

The sound of the saxophone is ex- 
tremely variable. Being intermediate be- 
tween the timbres of wood and brass, it 
passes from the softness of the flute over 
the broad, mellow tone of the cello to the 
metallic strength ^f the cornet. These 
properties together with its great flexi- 
bility have given it a prominent place in 
jazz bands. The principal member of the 
family is the alto saxophone (also made 
in F), which has been employed for solos 
by many French composers, first by Kast- 
ner in Le Dernier Roi de Juda (1844), 
subsequently by Delibes, Thomas, Saint- 
Saens, Bizet, and dlndy. Richard Strauss 
introduced a quartet of saxophones in his 
Domestic Symphony^ and Hindemith 
used the saxophone in his opera Cardillac. 

Lit.: J. Kool, Das Saxophon (1931); 
E. Rosenkaimer, “Das Saxophon in seinen 
Friihzeiten"" {DM xx.12). W. D. 

Sax(o)tromba. A modification of the 
♦saxhorn, with a less conical bore, ap- 
proaching that of the trumpet (tromba). 
Now little used. 

Saxtuba. The bass of the *saxhorns. 

Scala, La. See ♦Opera houses VII. 

Scala enigmatica. An arbitrary scale, 
c-db-e-fl(-g#-al^-b-c', used by Verdi in 
his Ave Maria (1898). 

Scale [F. gamme\ G. Tonleiter; It. 
scala]. I. The term, which properly 
means “ladder,” denotes the tonal mate- 
rial of music arranged according to rising 
pitches. Since the tonal material varies 
greatly in the different phases of music 
history as well as in different countries 
(particularly, ♦Oriental), there exist a 
great number of scales. The basic scale 
of European music is the diatonic scale, 
comprising the tones edefgabe' (plus 
octave extensions), i.e., the tones given by 
the white keys of the pianoforte. It con- 
sists of whole-tones (t) and semitones 
(s) in the following arrangement: 1 1 s t 
1 1 s. This scale is usually referred to as 
major scale (properly C-major scale; see 
III) as distinguished from the minor scale 


[662] 




SCALE 

in which the arrangement of intervals is: 
t s 1 1 1 1 s, e.g.: c d eb f g a b c' (for more 
details see *Major and minor scale). 
Both the major and minor scales occur 
also in “transposition,” i.e., starting with 
another tone than c, e.g.: d e fif g a b c'l 
d', or d e f g a b c't d'. Thus there arc 12 
major scales and 12 minor scales, one in 
each *key. All the tones found in any of 
the above scales can be combined in one 
scale, the chromatic scale, which consists 
of twelve semitones. This all-inclusive 
scale, also known as ^duodecuple scale, 
forms the tonal foundation of modern 
music, the other scales now being consid- 
ered as selections thereof [see ^Gapped 
scales]. Naturally, numerous other selec- 
tions are possible and have occasionally 
been employed, particularly the ^whole- 
tone scale, the so-called ^gypsy-scale, and 
the ^pentatonic scale. The accompanying 
table illustrates the details of construction: 


Chromatic; 

c 

c# d d# e f f# g gf 

a 

a# b 

Major; 

Minor, 

c 

d e £ 

8 

a 

b c' 

melodic; 

c 

d eb £ 

8 

a 

b c' 

descending; 

Minor, 

harmonic; 

c 

d eb £ 

8 ab 


bb o' 

c 

d eb £ 

8 ab 


b o' 

Whole-tone: 

c 

d e 

£# g# 


a# c' 

Gypsy: 

c 

d eb 

fitg ab 


b c' 

Pentatonic: 

c 

d 

£ g 

a 

c' 


Recently attempts have been made to 
broaden the tonal material of music by 
the introduction of ^quarter-tones, result- 
ing in a quarter-tone scale of 24 tones to 
the octave. 

II. All the scales explained above can 
be derived from the diatonic scale which 
was already used by the ancient Greeks. 
Upon closer examination, however, it ap- 
pears that this scale underwent minute 
changes owing to the different systems 
of intonation (tuning) used in the vari- 
ous phases of music history from about 
500 B.C. to A.D. 1750. Thus, the Greek 
diatonic scale was based on the*Pythago- 
rean system, while in the Middle Ages 
certain intervals of *just intonation crept 
in [particularly, the *third], a fact which, 
in turn, necessitated the adoption of vari- 
ous systems of ^temperament the last and 
final of which was that of equal tempera- 
ment, established in the time of Bach. 


SCALE, SCALING 

For more details reference may be had to 
the separate entries. Tables showing the 
difference between these scales are found 
under ^Temperament and ^Intervals 
(p. 362). Still greater deviations are met 
with in the numerous Oriental scales, 
such as the * Javanese salendro and pelog, 
the *Hindu sa-grama, the * Arabian 17- 
tone scale, the * Japanese scales, etc. 

III. In the preceding explanations the 
term scale was used in the sense as ex- 
plained in the initial definition, i.e., as an 
ordered arrangement of pitch material. 
Usually, however, another consideration 
enters into the conception of “scale,” 
namely center tone (tonic, home tone). 
This means that the various tones of the 
scale are not considered as equally impor- 
tant, but are related and subordinated to 
one of them. Thus, the diatonic scale is 
usually interpreted as a “C-major scale,” 
in consideration of the fact that C is its 
initial tone [for an ingenious method of 
constructing the diatonic scale without 
preference given to one tone, see *Hexa- 
chord]. Actually, any of the tones of the 
diatonic scale (as well as of the other 
scales) can be designated as the center 
tone, a possibility which is the basis of the 
system of the medieval *church modes. 
In the interest of clarity, the term “scale” 
should be avoided for these “centralized 
scales.” Thus, what is frequently called 
“Lydian scale” is properly termed “Lyd- 
ian mode,” or, more exactly, “Lydian 
mode (or F-mode) of the diatonic scale.” 
The so-called C-major scale is the “C- 
mode of the diatonic scale,” the other 
major scales being transpositions thereof. 
The same terminology can be applied to 
the other scales, e.g., “D-mode of the 
pentatonic scale,” etc. 

Actually, the medieval modes (as well 
as the Greek “scales”) included another 
element of limitation, i.e., ^ambitus. 
Thus, the medieval Hypolydian is the 
“c-c' segment of the F-modc of the dia- 
tonic scale.” 

Lit.: A. H. Fox-Strangways, in ML vii, 
no. 4; V. de Rubertis, in RMl xxix. 

Scale, scaling [G. Mensur], The term 
is used in organ parlance to indicate the 


[ 663] 



SCALE DEGREES 


SCHERZO 


ratio of the length to the width of a pipe. 
Thus, pipes arc said to have wide or nar- 
row scaling [G. weite or enge Mensur] 
depending upon whether their length is 
(in the extreme cases) 24 or lo times their 
width. Wide scaling (used in the Prin- 
cipal flue stops) gives a soft sound with 
few overtones, whereas narrow scaling 
(used in Gamba, Violin, etc.) makes the 
sound thin, sharp, and rich in overtones. 
A term such as “Diapason of 6" scale” 
means that the C of this stop has a diam- 
eter of 6", the other pipes being larger 
and smaller in proportion to their length. 

Scale degrees. Special names and signs 
used in *harmonic analysis to denote the 
various tones of the scale as they occur as 
the roots of triads, seventh chords, etc. 
These names are: tonic (I), supertonic 
(II), mediant (HI), subdominant (IV), 
dominant (V), submediant or superdomi- 
nant (VI), subtonic (VII). The most 
important of these are the *tonic, the 
•dominant, and the *subdominant. 

Scampanio [It.]. Chimes. 

Scampata [It.]. Same as ♦charivari. 

Scandicus. See ♦Ncumes I. 

Scanning [G. S\andieren], See ♦Po- 
etic meter. 

Scat singing. See ♦Jazz IV. 

Scemando [It.]. Diminishing. 

Scenario. A skeleton libretto of a play 
or an opera showing the characters, num- 
ber, and general nature of the scenes, etc. 
The German word Scenarium^ on the con- 
trary, denotes a full libretto with detailed 
directions for the scenery. 

Schablone [G.]. Stencil; hence, cliche, 
conventionalism. 

Schachtbret. Old German for ♦cchi- 
quier. 

Schalkhaft [G.]. Roguish, joking. 

Schall [G.]. Sound, chiefly acoustical. 
Schdlbecken^ cymbals. Schallochy sound 
hole. SchallplattCy record. Schallwelletiy 
acoustical waves. 


Schalmei [G.]. See ♦Oboe family III. 

Scharf betont [G.]. Strongly accented. 

Schaurig [G.]. Ghastly, gruesome. 

Schelmisch [G.]. Roguish, joking. 

Schellen [G.]. Tambourine. Schellen- 
baurriy Turkish ♦crescent. Schellentrom- 
mely tambourine. 

Scherzando [It.], Scherzhaft [G.]. 

Playful. 

Scherzo [It., joke, play], (i) A move- 
ment, usually the third, of sonatas, sym- 
phonies, quartets (rarely in concertos), 
which was introduced by Beethoven to 
replace the ♦minuet. Like this, the 
scherzo is followed by a ♦trio after which 
the scherzo is repeated. Occasionally 
(e.g., Beethoven, Seventh Symphony) the 
scheme of alternation is extended to S T 
STS. The distinguishing features of the 
scherzo are rapid speed in % -meter, 
vigorous rhythm, a certain abruptness of 
thought involving elements of surprise 
and whim, and a character of bustling 
humor which may veer from the playful 
to the ominous (e.g., in Beethoven’s 
Fifth Symphony). It goes without saying 
that the line of demarcation between the 
minuet and the scherzo is by no means 
always clear. Some minuets of the late 
Haydn approximate the scherzo, as do 
also minuets by Beethoven such as that of 
his first PF. Sonata; on the other hand, 
Haydn used the term scherzo in some of 
his earlier works (Russian Quartets, nos. 
37-42) for pieces which are hardly differ- 
ent from his minuets. The great masters 
of the true scherzo are Beethoven, Schu- 
bert, and Bruckner. The Nationalist 
composers have frequently used it as a 
vehicle for the introduction of national 
dance types, a procedure which has en- 
abled many composers to write a moder- 
ately good scherzo as the high light of an 
otherwise mediocre symphony. Regard- 
ing the internal structure of the scherzo, 
see ♦Binary and ternary form II. 

(2) Chopin and Brahms (op. 4) have 
employed the term for independent pieces 
in which sections of a highly dramatic 


[664] 



SCHIETTAMENTE 

and somewhat gloomy character (scherzo) 
alternate with others of a more lyrical ex- 
pression (trio). 

(3) In the Baroque period the term 
scherzo was used for vocal pieces in a 
lighter vein [Monteverdi, Scherzi musi- 
cali (1607); Cifra, Scherzi sacri (1613); 
Marini, Scherzi e canzonette a i e 2 voci^ 
1622], as well as for instrumental pieces 
of a somewhat fanciful character similar 
to the ^capriccio [A. Troilo, Sin]onie, 
scherzi . . . (1608); Johannes Schenk, 
Scherzi musicali (c, 1700) for viola da 
gamba and bass [sec ^Editions XXIX, 
28]; J. S. Bach, in Partita no. 3]. 

Lit.: G. Becking, Beethoven's Scherzo- 
thema (1921). 

Schiettamente [It.]. Sincerely, simply. 

Schisma. Sec under *Comma. 

Schlag [G.j. Beat. SchlaginstrumentCy 
Schlagzeug^ percussion instruments. 

Schlagzither [G.j. The modern ♦zith- 
er (not the dulcimer), in contradistinction 
to earlier types which were bowed (so- 
called Streichzither) , 

Schlangenrohr [G.]. Rare name for 
♦serpent. 

Schlegel [G.]. Drumstick. 

Schleifer [G.j. Sec under ♦Appoggia- 
tura. Double II. 

Schleppend [G.j. Dragging. 

Schlussel [G.j. Clef. 

Schlummerlied [G.j. Slumber song. 

Schluss [G.j. Conclusion, cadence. 
Schluss-satZy final movement. 

Schmachtend [G.j. Languishing. 

Schmeichelnd [G.j. Coaxing. 

Schmelzend [G.]. “Melting,” i.e., very 
lyrical. 

Schmerzhaft [G.]. Painful, grievous. 

Schmetternd [G.]. Blared. Sec under 
♦Horn I. 


SCHNELLER 

Schnabel [G., beak]. The mouthpiece 
of the clarinet and the recorder; sec 
♦Mouthpiece (b), (d). 

Schnabelflote [G., beak flute]. Old 
name for ♦recorder. 

Schnadahupfl [from Bavarian schna- 
derny to prattle, and H«p/, jump]. A 
type of Bavarian-Austrian folk song, fre- 
quently with improvised humorous texts 
between an iterated refrain. Cf. K. Rot- 
ter, Der Schnadahupfl-Rhythmus (1912). 

Schnarre [G.]. Rattle. Schnarrtrom- 
mely snare drum. Schnarrwer\^ old term 
for the reed department of the organ. 

Schneidend [G.]. “Cutting,” i.e., with 
utmost precision. 

Schnell [G.]. Quick. 

Schneller [G.]. An 18th-century orna- 
ment consisting of the alternation of the 
written note with the note immediately 
above it, and to be performed in the man- 
ner of a short, rapid trill beginning on the 
beat. The Schneller was not one of the 
French agr^ments, having been intro- 
duced after 1750 by K. P. E. Bach, who 
always indicated it by means of two 
small grace notes, as under (a). Later 
composers often designated the Schneller 
by the short wavy line (b), which orig- 
inally indicated a somewhat different 
ornament, called Pralltriller, This is, 
properly speaking, a rapid trill of four 
notes, beginning with the upper auxiliary, 
as was customary with trills in that pe- 
riod. This trill was used only on the lower 
note of a descending second and tied to 
the preceding note, a fact which some- 
times gives the erroneous impression that 
the Pralltriller begins with the main note. 
The Schneller, on the other hand, can only 
occur on a detached note, that is, the up- 
per note of a descending second, so that 
the position of the sign (b) usually indi- 
cates whether a Schneller (c) or a Prall- 
triller (d) is meant. 

After 1800 the Pralltriller dropped out 
of use so that the sign (b) always indi- 
cates the Schneller. Simultaneously, how- 
ever, the name Schneller dropped out of 


[ 665 ] 



SCHttPFUNG 

use and the ornament illustrated under 
(c) became known as Pralltriller which 
is the current German term for it. The 


I FfF^ P ff I I 
p-n i ' a p j a ^ 



common English denomination is “in- 
verted mordent.” The former restriction 
regarding its position on the first note of 
a descending second has, of course, been 
long abandoned, and the Pralltriller is 
frequently found in connection with skips 
to which he adds a tinge of crispness and 
determined attack [last movement of 
Beethoven’s Hammerklavier Sonata op. 
io6]. Around 1830 (Hummel, Mo- 
schcles) the Pralltriller began to he per- 
formed before the main note, and today 
this is generally considered the proper 
manner of execution. As late as in Cho- 
pin, however, examples abound in which 
the old method, upon closer examination, 
appears to be preferable, owing to its 
greater expressiveness [Ex. (e), Valse in 
A-Hat]. P.A. 

Schopfung, Die [G.]. German title 
of Haydn’s oratorio The Creation, 

Schopfungsmesse [G.], Haydn’s Mass 
in B-flat (1801), so called on account of 
the similarity of a theme in the Qui tollis 
with one in his oratorio The Creation 
[G. Die Schopfung], 

Schola (cantorum) [L., school of 
singers]. Originally and properly, the 
papal choir and singing school said to 
have been founded by Pope Sylvester 
(314-335) and reorganized by St. Greg- 
( 59^^05)9 who made it the central 
body for the propagation of Roman chant, 
by sending his singers to other churches 
and monasteries [sec *Sistinc choir]. By 
the bull *Motu proprio of Pope Pius X 
(1903) a new impetus has been given to 
the establishment of scholae cantorum 


SCHOLARSHIPS 

even in the smallest churches. The name 
has also been adopted by certain institu- 
tions outside the church, of which that 
founded by Vincent d’Indy in Paris in 
1896 is the most important. Originally 
planned as an institution for church 
music, it developed around 1900 into a 
general music school with an intensive 
training based on Gregorian chant and 
counterpoint. The name Schola has come 
into use as a general denomination for the 
conservative and academic trends in 
French music, represented by C^sar 
Franck and his spiritual successors. 

Scholarships, Fellowships, and 
Prizes. I. United States, Scholarships 
and fellowships are awards of money 
granted by institutions or corporations to 
applicants of unusual ability, for the pur- 
pose of further study, research, or com- 
position. The general distinction between 
the two is one of degree. A fellowship is 
usually of higher monetary value and 
greater honor to the recipient than a schol- 
arship. Also, in awarding scholarships 
the financial need of the applicant is gen- 
erally considered in addition to his merit, 
while the same considerations do not usu- 
ally enter into decisions regarding fellow- 
ships. 

Scholarships and fellowships divide 
themselves roughly into two classes: those 
which are maintained by funds from a 
specific bequest (usually bearing the name 
of the donor); and those of which the 
fund|tare supplied from a general fund 
and 0rc administered according to pre- 
vailing policy or circumstances. The 
former sometimes contain definite stipu- 
lations as to the qualifications of the ap- 
plicant and the use to which the scholar- 
ship or fellowship is to be put. For ex- 
ample, the John Doe Fellowship of $1100 
may be awarded only to graduates of X 
college for the purpose of studying piano 
in Paris; or the like. One of the most 
common stipulations of larger fellowships 
in music is that the recipient shall go 
abroad to work. 

I. Scholarships and Student Aid. These 
terms are often used synonymously to 
designate grants of money for study in 

[ 666 ] 



SCHOLARSHIPS 


the institution granting the awards. A 
common way of administering such funds 
is in “tuition scholarships,” which take 
the form of a remission of part or all of 
the student’s tuition costs. Unfortunately 
such a practice has led to abuse in some 
instances; the granting of tuition scholar- 
ships has been only a means of reducing 
prices to compete with other schools. The 
fairest method of awarding scholarships 
is by competition, and this method is 
used, especially in applied music, by some 
of the larger schools. In some instances, 
especially in the larger schools, certain 
comparatively small sums are given as 
scholarships for specific studies, such as 
piano, voice, violin (e.g. Eastman School, 
New England Conservatory). The Juil- 
liard School of Music, however, grants 
full tuition fellowships to all students 
who are admitted to the Graduate School 
(not to those studying in the Institute of 
Musical Art), while making no provision 
for the students’ living expenses in New 
York. The same is true of the Curtis In- 
stitute in Philadelphia. 

2. Fellowships. These are granted 
principally by universities or by corpora- 
tions. Generally they bear a name, have 
a fixed value, and specify in what field the 
holder shall work. Most fellowships carry 
a large enough stipend to enable the 
holder to live modestly. They are awarded 
for advanced work in various fields of 
music — musicology, composition, per- 
formance, pedagogy, etc. Resident fel- 
lowships are given for work in a specific 
institution; traveling fellowships ofc^h re- 
quire the recipient to go abroad. Most 
fellowships arc granted primarily to en- 
able an advanced student to continue his 
education. Some of these are: 

Pulitzer Travelling Scholarship (about 
$1500), given by Columbia University 
for composition. Charles H. D it son Fel- 
lowship (about $2000), given by Yale 
University for graduate study abroad. 
John Knowles Paine Travelling Fellow- 
ship (about $1500), given by Harvard 
University for musicology or composition 
(open only to Harvard students). Beebe 
Fund Scholarships^ for sending abroad 
one or more young and talented men or 


SCHOTTISCHE 

women who intend to pursue a profes- 
sional career in music. Matthay Scholar- 
ship (about $1000), to enable pianists to 
study in London with Matthay. 

The fellowships granted by the Gug- 
genheim Foundation are of a different 
sort. They are usually granted to persons 
who have passed the student stage, and 
are given in composition or in musical 
research. 

The American Academy in Rome offers 
several fellowships in music. These arc 
granted to young composers of unusual 
promise. They require that the candidate 
reside at the Academy in Rome. At pres- 
ent (1942) they have been discontinued 
and $1000 prizes in composition are of- 
fered instead. 

II. Other Countries, i. Prix de Rome, 
Awarded by the Academie des beaux arts 
of Paris annually (since 1803) after se- 
vere competitive examination, including 
the composition of a cantata. The first 
prize consists of a four-year stay in the 
Villa Medici in Rome, the second is a 
gold medal. Among the winners of the 
“Grand Prix de Rome” have been Halevy 
(1819), Berlioz (1830), Bizet (1857), 
Debussy (1884), Charpentier (1887), Flo- 
rent Schmitt (1900). Ravel was among 
those who failed to win it. Belgium has 
also a Prix de Rome, awarded every sec- 
ond year. 

2. The most important English prize 
is the Mendelssohn Scholarship, founded 
in 1847, awarded annually for composi- 
tion, and valued at present from about 
£150 per annum. Except for A. S. Sulli- 
van (1856-60) and Eugen d’Albert 
(1881-82) no outstanding composer ap- 
pears on the list of the holders [cf. GD\ 
also Suppl. Vol.] . 

3. For the German prizes cf. the ar- 
ticles “Preise” in RiML and MoML, 

E. B.H. 

Scholia enchiriadis. See *Musica 
enchiriadis. 

Schools of music. Sec ^Education. 

Schottische [G., Scotch]. A round 
dance of the mid- 19th century in the char- 
acter of a slow polka, not to be confused 



SCHRAMMELQUARTET 

with the much quicker *ecossaise. It was 
also known in England under the name 
“German polka.” 

Schrammelquartet [G.]. A type of 
instrumental ensemble, inaugurated in 
1877 by the Viennese violinist Johann 
Schrammel, which has become very pop- 
ular in Vienna and elsewhere for the per- 
formance of liglt music (waltzes, etc.). 
The original quartet consisted of two 
violins, clarinet, and guitar; the clarinet 
was later replaced by the accordion. A 
Schrammel orchestra is an enlarged en- 
semble of a similar type. 

Schrittmassig [G.]. As if walking. 

Schuhplattler [G.]. A dance of Ba- 
varia, the characteristic feature of which 
is clapping of the knees and shoe soles 
with the hands. The music is that of the 
*Landler or similar dances. 

Schusterfleck [G.]. See under ♦Rosa- 
lia. 

Schwarmer [G.]. See *Tremolo (i). 

Schwankend [G.]. Staggering, un- 
certain. 

Schwebelpf eif [G.] . See under ♦Schwe- 
gel. 

Schwebungen [G.]. ♦Beats. 

Schwegel, Schwegelpfeife [G.]. 
Obsolete word for the military ♦fife [see 
also ♦Flute III]. In Poglietti’s Aria alle- 
magna con alcuni vartazoni (c. 1680; cf. 
TaAM viii) it occurs, in the misspelling 
Schwebelpfeif^ as a designation for a vari- 
ation in which the quick and high pas- 
sages of the fife arc imitated. 

Schweller [G.]. ♦Swell. 

Schwellkasten. Swell box. Schwelh 
wer\^ swell organ. 

Schwermutig [G.]. Heavy-hearted, 
melancholic. 

Schwindend [G.]. “Disappearing,” 
i.e., dying away. 

Schwingung [G.J. Vibration. 

[ 


SCORDATURA 

Schwungvoll [G.]. With 6 lan. 

Scialumo [It.]. Sec Chalumeau (2). 

Scintillante [It.]. Sparkling. 

Sciolto [It.]. In a free and easy man- 
ner. Also used in the sense of non legato. 
In earlier writings it occurs as an indica- 
tion of free style of composition, e.g., 
juga sciolta^ i.e., a fugue with license. 

Scivolando [It.]. Sliding, glissando. 

Scordatura [It., mis-tuning]. Abnor- 
mal tuning of a stringed instrument for 
the purpose of obtaining unusual chords, 
facilitating difficult passages, or changing 
the tone color. Scordatura was frequently 
used in the lute music of the i6th and 
17th centuries, the most common method 
being the lowering of the lowest string 
from A to G {Laute im Abzug, bordone 
descordato\ cf, WoHN ii, 63). A remark- 
able piece showing an unusual scordatura 
is the “Judentantz” in Hans Neusiedler’s 
Ein newgeordnet \iinstlich Lautenbuch, 
1536 [cf. the differing transcriptions in 
DTOe 18 and in ApMZ i; cf. also 
ApNPMy 78]. In the early part of the 
17th century a normal tuning for the lute 
was practically non-existent; consequently 
it is rather difficult in this period to con- 
sider any tuning as a scordatura. As a 
matter of fact, the particular tuning to 
be used with a given piece, and indicated 
at the beginning, was called * accord {ac- 
cor datura), 

Scordatura was also much used in the 
violin music of the 17th century, particu- 
larly by Heinrich Biber [cf. DTOe 5.ii 
and i2.ii; also SchGMB, no. 238; WoHN 
h, 237]' The accompanying example 



(beginning of Bach’s Sonata no. 5 for 
cello solo) illustrates the notational 
method. The “accord” at the beginning 
shows that the A-string is to be lowered 
one tone. The notes indicate, not the 
actual sound, but the position of the fin- 
gers in the usual manner, and the natural 
in the signature directs the player always 



SCORE 

to play g-a-bb on the highest string, a 
succession which sounds f-g-ab. In violin 
music of a more recent period the most 
common instance of scordatura is the tun- 
ing of the lowest string a semitone or a 
tone lower in order to increase the com- 
pass, or a tone higher in order to increase 
the brilliancy of the sound. 

Lit.: T. Russel, mMQ xxiv; A. Moser, 
in AMW i; M. Schneider, in ZIM viii, 
ix; E. Lesser in AM iv, nos. 3 and 4. 

Score [F. partition', G. Partitur; It. par- 
titura, partizione], 1 . A manner of writ- 
ing music which shows all the parts of an 
ensemble (orchestra or chamber music) 
arranged one underneath the other on dif- 
ferent staves (full score, orchestral score). 
A vocal score is a score of a choral work 
(opera, oratorio) which shows the vocal 
parts on separate staves, but the instru- 
mental parts in a piano reduction. A 
piano score is the reduction of an orches- 
tral score to a version for piano, on two 
staves. For the arrangement and reading 
of a modern orchestral score see *Orches- 
tra and orchestration V. 

Score-reading is the facility of grasping 
from a chamber-music, vocal, or orches- 
tral score the essential features of the me- 
lodic and harmonic structure and, if pos- 
sible, of reproducing these on the piano. 
This task, not easy in itself, is rendered 
still more complicated by the customary 
use of different *clefs for different voices 
or instruments and, in the case of orches- 
tral scores, by the custom of notating a 
number of the wind instruments as *"‘trans- 
posing instruments. Cf. H. GM, Directions 
for Score-Reading (1924); M. Bernstein, 
Score Reading (1932). 

II. Score arrangement, i.e., a notational 
scheme showing simultaneous tones in a 
vertical alignment, was used exclusively 
for the writing down of polyphonic music 
prior to 1225. All the organa, conductus, 
clausulae, in short the entire repertory of 
the Schools of St. Martial and Notre 
Dame, were notated in this fashion. With 
the rise of the motet {c, 1225) this ar- 
rangement was discarded for the so-called 
choir-book arrangement [see *Choir 
book], in which the parts arc notated 


SCOTTISH MUSIC 

separately on one or, usually, on two 
opposite pages of the opened book [cf., 
e.g., ApNPM, 283]. This method was 


3 


A 

T 

E> 


more economical of space owing to the 
great difference in length between the 
texted upper parts of the motet and the 
textless tenor with its few and long 
notes written in ligatures. The accom- 
panying drawing illustrates the arrange- 
ment of music in four parts (15th, i6th 
centuries). The choir-book arrangement 
persisted until the middle of the i6th cen- 
tury but was gradually superseded by the 
arrangement in *part books [G. Stimm- 
biicher], i.e., separate books for the so- 
prano, alto, etc. The earliest manuscript 
part books date from c, 1450 {Glogauer, 
Munchner ^Liederbuch). This method 
was particularly advantageous for print- 
ing and, in fact, was almost exclusively 
employed in the printed books of 16th- 
century vocal music. Around 1600 the rise 
of orchestral music (G. Gabrieli) led to 
the adoption of the modern score with 
bar-lines (earliest example in Cipriano de 
Rore’s Madrigali, 1577). It is interesting 
to note that the largest score ever written 
is that of a 53-voice Mass by Benevoli 
from c, 1650 [DTOe 9.!; see *Roman 
School]. The arrangement in part-books 
survives, e.g., in the four volumes contain- 
ing the parts of Beethoven’s string 
quartets. Cf. R. Schwartz, “Zur Partitur 
im 16. jahrhundert” (AMW ii); 
ApNPM, p. XX. 

Scoring. The art and process of orches- 
tration. 

Scorrevole [It.]. Freely flowing. 

Scotch snap. See ^Dotted notes III. 

Scottish music. Probably the earliest 
extant information about musical activ- 
ity in Scotland comes from Giraldus 


[669] 




SCOTTISH MUSIC 

Cambrensis (c, 1147-1220) who in his 
famous Topographia Hibernica {c, 1190) 
states that “in the opinion of many, Scot- 
land has not only equalled Ireland, her 
teacher in music, but has . . . surpassed 
her.” While, prior to this time, music 
was exclusively in the hands of the *bards, 
there now developed folk music of a 
more popular character, and polyphonic 
music was cultivated in at least one place, 
the monastery of St. Andrews. It was 
here that the MS Woljenbiittel 677 {c. 
1250) was written, the earliest preserved 
book containing the *Magnus liber or- 
gani and the additional repertory of the 
School of *Notre Dame. Although the 
bulk of its contents is of French origin, 
its last fascicle (nth) contains a collec- 
tion of two-part pieces which is very prob- 
ably of insular origin, although not neces- 
sarily Scottish [see ^English music II]. 

It is not until the i6th century that 
sources of Scottish music are encountered, 
viz., a MS incorrectly labeled “Antipho- 
narium” in the Advocates Library of 
Edinburgh, and a MS set of four part 
books known as the St. Andrews Psalter 
(or Wood’s Psalter) now scattered in 
Edinburgh, Dublin, and London. The 
former contains masses, motets, and mag- 
nificats, several of these by Robert Carver 
(b. c. 1491); the latter, dated 1566, con- 
tains psalm tunes, Latin motets, and can- 
ticles, by Robert Johnson, the most impor- 
tant composer of Scotland until recently 
[cf. the article in GD], David Peebles 
(d. 1579), and others. Another composer 
of this period was Patrick Douglas of 
whom a few motets remain in a MS at 
Christ Church, Oxford. 

The scarcity of Scotch 16th-century 
church music and the complete lack of 
secular compositions (madrigals) offers 
a striking contrast to the wealth of Eng- 
lish music during the same period. Since 
there is much evidence in contemporary 
documents (Court records, etc.) showing 
that music played a prominent part in 
the cultural life of Scotland, it is assumed 
that destruction of sources went much far- 
ther here than in England. No Scottish 
composers of note are known until the end 
of the 19th century when A. C. MacKenzie 

[ 67' 


SDRUCCIOLANDO 

(1847-1935), J. B. McEwen (b. 1868), 
and William Wallace (b. i860) partici- 
pated in the recent rise of English music. 
See ^Strathspey; ^Lament; ^Pibroch. 

Lit.: D. Baptic, Musical Scotland: Dic- 
tionary of Scottish Musicians from about 
1^00 (1894); J* Love, Scottish Church 
Music (1891);!. Glen, Early Scottish Mel- 
odies (1900); H. G. Farmer, Music in 
Mediaeval Scotland (1930; also in PM A 
56); N, Diem, Beitrdge zur Geschichte 
der schottischen Musi\ im /y. Jahrhun- 
dert (Diss. Berlin 1919); A. Carmichael, 
Musica gadelicUy 4 vols. (1900-41); H. G. 
Farmer, “Some Early Scotch Composers” 
(MA ii); J. Beveridge, “Two Scottish 
13th-century Songs” (ML XX, no. 4); G. 
Abrahams, “Burns and the Scottish Folk- 
song” (ML iv, no. i). 

Scriptores [L., writers]. A term used 
as a short reference to two important pub- 
lications of medieval treatises on music, 
namely: (a) Scriptores ecclesiastici de 
musica sacra potissimumy 3 vols., cd. by 
M. Gerbert in 1784 (facs. cd. 1931); and 
(b) Scriptorum de musica medii aevi 
nova series y 4 vols., ed. by E. Cousse- 
maker in 1864-76 (facs. ed. 1931). The 
collections arc usually designated as Ger- 
bert Scriptores (abbr. G. 5 ., GSy or G.Scr») 
and Coussemaher Scriptores (C. 5 ., CS, 
or C.Scr,). Both collections arc indispen- 
sable reference books of musicological 
research in the Middle Ages. The Ger- 
bert Scriptores contain chiefly the earliest 
treatises (9th-iith centuries), the Cousse- 
ma\er Scriptores those of the 13th and 
14th centuries [see ^Theory]. The con- 
tents arc given in full in GD iv, 704(1. A 
collection of writers on Greek music has 
been published by K. v. Jan under the 
title: Musici scriptores graeci (1895, 
1899). 

Scrittura [It.]. The commission to 
write an opera for the next season, granted 
by the opera company. 

Scucito [It.]. “Unsewed,” i.e., discon- 
nected. 

Sdrucciolando [It., sliding]. Same as 
*glissando. 

^] 



SEA TRUMPET 


SEMITONE 


Sea trumpet. Erroneous translation of 
*tromba marina. 

Seashore tests. See *Tests. 

Seasons, The. See ^Oratorio IV. 

Secco [It.]. Dry. See also under ^Reci- 
tative. 

Sechzehntel [G.j. See *Notes. 

Second [F. seconder G. SeJ^unde]* See 
^Intervals. 

Secondary dominants. See *Domi- 
nant (i). 

Seconda volta [It.]. See *Prima volta. 

Seele [G., properly, soul]. *Sound post 
(of the violin). 

Seelenamt [G.]. ^Requiem Mass. 

Seelenvoll [G.]. Soulful. 

Segno [It., sign]. A sign in the form 
of an S w^hich is used to indicate the be- 
ginning {dal segno, dal S.) or the end 
(al segno, al S.) of a section to be played 
or to be repeated. 

Segue [It., follows]. Request to join 
up the following movement without break 
{segue Varia, segue la coda). It is also 
used to mean: continue in the same man- 
ner, for instance, with a certain pattern 
of broken chords which is written out in 
full only at the beginning [sec under * Ab- 
breviations]. 

Seguidilla. A national dance from An- 
dalusia (southern Spain) in fast triple 
time, similar to the ^bolero but quicker. 
It is sung and danced to the accompani- 
ment of the castanets and the guitar, with 
four bars of castanet rhythm recurring 
after each verse {*copla). In the first act 
of Bizet’s Carmen there is a Seguidille 
which unfortunately is not a very good 
example of the species. Statements re- 
garding the “Moorish origin” of this 
dance are without foundation. 

Sehnsuchtsvoll [G.]. Yearning. 

Sehr [G.]. Very; e.g., sehr schnell, very 
fast. 


Seikilos Song. One of the few rem- 
nants of ancient Greek music, a short 
lyrical song from the 2d century B.C. at 
the earliest [see *Greek music III]. Cf. 
HAM, no. 6c; SchGMB, no. i. 

Seises [Sp. seis, six]. A group of six 
(or more) choir boys who perform dances 
with singing and clapping of castanets 
before the high altar of the Cathedral of 
Seville on great festival days (formerly 
also in other churches of Spain). Vittoria, 
Guerrero, Morales, and others have writ- 
ten music for these liturgical dances. 
However, the music now used is of a re- 
cent date and of mediocre quality. Cf. 
R. H. Stein, “Die Kirchentanze in Se- 
villa” (DM xv.i). 

Seiten- [G., side]. Seitenhewegung, 
oblique motion. Seitenthema, Seitensatz, 
the second theme of a movement in so- 
nata form, or of other forms. 

Sekunde [G.]. Second. Se\unda\l{ord 
[see under *Seventh-chord]. 

Semi- [L., half]. Semihiscroma, semi- 
breve {semibrevis) , semicroma, semifusa, 
semiminima, semiquaver, sec *Notes; also 
^Mensural notation. Semichorus, half- 
chorus. Semidiapente, Latin term for the 
diminished fifth. Semiditonus, Latin 
term for the minor third. Semiditas, in 
’••'mensural notation (^proportions), same 
as proportio dupla, 

Semiseria [It.]. Eighteenth-century 
term for an opera seria which contained 
a number of comic scenes. 

Semitone [L. semitonium\. The half 
of a whole-tone, the smallest interval of 
European music. The octave consists of 
twelve semitones and the diatonic scale 
includes two semitones [sec ^Scales]. 
The exact measurement of a semitone 
varies slightly according to the system of 
tuning. In equal temperament [see 
♦Temperament] each semitone equals 
exactly 100 ♦cents, while in the other 
systems various semitones occur. For in- 
stance, in the ♦Pythagorean system the 
“diatonic” semitone (c-f, b~c', called Urn- 
ma) is equivalent to 90 cents, the “chro* 


[671 1 



SEQUENCE 


SEMPLICE 

matic” semitone (bb-b, called apotome)^ 
204 — 90= 1 14 cents. In *Just intonation, 
these values are almost reversed, namely, 

1 12 and Q2 cents ( and — ^ in rela- 

15 128 

tive frequencies). 

Semplice [It.]. Simple. 

Sempre [It.]. Always; e.g., sempre le- 
gatOy always legato. 

Senkung [G.]. See under *Arsis and 
thesis. 

Sennet, also written Senet, SennatCy 
Synnety Cynety etc. A word which occurs 
in stage directions in the plays of the 
Elizabethan dramatists, and is used to 
denote “that a particular fanfare is to be 
played” (GD iv, 715). The term is de- 
rived, not from seven, as is suggested in 
various dictionaries, but, very probably, 
from sonata [see *Sonata B, I]. An in- 
dication such as “Trumpets sound a flor- 
ish, and then a senna te” (Dekker, Satiro^ 
mastix)y therefore calls for a flourish (fan- 
fare) followed by a somewhat longer 
piece played on brass instruments. For 
a similar word formation see *Tucket. 

Sensible [F.]. The leading tone. 

Sentito [It.]. “Felt,” with expression. 

Senza [It.]. Without. Senza tempOy 
senza misuray without strict measure. For 
senza sordini see ^Sordini. 

Sepolcro [It.]. See ^Sepulchrum play. 

Septet. Chamber music for seven play- 
ers, usually strings and wind mixed. 
Aside from Beethoven’s well-known Sep- 
tet op. 20 there are others by Spohr, Hum- 
mel, Saint-Saens, d’Indy, Ravel, Schon- 
berg. 

Septieme [F.], Septime [G.]. The 

interval of the seventh. 

Septimenakkord [G.j. Seventh chord. 

Septimole, Septole [G.], septu- 
plet. A group of seven notes to be played 
in the time of four or six. 

[67: 


Septuor [F.]. Septet. 

Sepulchrum play [It. sepolcro], A 
medieval play showing the burial of 
Christ. See ^Liturgical drama; •Mys- 
teries. 

Sequela. A term used by some modern 
writers for the pre-existing melodics of 
sequences [see •Sequence (2)], the term 
sequence being used for the combination 
of these melodies with the text. Cf. A. 
Hughes, Anglo-French Sequelae (1934). 

Sequence [G. Sequenz], (i) In musi- 
cal composition, the repetition in one and 
the same part of a short musical phrase 
at another pitch, usually at the second 
above or below, more rarely at the third 
[see •Repetition]. A sequence is called 
melodic when the repetition occurs in the 
melody only (as in monophonic music or 
when the lower parts do not partake of 
the sequential procedure), harmonic if 
similar repetitions occur in all the parts. 
If the repetitions are made without acci- 
dentals (change of key) the sequence is 
called tonal or diatonic [Ex. i]. This 



procedure necessarily implies that some 
of the intervals come out larger or smaller 
by a semitone (minor instead of major 
third, diminished instead of pure fifth, 
etc.). If, on the other hand, the intervals 
of the model pattern arc preserved ex- 
actly, the sequence is called real [Ex. 2; 
sec •Tonal and real]. Most sequences, as 
occur in actual music, belong to a mixed 
type, called modulatory or chromaticy as 
is illustrated in Ex. 3. 

In spite of its stereotyped construction, 
the sequence is of high artistic significance 
as an element of logical continuation. 
This is particularly true of the tonal se- 

0 



SEQUENCE 

quence (in its exact or slightly modified 
form) which combines unity of key with 
variety of intervallic repetition. From 
the point of view of ^harmonic analysis, 
the sequence is interesting because it 
often produces chordal combinations 
which otherwise are not admitted in 
strict style (diminished fifths, secondary 
seventh-chords, etc.). 

The melodic sequence is not infrequent 
in plainsong, and plays a rather promi- 
nent part in the Italian polyphonic music 
of the 14th century [cf., e.g., the example 
in ReMMA, 365 ] , as well as in the works 
of the Flemish masters (Obrecht, Isaac, 
and successors). The harmonic sequence 
became an important means of formal 
development and continuation in many 
compositions of the 17th through the 
19th centuries, being used frequently in 
the episodes of the fugue and in the de- 
velopment section of the sonata. In the 
late 1 8th century mediocre composers 
made abundant use of a cheap type of se- 
quence known as *rosalia. 

Lit.: All books on Harmony; H. A. 
Mishkin, The function of the Episodic 
Sequence in Baroque Instrumental Music 
(unpubl. diss. Harvard 1938); M. G. 
Dann, “Elgar’s Use of the Sequence” 
(ML xix). 

(2) In early liturgical music (plain- 
song), sequence denotes the oldest and 
most important type of tropes [see *Trope 
(4)], namely, literary and musical accre- 
tions to the Alleluias (alleluia trope). 
The invention of the sequence is usually 
attributed to Notker Balbulus, a German 
monk of St. Gall (d. 912) who, according 
to his own report, conceived the idea of 
providing suitable texts to the long vo- 
calizations over the final vowel of the 
Alleluia (the so-called *jubilus), in order 
to facilitate memorizing them. However, 
recent investigations (H. M. Bannister, 
C. Blume) have made it probable that 
before Notker there existed sequences in 
northern France (Jumieges) as well as 
in Provence (’*‘St. Martial at Limoges). 
The term sequence [from L. sequi, to 
follow] is probably explained by the fact 
that the sequence “follows” immediately 
after the alleluia, replacing its verse [see 


SEQUENCE 

*Mass A]. An equivalent term, used 
preferably in France, is *prosa (prose). 
In order to clearly understand the se- 
quence it is advisable to deal separately 
with the textual and the musical aspect, 
although in the actual development both 
are closely interlocked. 

(a) Text. The sequence texts arc 
lengthy poems in a free style, and usually 
cast in the form a, b b, c c, d d, . . . i i, k; 
i.e., they begin and end with a single line 
(a, k) between which there are a number 
(from 4 to 10 or more) of double-line 
stanzas. The two lines of each stanza arc 
identical in the number and accentuation 
of syllables, but usually there is a marked 
variation from one stanza to the next. 
For instance, Notker’s sequence Puella 
turbata shows the following scheme of 
numbers of syllables: 13; 18, 18; 23, 23; 
38, 38; 23, 23; 16, 16; 16, 16; 17, 17; 20, 20; 
16, 16; 61 [cf. H. J. Moser, Geschichte 
der deutschen Musi\^ P* 93] • The irregu- 
lar length of the stanzas and the absence 
of strict poetic meter suggest Byzantine 
rather than Latin origin of this type of 
poetry [for an example of early medieval 
Latin poetry see * Ambrosian hymns]. 
The French sequences for which the 
name prosa became customary show an 
additional feature of poetry, namely, 
rhyme. In many of them, each line ends 
on a^ in assonance with the final vowel of 
the preceding alleluia. 

(b) Music. The sequence texts are set 
to music in a rather strict syllabic style, 
and with identical music for the two lines 
of a couplet. The relationship of these 
melodies to those of the alleluias is by no 
means as clear and simple as Notker’s 
remarks (underlaying of a text to a pre- 
existing vocalization) would cause us to 
expect. Frequently it is only the begin- 
ning of the sequence which shows a cer- 
tain relationship to the alleluia, the con- 
tinuation being free [for an example of 
an unusually close agreement, cf . BeMMRy 
85 and Schubiger, no. 18; also HAM, 
no. 1 6a]. Moreover, the style of the se- 
quence melodies is quite different from 
that of the older chants, owing to their 
wider range as well as to the much larger 
use of formal devices such as repetition 


[673] 



SERENATA 


SEQUENCE 


of motives, sequential treatment [see •Se- 
quence (i)], variation-like elaboration 
of standard phrases, etc. In a way, the 
sequences may be said to open a new 
phase in European music, i.c., the begin- 
ning of “composition” in the proper sense 
of the word [cf., e.g., the sequence Ad- 
ducentur in Hughes], 

In Germany, Wipo (<r. 1000-50) was 
an important successor of Notker [cf. 
HAMy no. i6b], while in France, Adam 
of St. Victor (d. 1192) introduced a new 
type, that of the rhymed sequence 
{Reimsequenz) , His poems are hymns, 
practically always in six-line stanzas of 
trochaic dimeters. Although the ele- 
gance of his Latin was and still is greatly 
admired, the music is rather formalistic 
and inferior to that of the older sequences 
[cf. HAMy no. i6c]. His procedure led 
to an enormous output of rhymed se- 
quences which in the ensuing centuries 
threatened to overshadow the traditional 
repertory of Gregorian chant. A drastic 
step was taken at the Council of Trent 
(1545-63) which abolished all of them 
but four: Wipo’s Easter sequence Vic- 
timae paschedi laudes (the only remnant 
of the older type); the sequence for Whit- 
sunday Veni sancte spiritus (Golden Se- 
quence, attributed to Innocent III, late 
I2th century); Thomas Aquinas’s se- 
quence for Corpus Christi, Lauda Sion 
{c, 1261); and Thomas a Celano’s se- 
quence for the •requiem mass. Dies irae 
(r. 1200). In 1727 a fifth sequence was 
adopted into liturgical use, namely, Jaco- 
pone’s celebrated *Stabat mater. The 
Christmas sequence Laetabundus [cf. 
ZMW xi, 274f J is still being used in the 
service of the Dominican monks. Deriva- 
tives of the sequence arc the •estampic 
and the •lai. 

The sequences have frequently been 
composed polyphonically, cither as a 
cantus-firmus elaboration of the plain- 
song melody [example, by Willaert, in 
HAMy no. 1 13], or in free style [ex- 
ample, by Jommelli, in HAMy no. 306]. 

Lit.: G. M. Dreves, Analecta hymnicUy 
vols. 7, 50, 53, 54 (collection of texts); 
F. Wolf, Vber die LaiSy Sequenzeny und 
Leiche (1840); A. Schubiger, Die Sdnger- 


schule von St. Gallen (1858); A. Hughes, 
Anglo-French Sequelae (1934); P. Au- 
bry-Misset, '\Les Proses de St. Adam de 
Victor (1900); Cl. Blumc, “Vom Alleluia 
zur Sequenz” (KJy 1911); A. Gastoue, 
“Sur les origines de la form ‘sequentia’ 

. . . ” (KlMy 1906, p. 165); J. Hand- 
schin, in ZMW xii, xiii; P. Aubry, in 
TG V, vi, vii; J. Wolf, in RMl xlii; A. 
Hammerich, Mediaeval Musical Relics of 
Denmark^ {1^12) \ C. A. Moberg, Vber 
die schwedischen Sequenzen (1927). 

Seraphine. See under *Harmonium. 

Serbian chant. See •Yugoslavian 
music. 

Serenade. Evening music, vocal or in- 
strumental. The former type (song of a 
lover beneath his lady’s window) is fre- 
quent in operatic music (Mozart, Don 
Giovanni’s aria “Deh vieni”) and in the 
song repertory. The contrast is •aubade, 
i.e., morning music. 

More important is the instrumental 
serenade which, losing its “utilitarian” 
affiliation, developed, around 1770, into 
a purely musical type similar to the •cas- 
sation, the •divertimento, and the •not- 
turno. As a form, the serenade is charac- 
terized by the mixture of elements taken 
from the suite, particularly marches and 
minuets, and from the sonata. The style, 
likewise, is about midway between that 
of the suite and that of the symphony. 
Serenades arc written for a small ensem- 
ble consisting of a limited number of 
strings and a few wind instruments, such 
as would seem to be suitable for an open- 
air performance. The most famous ex- 
amples arc Mozart’s •Haffner Serenade 
(K.V. 250) and Eine kleine Nachtmusik 
(K.V. 525). Others are by Haydn, Bee- 
thoven (op. 8, 25; also op. 41, 42, which 
are arrangements of the two former), 
Brahms (op. 16), Dvofak (op. 22, 90, 44), 
Elgar (op. 20). 

Serenata [It.]. Not only the Italian 
term for •serenade, but specifically a des- 
ignation for 18th-century short operatic 
works written as a complimentary offer- 
ing for the birthdays of royal persons 


[674] 



SERENO 


(particularly at the Viennese court) and 
performed (in the evening?) in a recep- 
tion room with costumes and modest 
scenery. They are described best as dra- 
matic cantatas. A well-known example 
is Handel’s Acts and Galatea (1720) and 
his earlier Aciy Galatea e Polifemo 
(Naples, 1709). 

Sereno [It.]. Serene. 

Serinette [F.j. A miniature barrel or- 
gan used formerly in teaching canaries 
i^serin^ to sing, by the frequent repetition 
of the same tune. 

Serpent. See under ^Cornett; also 
*Brass instruments V (b). 

Serrando [It.], serre [F.]. Pressing, 
getting quicker. 

Serva padrona, La. See under ♦Comic 
opera; *BoufIons. 

Service. In the Anglican Church, the 
whole of the musical compositions of the 
canticles and other invariable items 
(Kyrie, Creed) contained in the Book of 
Common Prayer, as distinct from the sim- 
ple harmonization of plainsong (preces, 
responses, chants for the psalms) and 
fiom the ♦anthems. The settings of the 
Service are grouped under three main 
headings: the Morning Prayer (includ- 
ing the ♦Invitatory Psalm Venite exul- 
temus, the ♦canticles ♦Te Deum, Bene- 
dictus es, Dominus Deus Israel, and the 
alternatives Benedicite and Jubilate); the 
Evening Prayer (including the canticles 
♦Magnificat and Nunc dimittis, with the 
alternatives Cantate Domino and Deus 
misereatur); and the Communion (in- 
cluding the Kyrie, the Creed, the Sanctus, 
and the Gloria in excelsis; today also the 
Benedictus and the Agnus Dei). All 
these items were taken over from the 
Roman Catholic rites, as appears from 
the fact that they are traditionally re- 
ferred to by their original Latin desig- 
nations, although the texts themselves 
are, of course, in English [see ♦Canticum; 
♦Mass]. A ‘Tull Service” includes all 
(or nearly all) the items listed above, 
usually composed in one and the same 


SERVICE 

key and therefore commonly referred to 
by names such as “Stanford in B-flat” 
(i.e., a Full Service by Stanford in B- 
flat). There are, however, numerous 
Services which include only one of the 
three above groups (Morning Service; 
Evening Service; Communion Service) 
or even single items only. The terms 
Short Service and Great Service, used 
chiefly in the i6th and early 17th centu- 
ries, would seem to refer chiefly to the 
more or less elaborate style of composi- 
tion, the former being chiefly in straight 
chordal (syllabic) style, the latter (also 
called High Service) in a richer contra- 
puntal style, with repetition of text 
phrases and various contrapuntal devices. 

The history of the Service begins with 
Christopher Tye (c. 1500-72) and 

Thomas Tallis (c. 1505-85) [for some 
pre-Reformation Mass compositions with 
English texts, cf. GD iv, 725] . Tyc’s Eve- 
ning Service as well as Tallis’ Short Serv- 
ice (written probably before 1550) are in 
the simple homophonic style which was 
demanded by Archbishop Cranmer. Ap- 
parently the musicians were not enthusi- 
astic about this injunction, for it was not 
long before William Byrd (c. 1542- 
1623), the first great master of Service 
music, reverted to the polyphonic tradi- 
tion of the Flemish masters in his mag- 
nificent Great Service. In his Second 
Service with verses to the organs and in 
the Third Service (repr. in ♦Editions 
XXVIII, 2) he introduced important nov- 
el methods of performance: in the former 
the contrast between solo singers accom- 
panied by the organ (“Verse”) and 
chorus (“Full”); in the latter, half- 
choruses in alternation with the full 
chorus (“Can.,” “Dec.,” “Full”; see 
♦Polychoral style). The most important 
writers of Services after Byrd are Weelkes, 
Tomkins, and Orlando Gibbons. Weelkes 
wrote 10 settings of the Evening Service, 
to 6 of which there is a corresponding 
Morning Service. Most of these, how- 
ever, are incompletely transmitted. Tom- 
kins wrote 5 settings of the Morning and 
y of the Evening Service. It should be 
noted that the Communion Service 
quickly lost the importance which its 



SERVICE 


SEVENTH 


model, the Mass, has always maintained 
in the Catholic Church, and that, there- 
fore, the interest concentrated upon the 
other Services, chiefly the Morning Serv- 
ice. The Services of Weclkes and Tom- 
kins as well as Gibbons* two Services 
make use of the chorus as well as of solo 
voices accompanied by the organ. In some 
of them there are alternate sections of 
accompanied solo (“verse”) and of 
chorus. 

After these masters there begins a long 
period of stagnation and deterioration of 
the Service. The “Great Service” was 
almost completely neglected and the 
“Short Service” became the accepted 
model for composers such as William 
Child (1606-97), Benjamin Rogers 
(1614-98), Henry Aldrich (1647-1710), 
John Blow (1649-1708), Henry Purcell 
(1659-95), William Croft (1678—1727). 
This lack of interest is all the more sur- 
prising in view of the remarkable ad- 
vance of the anthem in the same period, 
notably under Blow and Purcell. In this 
connection it should be noted that neither 
Purcell’s Te Deum in D nor those of 
Handel belong to the category of the 
Service since they were written for special 
occasions, not for daily use. The standard 
of the Service reached its lowest point in 
18th-century composers such as Charles 
King (1687-1748), James Kent (1700- 
76), William Boyce (1710-79), James 
Nares (1715—83), and Benjamin Cooke 
(1734-93). 

A turn for the better occurred around 
1800 with Th. Attwood (1765-1838), a 
pupil of Mozart, and Samuel Wesley 
(1766-1837). But it is to Thomas A. 
Walmisley (1814-56) and Samuel Sebas- 
tian Wesley (1810-76) that credit goes 
for the re-establishment of an artistic 
standard of Service music. Among the 
characteristic features of their Services 
are the imaginative use of the organ and 
the introduction of Romantic harmonics. 
Later composers, such as John Stainer 
(1840-1901), Arthur Sullivan (1842- 
1900), and Charles Stanford (1852- 
1924), made important contributions 
among which Stanford’s Service in B-flai 
excels as a work of high artistic signifi- 


cance. For literature see under ^Cathedral 
music. Also A. Hughes, “16th-Century 
Service Music” (ML v, nos. 2 and 4). 

Sesqui- [L., from semique, plus one 
half]. Latin prefix used to denote frac- 
tions the numerator of which is larger 
by one than the denominator, e.g., sesqui- 
a 

altera: — (one plus one half), sesquitertia: 

2 

4 5 

— , sesquiquarta: — , etc. In early musical 
3 4 

theory these terms were used to denote 
either ratios of vibrations (i.e., *inter- 
vals), or ratios of time-values (i.e., *pro- 
portions). For instance, sesquialtera 
means, in discussions of the intervals, the 
fifth [see * Acoustics III], while, in 
treatises dealing with proportions, it de- 
notes temporal values corresponding to 
our triplet notes (three triplet notes equal 
two normal notes). The former meaning 
occurs also in the organ stop called Sesqui- 
altera, originally a mixture stop combin- 
ing the octave with the fifth, but usually 
including also other harmonics, such as 
the third in various octaves. Another 
term for sesquialtera is ♦hemiola. 

Sestetto [It.]. Sextet. 

Setzart [G.]. Style of composition. 

Seufzend [G.j. Sighing. 

Seven (Last) Words, The. The 
seven last words of Christ (compiled 
from the four Gospels) have occasionally 
been used as a text for ^Passion music, 
e.g., by Heinrich Schiitz (c. 1645), Haydn 
(1785), and Gounod (Les sept paroles 
de Jesus), Haydn’s composition, com- 
missioned by the Bishop of Cadiz, is not 
a choral setting of the text, but a series of 
seven instrumental “sonatas” each to be 
played after the recitation of one of the 
“words.” It is particularly interesting be- 
cause it appeared in three versions: first, 
for orchestra (op. 47), then for string 
quartet (op. 48), and finally for piano- 
forte (op. 49). There also exists a choral 
version in the form of a cantata, probably 
by Haydn’s brother Michael. 

Seventh. Sec ♦Intervals, Also * 1 , 


[676] 



SEVENTH CHORD 


SEXTOLET 


Seventh chord. A chord consisting of root (g) omitted. Owing to its cquidis- 
thc third, fifth, and seventh above the tant construction, any of its tones can be 
fundamental. In a given key there are considered as the home tone, so that one 
seven such chords, one on each degree of and the same chord may serve as a domi- 
the scale, e.g., in C Major: c-e-g-b (F), nant to four different keys. In each case 
d-f-a-c' (IF), e-g-b-d' (IIF), etc. By the chord must, of course, be written dif- 
far the most important of these is that on ferently, as is shown in Ex. i. Still other 
the fifth degree, the so-called dominant resolutions result from the fact that the 
seventh chord; g-b-d'-f (V*^). Each chord can also be interpreted as the sev- 
seventh chord is capable of three inver- enth chord of the raised supertonic, as 
sions, according to whether its lowest illustrated in Ex. 2. Owing to its Protean 
tone is the third, the fifth, or the seventh. 

Below are the dominant seventh chord 
and its three inversions, together with 
their designations in ^harmonic analysis 
and with the corresponding German 
terms: 



Root Position 


First Inversion 
b-d'-F-g' 


Second Inversion 
d'-f-g'-b' 


Third Inversion 
f-g'-b'-d" 


Septimenakkord 


Quintsextakkord 


Terzquartakkord 


Sekundakkord 


It may be noticed that the dominant 
seventh chord is enharmonically identical 
with the so-called “German” augmented 
sixth chord [see *Sixth chord], e.g.: 
g— b—d'— F = g— b— d'— e#^. The natural 
resolution of the former chord is into the 
triad on C; of the latter, into that on 
F-sharp. 

While each of the seven “diatonic” 
seventh chords contains major as well as 
minor thirds (in various arrangements), 
there also exists an important type of sev- 
enth chord consisting of minor thirds 
only, the diminished seventh chord. This 
usually appears on the seventh degree of 
the scale, e.g., b-d'-f'-ab' in C (major or 
minor). The normal resolution of this 
chord is into the tonic triad (c'-e'-g'). 
On account of its dominant character, it 
is frequently explained as a dominant 
ninth chord (g-b-d'-f'-ab') with the 


nature the diminished seventh chord is 
frequently used for quick modulation into 
far distant keys, e.g., from G into C-sharp 
[Ex. 3]. See ’'^Harmonic analysis III. 

Sext. (i) See *Office hours. — (2) Ger- 
man term (also Sexte) for the interval of 
the sixth. Sextal(f{ord^ see under *Triad. 

Sextet [F. sextette^ sextuor\ G. Sextett\ 
It. sestetto]. Chamber music for six per- 
formers, in various combinations, e.g., 
two violins, two violas, and two cellos 
(Brahms, op. 18, op. 36; Dvorak, op. 48), 
string quartet and two horns (Beethoven, 
op. 8ib), two clarinets, two horns, two 
bassoons (Beethoven, op. 71), etc. A 
vocal sextet is a composition for six sing- 
ers with or without instrumental accom- 
paniment. 

Sextolet [G. Sextole\ It. sestina], A 
group of six notes played in the time of 


ij 

j 'J j 


3 3 

I " I I I i” -^ 

J 7Tw£ J 

mm 


From top to bottom: 

Grove, Scholcs, Ricmann, Moser 

four ordinary notes. There should be a 
clear indication in writing as to whether 


[677] 




SFGGATO' 

the six notes arc meant to form three 
groups of two each, or two groups of 
three each. Unfortunately, there is no 
agreement regarding the proper way of 
doing this, as appears from the accom- 
panying table showing what the authors 
of four dictionaries consider correct. 

Sfogato [It.]. Light and easy, 

Sfoggiando [It.]. Flaunting, ostenta- 
tious. 

Sforzando, sforzato [It.], abbr. //, 
sfz. Forcing, i.e., with a sudden and 
strong accent on a single note or chord. 
Sfp means sforzando followed immedi- 
ately by piano. 

Shake. Older name for the trill. For 
closed and open shake, see the remark 
under *Grace. Shaked beat is a reiterated 
inferior appoggiatura, shaked cadent a 
reiterated Nachschlag. P. A. 

Shank. See ♦Wind instruments IV (b). 

Shanty, chanty, chantey. Working 
songs of the English and American sail- 
ors, sung when engaged in pulling the 
ropes or any other kind of work calling 
for concerted effort. Well-known shanties 
are: The Wide Missouri; The Banks of 
Sacramento; The Rio Grande. Cf. F. 
Rickaby, Ballads and Songs of the Shanty^ 
Boy (1926); R. R. Terry, in ML i, nos. i 
and 3; id,, in PMA xli; H. Whates, in 
ML xviii, no. 3. 

Shape-note. Sec ♦Fasola. 

Sharp [F. dihse\ G. Kreuz\ It, diesis]. 
The sign % which indicates the raising of 
a note by a semitone, e.g., from C to C- 
sharp. For its origin and its use in early 
music, see the article on *B. In the nota- 
tion of the 1 6th to the i8th century, the 
sharp frequendy has the form of a recum- 
bent double cross [see * Accidentals II], 
There aho was a practice of using the 
term sharp to denote the “sharped,” i.c., 
the major -third of a key. For instance 
BumCy used the term “key E-sharp” in 
the meaning of “key E major,” and Bee- 
thoven inscribed his Leonora Overture 
no. I (in C major) “Ouverture in C#.” 


SHORT OCTAVE 

The foreign terms for C-sharp, etc., are 
given under ♦Pitch names. 

Shawm [F. chalumeau\ G. Schalmei\ 
It. cialamello]. See ♦Oboe family III. 

Sheng (frequently but wrongly spelled 
♦Cheng). A peculiar Chinese wind in- 
strument, consisting of a bowl-shaped air 
reservoir made from a gourd or wood, 
into the top of which are thrust a number 
(12-17) of bamboo pipes. The pipes each 
contain a free reed made of thin brass 
which is set in motion by suction and, 
less frequently, by aspiration through a 
mouthpiece attached to the side of the 
cup. Each pipe has a small hole which 
must be covered by the finger in order to 
make the pipe sound. See the illustration 
on p. 272. The special interest of the 
sheng lies in the fact that, after its impor- 
tation (around 1800) into Europe, it led 
to the invention of the ♦harmonium. The 
music played on the sheng is interesting 
because it usually moves in parallel fifths 
or triads. Example in R. Lachmann, 
Musi\ des Orients (1929), p. 108. 

Shift. In violin playing, see ♦Position. 

Shimmy. See ♦Jazz III. 

Shivaree. American corruption of 
♦charivari. 

Shofar. An ancient Jewish instrument 
made from a ram’s horn and used up to 
the present day in the Jewish worship, at 
the celebration of the New Year. The 
statement, found in a recent reference 
book, that it has a recorded history of 60 
centuries is, to put it mildly, a slight ex- 
aggeration — 30 being nearer to the truth 
— as is also the statement that it produces 
a natural scale. Actually, it produces only 
two crude and awe-inspiring sounds, 
roughly corresponding to the second and 
third harmonic. 

Short octave, A special arrangement 
of the keys in the lowest octave of early 
organs, harpsichords, etc. The fact that 
the lowest chromatic tones (Clt, D#, F#, 
G#) were almost never needed in key- 
board music prior to, say, 1700 naturally 
led to the omission of the corresponding 


[678] 



SHORT SERVICE 


sight-reading 


pipes or strings, a procedure which was 
particularly desirable in view of the great 
cost of the large organ pipes. On the key- 
board, instead of omitting the four cor- 
responding black keys, the keys for the 
remaining eight tones were arranged in 
a “shortened” octave which extended only 
to the key normally occupied by E. The 
keys for the tones F, G, A, Bb, and B were 
usually left in their normal position, and 
the three remaining keys (normally E, 
F#, Git) were allotted to the tones C, D, 
and E in arrangements such as: 

(a) (b) 

Black C D Bb D E Bb 

White EFGAB CFGAB 

An additional advantage of this ar- 
rangement was the possibility of playing 
certain widely spaced chords, e.g., E B e 
git with the left hand alone [cf. Fitz wil- 
liam Virginal Boo\ i, pp. xvii and 287]. 
As a matter of fact, in the arrangement 
(b) this chord is produced by the keys 
Git B e git, which are within the easy 
reach of the hand. It may be noticed that 
the often discussed tenth E—g which oc- 
curs at the end of J. S. Bach’s harpsichord 
toccata in E minor is no proof of Spitta’s 
and Schweitzer’s contention that this 
toccata is an organ piece (the theory be- 
ing that the low E calls for the organ 
pedal), since it can easily be played with 
the left hand on the short octave (b). 
Similar widely spaced chords occur in the 
works of Froberger. A later (19th cen- 
tury) arrangement on pianofortes was the 
broken octave. Here the lowest octave 
was complete with 12 keys, except that 
the C-sharp was replaced by the more use- 
ful note Ai from below, ^e also *Pedal 
piano. 

Lit.: GD iii, 748 (organ) and v, 92!! 
(almost a doctoral dissertation on the 
topic); G. Kinsky, in ZMW ii. 

Short Service. See ^Service. 

Si. See ’•“Pitch names; *Solmization. 

Siamese music. The music of Siam 
(Thai) is similar to that of Java [sec 
^Javanese music]. 

Siciliano. A 17th- and 18th-century 
dance type of Sicilian origin, in very mod- 


erate % or meter, usually with a 
flowing broken-chord acompanimcnt and 
a soft, lyrical melody with dotted rhythms 
— similar if not identical in character to 
that of the ’•“pastorale. It occurs as a slow 
movement in early sonatas (Corelli, Bach, 
Padre Martini) as well as in vocal music 
(operas, cantatas) whenever soft rural 
scenes are to be rendered in music. 

Side drum. Same as snare drum; sec 
•“Percussion instruments B, i. 

Siegfried. See •“Ring des Nibelungcn, 
Der. Siegfried Idyll is the scene, fre- 
quently played in symphonic concerts, in 
which Siegfried, having tasted the drag- 
on’s blood, becomes able to understand 
the language of the birds and silendy 
listens to them (Act II). 

Sight. See "“Fauxbourdon (2). 

Sight-reading (singing). I. The 
ability to read and perform music at first 
sight, i.e., without preparatory study of 
the piece. Naturally, no finished result is 
expected in such performance, the aim 
being to obtain or to give a satisfactory 
general impression of the piece. This 
type of playing (to exemplify on the 
piano) puts entirely different demands 
on the performer than the ordinary type 
of finished playing. In fact, from the 
technical as well as the psychological 
point of view, it is its very opposite, so 
that accomplished pianists and virtuosos 
are frequently very poor at sight-reading. 
Unfortunately, this situation exists not 
only among concert-pianists who can, per- 
haps, afford to neglect sight-reading, but 
also among numerous students and ama- 
teurs who gready suffer from their in- 
ability to play even the simplest piece 
without having studied it for wotks or 
months. Thus, in the course of years of 
study, they acquire nothing but a limited 
“repertory” and fail entirely te attain that 
broad knowledge of musical literature 
which is the precondition of all genuine 
accomplishments in the field of music.. 
This is, no doubt, a serious fault of our 
present musical educatipii, the blame for 
which lies with the iimsic teachers the 


[679] 



SIGHT-READING 


SINFONIA 


great majority of whom do not realize 
the importance of sight-reading and do 
not know how to teach it. 

The problems of sight-reading are 
somewhat different in the various fields 
of musical activity. In singing, not much 
more is required than a thorough ac- 
quaintance with the elements of musical 
melody and rhythm and with their nota- 
tion. In recent years this basic study has 
been emphasized in a number of music 
schools where it is taught under the name 
of *solfege. Another important means of 
obtaining facility in sight-singing is the 
participation in a choral group. Recently, 
there has been a considerable movement 
to facilitate sight-singing by the use of 
♦solmization-systems in the place of the 
ordinary musical notation. Methods such 
as the English *Tonic Sol-fa avoid many 
of the complications inherent in the tra- 
ditional system of musical notation (clefs, 
signatures, accidentals, etc.), but they re- 
strict the student to a limited field of 
music, while, on the other hand, famili- 
arity with the foundations of the ordinary 
notation opens to the student the entire 
field of music, choral as well as instru- 
mental and orchestral. 

II. The situation of the violin player is 
not very different from that of the singer 
since his music is, in the main, also re- 
stricted to melodic progression in one 
line. As in singing, the facility of grasp- 
ing immediately the significance of inter- 
vals and of rhythmic figures is prerequi- 
site for playing at sight. As in the case 
of the singer, group performance is of the 
highest importance, either with an accom- 
panying pianist, or in a chamber en- 
semble, or in a student’s orchestra. 

III. The pianist’s problems of sight- 
reading are of a different nature. Here 
the difi&culties are considerably greater, 
owing to the greater complexity of the 
music he is concerned with. At the out- 
set it must be said that the greatest enemy 
of sight-playing is playing by heart. The 
latter method, which is today considered 
indispensable for any kind of “finished 
performance” — with doubtful justifica- 
tion, by the way — causes the player to 
rely on his memory and on the control of 


his fingers by his eyes. In sight-reading, 
however, the player is expected to rely, 
not on his memory, but on his faculty of 
immediate and quick apperception; more- 
over, his eyes must be fixed not on his 
hands, but on the music page. This lat- 
ter technique constitutes the very basis of 
any success in playing at sight on the 
piano. The student must be taught to fix 
his eyes unerringly on the music and to 
make his fingers rely exclusively on touch, 
“feeling their way” through the keyboard 
as a blind man does with his stick. Simple 
exercises such as playing an octave, a fifth, 
a triad, a seventh chord without looking 
at the keys will gradually give that feel- 
ing of tactile security which is the basis 
of sight-playing on the pianoforte, and 
which is also an important factor of piano- 
forte playing in general [see *Pianofortc 
playing IV J. 

Still greater are the intellectual demands 
in the case of playing from score of cham- 
ber or orchestral music. See *Score. Cf. 
W. G. McNaught, “The Psychology of 
Sight-Ringing” (PM A xxvi). 

Signal. See ^Fanfare; ^Military band. 

Signature. Signs placed at the begin- 
ning of a composition, indicating the key 
[see *Key signature] or the meter [see 
*Timc signature]. 

Signet. Same as *Sennet. 

Silence [F.]. Rest. 

Sillet [F.]. (i) *Nut (of the violin). 

— (2) *Fret (of the lute). 

Similar motion. See ^Motion. 

Simile, simili [It.]. Indication to con- 
tinue “in a similar way,” e.g., with the 
same kind of bowing, or with the same 
type of broken chord figure, etc. 

Sin’al fine (segno) [It.] . Until the end 
(sign). See *Segno. 

Sincopa [It.]. ^Syncopation. 

Sincopas. See *Cinque-pace. 

Sinfonia. (i) Italian for ^symphony. 

— (2) A name chosen by Bach for his 


[680] 



SINFONIA DOMESTICA 


SINGING 


three-voice *inventions. — (3) In the 
early Baroque period (1600-1750), name 
for orchestral introductory pieces of Ital- 
ian origin. These were short pieces de- 
signed to serve as an introduction to an 
opera or an operatic scene (Monteverdi, 
OrfeOy 1607; Stefano Landi, 11 San Ales- 
sioy 1634 [cf. HAMy no. 208; RiHM ii.2, 
255, 263]; Michelangelo Rossi, Erminia 
del GiardanOy 1637; Monteverdi, Uln- 
coronazione di PoppeUy 1640, etc.); an or- 
chestral suite (Salomone Rossi, Sinfonie 
e gagliarde . . . , 1607, ’08, *13; Johann 
Jakob Lowe, Sinfonien, GagliardeUy 
Arien . . . , 1658; Johann Rosenmiiller, 
Senate da camera doe Sinfonie Alemandey 
Correnti . . . , 1670; Johann Fux, Con- 
centuSy cf. DTOe 23.ii); or a cantata (e.g., 
two cantatas by Provenzale, cf. RiHM 
ii.2, 386; Bach, Christ lag in Todesban- 
den). Bach also transferred the Sinfonia 
to the harpsichord, in his Partita no. 2. 

No fixed form or style attaches to these 
pieces. In this period, Sinfonia is simply 
one of the various names used for intro- 
ductory instrumental pieces [see ♦Over- 
ture], others being Sonata, Toccata, etc. 
On the other hand, independent canzonas 
and sonatas were also designated as Sin- 
fonias [see ♦Sonata B, I, II] . Possibly the 
latter term carried the connotation of or- 
chestral performance, not necessarily im- 
plied by the others. It was not until c. 
1690 that the operatic Sinfonia became 
standardized (by Alessandro Scarlatti; 
cf. HAMy no. 259) into what is usually 
called “Italian overture” [see ♦Overture] 
which is one of the ancestors of the mod- 
ern ♦symphony. Examples of 17th-century 
Sinfonias in SchGMBy nos. 15 1, 191, 211, 
220, 223, 224, 229. The last of these shows 
the merging of the Sinfonia with the trio- 
sonata. For an unusually early example 
of “symphonia” (15th century), strik- 
ingly similar in style and form to the 
Toccata in Monteverdi’s Orfeo, cf. RiHM 
ii.i, 42 and 207. 

Sinfonia Domestica. See ♦Symphonic 
poem III. 

Sinfonietta. A small symphony, usu- 
ally also for a smaller orchestra. 


Sinfonische Dichtung [G.]. ♦Sym- 
phonic poem. 

Singakademie. A society for concert- 
giving founded at Berlin in 1791 by Chris- 
tian Fasch. Today it is mainly known 
through its concert hall. 

Singing. I. Singing is, no doubt, the 
most ancient and widespread type of 
music making, being the only one (except 
for whistling) which does not depend 
upon an instrument. For the historian, 
this fact has, unfortunately, the disadvan- 
tage of leaving him without any informa- 
tion regarding the early practice of sing- 
ing while, in the case of instrumental 
practice, the numerous pictorial repre- 
sentations or literary descriptions of in- 
struments enable him to form at least a 
general idea of the music in, e.g., Babylon, 
Egypt, Greece, etc. Many people will be 
inclined to take it for granted that the 
human voice and the way it is used in 
singing must have been the same in re- 
mote periods as it is today. This, how- 
ever, is certainly a mistaken belief. It suf- 
fices to point to the Oriental cultures 
(Chinese, Japanese) or to the singing of 
primitive tribes (Indians, Africans) to 
see that the human vocal apparatus can 
be used in very diflerent ways. Such dif- 
ferences arc pardy due to anatomic pe- 
culiarities of the various races but also to 
a large extent to training and taste. Even 
in the European history of music the 
“timbre” of the voice has not remained 
unchanged. Although, of course, state- 
ments in this matter are necessarily some- 
what hypothetical, there is reason to as- 
sume that the singers of ancient Grego- 
rian chant preferred an Oriental, some- 
what nasal timbre (as is still frequently 
heard in Catholic churches). The strik- 
ingly high range of much 14th- and 15th- 
century music is explained by the exten- 
sive use of the ♦falsetto. The celebrated 
*castrati of the 17th and i8th centuries 
probably possessed a vocal timbre which 
few people today would consider ideal. 
Around 1850 the purity and brilliance of 
the ♦bel canto were abandoned in favor 
of the “dramatic” voice of present-day 


U81] 



SINGING 


SINGING 


opera, and in modern jazz we arc wit- 
nessing the cultivation of special manners 
of singing which, although not recog- 
nized as artistic, help to illustrate the 
variability of the vocal timbre. 

II. There is an infinitely greater 
amount of variability if questions of style 
and performance are taken into consider- 
ation. Particularly interesting is the am- 
ple use which, from pre-Christian times 
down through the 17th century and later, 
was made of *vocalization. The singing 
of Gregorian chant involved numerous 
vocal ornaments such as ^vibrato, •trem- 
olo, *portamento, some of which were 
indicated by special neumatic signs [see 
•Neumes]. In the 13th century, Magister 
Lambert (Pseudo- Aristotle) tells us that 
the •plica, a derivative of the “liquescent” 
neumes, is to be performed “by the partial 
closing of the epiglottis combined with a 
subtle repercussion of the throat.” In this 
respect it may be mentioned that some 
writers explain the Jewish word “alleluia” 
as a phonetic formation derived from the 
trilling of the tongue against the roof of 
the mouth (1-1-1), a vocal technique which 
is still widely used in the Orient. Among 
the most striking features of early vocal 
music, Gregorian as well as polyphonic, 
is tlie seeming indifference in matters of 
correct underlaying of the text, frequently 
leading to wrong accentuation. In many 
cases, however, a closer examination 
shows that this procedure was not mere 
indifference but the result of principles 
which, although different from or op- 
posed to those of modern music, nonethe- 
less are logical and aesthetically justified. 
See •Text and music. 

III. Another interesting point of view 
is that concerned with the vocal ranges. 
Although there always existed voices of 
the same ranges, high, medium, or low, 
as we have them today, in early pe- 
riods these were far from being used to 
the full extent that they are today. The 
average range of Gregorian chant is from 
c to c', that is, the range of the tenor voice. 
Practically all polyphonic music of the 
13th century still is within this range in 
all its parts (usually three) while much 
music of the 14th century (Machaut, 


Landini) and of the early 15th century 
(Dufay) is even higher, from f to c", thus 
calling for the use of falsetto in the mel- 
ody. An important change took place 
around 1450 with the rise of the •Flem- 
ish School. The bass voice was “discov- 
ered,” and it was here for the first time 
that the texture of polyphonic music be- 
came separated into four different ranges, 
corresponding to that of the bass, tenor, 
contralto, and mezzo-soprano. Since prac- 
tically all the music of this period is 
sacred, the performance was, of course, 
by men’s voices exclusively, perhaps oc- 
casionally with the help of boy singers. 
Even in the secular repertoire of the 
Middle Ages and the Renaissance there 
is nothing to indicate performance by 
women, aside from exceptional pieces 
such as the liturgical drama of the Resur- 
rection (c. 1100) in which there is a dia- 
logue 'between the angel and the women 
watching the tomb [cf. SchGMB, no. 8]. 
The rise of the opera in the 17th century 
brought about the decisive change in this 
matter, the various roles now being given 
to voices of a characteristic range. The 
leading hero {primo huomo) is a castrato, 
the leading heroine {frima donna) a high 
soprano, while the secondo huomo is a 
bass and the scconda donna a contralto — 
a scheme which, of course, admits of 
modifications [sec •Prima donna]. As 
an illustration of the astonishing range of 
operatic stars in the heyday of the opera 
it may be mentioned that a bass-part in 
Handel’s Acts et Galatee (1708), written 
for the celebrated bass Giuseppe Boschi, 
shifts, within one measure, from a' to C, 
more than 2 14 octaves, and that the so- 
prano Lucrezia Agujari (1742-83) could 
reach c"". 

IV. The 19th century brought about 
the “scientific” study of the vocal ap- 
paratus and of its use in singing. Manuel 
Garcia (1805-1906) laid the foundation 
for this study in his Memoire sur la voix 
humaine which he presented to the French 
Institut in 1840 and which was followed 
in 1847 by his Traite comdet de V art du 
chant. Among his pupils were Jenny 
Lind, Mathildc Marches!, Julius Stock- 
hausen, and others who, in turn, became 


[682! 



SINGING 


SINGSPIEL 


the teachers of more recent generations 
of celebrated singers. As Garcia lived to 
the age of loi years he sav/ practically all 
the great singers of the 19th and 20th 
centuries appear and many of them dis- 
appear from the opera stage or the con- 
cert hall. His personal teaching, however, 
seems to have been much more successful 
and influential in the end than his scien- 
tific studies. Although the scientific study 
of the vocal apparatus and its acoustic 
functions has been immensely widened 
and deepened, it has benefited the physi- 
ologist rather than the singer. As a mat- 
ter of fact, the advance in research has 
brought about a widespread tendency 
among singing teachers to abandon the 
scientific method altogether and to rely 
on personal experience, influence, and 
imagination rather than on physiological 
or scientific “facts.” 

For more details about the technical 
aspect of voice production, see * Voice. 
Related articles: Voice; Voices, Range of; 
Register (2); Bel canto; Castrati; Falsetto; 
Vocalization; Solfege; Song; Tremolo; 
Vibrato; Text and music; Vocal music; 
Word painting. 

Lit.: A. Historical: W. J. Henderson, 
Early History of Singing (1921); id,, The 
Art of Singing (1938); G. Fantoni, 
Storia universale del canto (1873); H. 
Biehle, Die Stimm\unst, i (1931); Th. 
Gerold, Zur Geschichte der franzdsischen 
Gesangs\unst (Diss. Strassburg 1909); 
B. Ulrich, Die Grundsdtze der Stimm- 
bildung 1 4y 4-1640 (Diss. Berlin 1910); 
M. Hogg, Die Gesangs\unst der Faustina 
Flasse . . . (Diss. Berlin 1931); H. 
Buhle, “Die aesthetischen Grundlagen 
der franzosischen Gesangskunst im 17/ 
18. Jahrhundert” (ZMW xii). See also 
*Bel canto; ^Castrati. For early litera- 
ture, cf. MoML, 265. 

B. Practical: A. B. Bach, Principles of 
Singing (1902); J. F. Cooke, Great Sing- 
ers on the Art of Singing ( 1921 ) ; D. Dos- 
sert, Sound Sense in Singing (1932); 
W. S. Drew, Voice Training (1924); 
Fucito and Beyer, Caruso and the Art of 
Singing (1922); H. P. Plunket, Interpre- 
tation in Song (1912); Y. Guilbert, How 
to Sing a Song (1918); W. J. Henderson, 


Art of the Singer (1906); G. Hcnschcl, 
Articulation in Singing (1926); Lilly 
Lehmann, How to Sing (1929); M. P. 
Marafiotti, Caruso's Method of Voice 
Production (1922); M. Ryan, What 
Every Singer Should Know; Ch. Sant- 
ley. Art of Singing (1908); W. Shake- 
speare, Art of Singing (1910); id., Plain 
Words on Singing (1929); D. Stanley, 
The Science of the Voice (1932); D. C. 
Taylor, Psychology of Singing (1908); 
E. G. White, Science and Singing ( 1938); 
J. C. Wilcox, The Living Voice (1935); 
H. Witherspoon, Singing (1925); H. J. 
Wood, Gentle Art of Singing, i-iv (1925; 
abridged ed. in one vol.). See also *Pro- 
nunciation. 

Singing saw. An ordinary handsaw, 
held between the knees and set in vibra- 
tion by either a violin bow or by drum- 
sticks. Its special effect is a gradual modi- 
fication of pitch (similar to the ♦porta- 
mento of the violin) obtained by the bend- 
ing of the free end of the blade with the 
left hand. The instrument has been used 
lately in jazz and in other popular musi- 
cal presentations (radio). 

Singspiel [G.]. Around 1700, the 
German equivalent for “dramma per mu- 
sica” (drama with music), i.e., opera, ap- 
plied alike to serious and comic operas 
(e.g. Reiser’s Croesus, 1711). Later (c. 
1750) the term was restricted to comic 
operas with spoken dialogue, written on 
the models of the English ♦ballad opera 
or the French ♦opera-comiquc. Coffey’s 
ballad operas. The Devil to Pay (1728; 
and The Merry Cobbler (1735), were 
translated by Christian Wcisse {Der 
Teufel ist los and Der lustige Schuster) 
and set to music by Johann Standfuss 
{c. 1750). Johann Adam Hiller (1728— 
1804) composed the same two librettos 
and many others {Die Jagd, 1770), bring- 
ing the Leipzig Singspiel to its high- 
point. From Leipzig the movement 
spread to other places, chiefly Berlin and 
Vienna. Most of the members of the 
♦Berlin School wrote Singspiele, notably 
Georg Benda {Der Jahrmarf^t, 1775). In 
Vienna, where as early as 1751 the young 
Haydn wrote Der neue l^rumme Teufel 


[683] 



SINISTRA 

(lost; c£. DTOe 33.1), the Singspiel at- 
tained its artistic peak in Mozart’s Ent- 
juhrung aus dem Serail (1782), other 
important examples being Ignaz Um- 
laufl’s Die Berghjiappen (1778; DTOe 
i8.i), Dittersdorf’s Do\tor und Apoth- 
eXer (1786), Johann Schenk’s Der Dorf- 
barbier (1796; DTOe 34), and Schubert’s 
Die Zwillingsbruder (1819). The Sing- 
spiel is the ancestor of the German Ro- 
mantic opera of the 19th century. Oper- 
atic works with spoken dialogue occur 
as early as the 17th century, e.g., S. G. 
Staden’s Seelewig (1644) [cf. MfM xiii], 
Wolfgang Briegel’s Das Triumphierende 
Siegesspiel (1673), and W. Franck’s Die 
drey Tochter Cecrops (1679) [cf. AMF 
iv]. See *Opcra VII; *Comic opera II 

(e)- 

Lit.: H. M. Schletterer, Das deutsche 
Singspiel (1863, ’79); H. Graf, Das Sing- 
spielrepertoire Berlins lyyiSS (1934); 
G. Calmus, Die Singspiele von Standfuss 
und Hiller (1908, BIM); E. O. Beer, 
Mozart und das Wiener Singspiel (Diss. 
Vienna 1932); R. Krott, Die Singspiele 
Schuberts (Diss. Vienna 1921); R. Eit- 
ner, in MfM xiii (Seelewig); G. Schmidt, 
in AMF iv (Cecrops); W. Stauder, in 
AMF i (Joh. Andr<6); P. Nettl, in ZMW 
vi (Singballett); V. Helfert, in ZMW v 
(Wiener Singspiel); F. Bruckner, in SIM 
V (Benda). D. J. G. 

Sinistra [It.]. Left (hand). 

Sink-a-pace, sinqua-pace. Sec 
*Cinquc-pace. 

Sirventes [Prov., song of service]. A 
type of ^troubadour poetry, usually of 
considerable length and of heroic, politi- 
cal, or moral content. There is no specific 
musical form for these poems which were 
probably recited to some well-known 
short melody repeated for many lines [see 
^Chanson de geste]. 

Si segue [It.]. It follows. 

Sistine choir (chapel). The present 
name of the Papal choir of 32 singers who 
provide the music for the services in 
which the Pope officiates in person. It 
developed from the ancient *schola can- 


SIX, LES 

torum and received its present name from 
the Cappella Sixtina^ the chapel built by 
Pope Sixtus IV in 1471-84. Since 1480 
there has existed another choir, the Cap- 
pella Giulia (richly endowed by Pope 
Julian II), which is domiciled at St. Pe- 
ter’s and which has frequently, but in- 
correctly, been called Sistine choir. Both 
bodies have been greatly admired for the 
excellence of their vocal technique, in- 
volving long crescendi and decrescendi, 
and many refined shades of sound. How- 
ever, from a musical and historical point 
of view, their performances of Palestrina, 
etc., are decidedly in mediocre taste, over- 
laden with romantic sentimentality, and 
much inferior to those of other bodies, 
such as the Schola Cantorum of Paris. 

Lit.: F. X. Haberl, Die romische Schola 
Cantorum . . . (1887; also in FMIP iii); 
R. R. Terry, in MA iii; E. Celani, in RMl 
xiv; K. Weinmann in AMW ii; R. Casi- 
miri, ‘T Diarii Sistini” (Note d'Archivio 
i [1924] to date). 

Sistrum. An ancient Egyptian rattle 
used especially in the worship of Isis. It 
consisted of a metal frame with loose 
metal bars, the frame attached to a handle. 
In modern writings the term sistre some- 
times occurs as a wrong spelling for 
♦cistre. 

Si tace [It.]. It keeps silent. 

Sitole. Same as ’’^cistre, etc. 

Six, Les; The Group of Six. A 
group of six French composers, associ- 
ated about 1918 and comprising: Louis 
Durey (b. 1888); Arthur Honegger (b. 
1892); Darius Milhaud (b. 1892); Ger- 
maine Tailleferre (b. 1892); Georges 
Auric (b. 1899); Fran9ois Poulenc 
(b. 1899). The group made its first pub- 
lic appearance under the name Les Nou- 
veaux JeuneSy but later adopted the name 
Les Six [cf. N. Slonimsky, Music Since 
igoo (1937), PP* 201]. Although 
they do not represent a School in the 
proper sense of the word, a common bond 
exists in their attachment to Erik Satie 
whom they considered as their spiritual 
father, and in their stand against the im- 


[684] 



SIX-FOUR CHORD 

pressionistic style of Debussy and Ravel 
[see *New Music]. A later group of a 
similar character was the ^Ecole d'Ar~ 
cueil. Cf. E. Vuillermoz, in MM i; R. 
Manuel, in MM ii. 

Six-four chord. The second inver- 
sion of the triad, e.g., g-c-e', indicated 
II^, etc., in modern harmonic analysis, 

^ in figured-bass parts. It occurs normally 
in strong position followed by the domi- 
nant V, as shown in measure 4 of the ac- 
companying example, but may also occur 



I 3S if ir it X I 


in weak position, as in measure 2. Cf. 
G. Haydon, The Evolution of the Six- 
four chord (1933); L. Matossi, in DM 

X.6. 

Sixteen-foot. See *Foot (2). 

Sixth [F. sixi^me, G. Sexte\, See *In- 
tervals. 


SLIDER 


of f-a-d') those containing an augmented 
sixths e.g., ab~fif', deserve special men- 
tion. There are four common ones: the 



augmented sixth, the augmented six-five- 
threc, the augmented six-four-three, and 
the doubly augmented six-four-threc. The 
first three of these are, rather pointlessly, 
distinguished as “Italian,” “German,” 
and “French” sixth. Their derivations 
and common resolutions are shown in 
Ex. 2 (-[- and ++ indicate augmented 
and doubly augmented intervals). Cf. 
P. Miller, “The Augmented Sixth Chord” 
(fournal of Musicology i). Sec also 
’’•'Added sixth. 

Skala [G.j. Scale. 


Sixth chord. The first inversion of S’®*""'®’ impetuosity, 

the triad, e.g.: e-g-c', indicated I®, II®, Slargando, slentando [It.]. Slowing 
etc., in modern harmonic analysis, 6 or up. 

® in figured-bass parts. In four-part har- *Bulgarian, -Czech, 

mony, doubling of the fundamental is *Rumanian, *Russian, *Serbian music, 
generally avoided (e— c'— g'-c", not e-e'— 

g'—c") because the e can only be resolved Slide, (i) In violin playing a slight 
upward to the f so that, with doubled e, *portamento used to pass quickly from 
parallel octaves (e-f, e'-f') would result, one note to another, usually at the dis- 
The sixth chord is used on every degree tance of a third or a fourth. It serves to 
of the scale, and occurs frequently in attain a matchless legato as well as a spe- 
parallel progression [see •Fauxbourdon, cial effect of expressiveness. Paganini in- 
Ex. i]. A specially interesting chord is troduced a virtuoso type of slide, by exe- 
Xht Neapolitan sixth, i-a!o-dV mCm 3 i)OT, cuting chromatic passages, singly or in 
which is usually explained as the first thirds, entirely with the same finger.— 
inversion of the triad on the lowered (^) The movable portion of the *trom- 
supertonic,db-f-ab [see, however, •Func- bone, also *Wind instruments IV 
tional harmony]. One of the earliest in- (a); *Slide trumpet. (3) An ornamen- 
stanccs of its use is in the Frost Scene of tation consisting of two or more notes ap- 
Purcell’s King Arthur, 1691 [Ex. i]. proaching the main note by conjunct mo- 
See also reference under ^Temperament tion; see *Appoggiatura, Double II. 

II (Schlick). Among the numerous gjj^jg trumpet. See ‘Trumpet II. 
chromatic varieties encountered with the 

chord of the sixth (e.g., f-ab-d', instead Slider. See *Organ II. 

[685] 




SLUR 


SOCIETIES 


Slur, (i) A curved line placed above or 
below a group of notes to indicate that 
they are to be played legato, e.g., with one 
stroke of the violin bow, or with one 
breath in singing. If the notes to be found 
under the slur have staccato dots, the 
meaning of the combined signs is ♦por- 
tato, A slur connecting two notes of equal 
pitch is properly called *tie or bind. — 
(2) An ornamentation resembling the 
French tierce coulee [see *Appoggiatura, 
Double II ] . 

Smanioso [It.]. Frenzied. 

Smarfioso [It.]. “Mincing,” affected. 

Sminuendo [It.]. Diminishing. 

Smorzando [It.]. Dying away. 

Snare drum. See *Percussion instru- 
ments B, I. 

Snello [It.]. Nimble, quick. 

Soave [It.]. Suave, gentle. 

Societies, Musical. I. America, Some 
of the more important musical organiza- 
tions of national scope are the following: 

1. A.G.O. (American Guild of Organ- 
ists). A national association of church 
organists (founded in 1896), having as 
its purposes: (i) the improvement of 
music in the churches; (2) the mainte- 
nance of high standards among organ- 
ists; and (3) the exchange of views and 
information among members through 
periodic meetings. In regard to (2), ex- 
aminations covering performance and 
general knowledge of music are given 
for the certificates of associate (A. A.G.O.) 
and fellow (F.A.G.O.), which is the 
highest rank. Members are admitted as 
“colleagues” without examination. To 
promote (3), the Guild is subdivided 
into numerous regional chapters (close to 
100), which hold local meetings and ad- 
minister the examinations. 

2. A.M.S. (American Musicological 
Society). An organization for “the ad- 
vancement of research in the various 
fields of music as a branch of learning” 
(from the constitution). The Society is 
divided into regional chapters which hold 


regular meetings at which papers of mu- 
sicological interest are read. A national 
convention is traditionally held each year 
in connection with the M.T.N.A. conven- 
tion [see (6)]. Two yearly publications, 
Papers Read by the Members of the 
AMS, (PAMS) and Bulletin of the 
AMS, (BAMS)y are issued. 

3. I.S.C.M. (International Society for 
Contemporary Music). The Society was 
begun in Europe in 1922; the United 
States Section was founded in 1923. The 
purpose of the Society is to discover and 
encourage talent in composition and to 
provide opportunities for performance of 
contemporary works. To this end, annual 
Festivals of Contemporary Music are held, 
at which works are performed which 
have been selected by an international 
jury. See III, 3. 

4. League of Composers. An organi- 
zation (founded in 1923) for promoting 
modern music through the performance 
and commissioning of new works, and 
through its official organ Modern Music, 
The League was for a number of years 
primarily a New York organization; 
more recently other chapters have been 
founded in various sections of the coun- 
try. 

5. M.E^N.C. (Music Educators Na- 
tional Conference). This organization 
began in 1907 as the Music Supervisors 
National Conference. The present name 
was adopted in 1936. Its purpose is to 
foster cooperation among public school 
teachers, especially supervisors, with a 
view to raising standards of music in the 
schools, and to securing a better place for 
music in the curriculum of the schools. 
Much has been accomplished by the or- 
ganization in the way of developing 
bands, orchestras, and choruses, and in 
promoting instrumental instruction in the 
public schools. 

6. M.T.N.A. (Music Teachers* Na- 
tional Association). An organization 
(founded in 1876) interested primarily 
in the practical problems of musical edu- 
cation. The chief activity of the M.T. 
N.A. is its annual convention, at which 
papers are read and discussions carried 
on by educators from all sections of the 


[ 686 ] 



SOCIETIES 

country and from all branches of mu- 
sic education. A volume of Proceedings 
is published annually, containing re- 
prints of the papers read at the conven- 
tions. 

7. N.A.S.M. (National Association of 
Schools of Music). An organization of 
professional music schools the aim of 
which is to unify the curriculum, main- 
tain the standards, and serve as an ac- 
crediting organization for music schools. 
Annual meetings are held in conjunction 
with the M.T.N.A. [see 6]. Much of the 
credit for the N.A.S.M.^s development 
belongs to Howard Hanson, its present 
president. 

II. Europe, i. Allgemeiner Deutscher 
Musikverein. Founded r86i by Franz 
Liszt and Franz Brendel, having as its 
purposes: (i) the furthering in a pro- 
gressive sense of musical life in Germany; 

(2) to look after the interests of the pro- 
fessional musicians and composers; (3) 
to support needy composers and their 
survivors. The Society has given over 60 
festivals (Tonkiinstlerfeste) in various 
cities of Germany. 

2. Bach-Gesellschaft. A German so- 
ciety founded in 1850 (the centenary of 
Bach’s death) with the object of publish- 
ing a complete critical edition of Bach’s 
works. This edition, which includes 46 
volumes, is referred to by the abbrevi- 
ation B.-G. The society was dissolved in 
1900, after the last volume had been is- 
sued. Simultaneously, a “Neue Bach- 
Gesellschaft” was founded to carry on the 
work of completing the original edition 
by publishing corrected revisions and 
practical scores. Since 1904 this society 
has issued an annual Bach-]ahrbuch con- 
taining articles on Bach and related sub- 
jects. Sec *Bach-Gesellschaft. 

3. British Music Society. Founded in 
1918 by Dr. Eaglcfield-Hull, reorganized 
in 1921. The object of the Society is the 
furthering of the interests of musicians 
throughout Great Britain. Primarily it 
is an organizing and educative, not a 
concert-giving, institution. It has more 
than 50 centers with over 3500 members 
and an even greater number of associates. 

The Society is the British section of the 

[687] 


SCX:iETIES 

International Society for Contemporary 
Music [see III, 3]. 

4. Gesellschaft dcr Musikfrcundc. The 

oldest and most important musical so- 
ciety of Austria (Vienna), founded 1813, 
largely through the efforts of Joseph von 
Sonnleithner. It has been active in vari- 
ous directions: (a) Conservatory, founded 
1817, director Salieri; (b) Sing- 

verein, an amateur choral society of out- 
standing rank, founded 1859; (c) Gesell- 
schaftsorchester (today Orchester Verein), 
an orchestral society, first amateur, later 
professional, founded in 1859, first con- 
ductor Hellmesberger, present conductor 
Furtwangler; (d) Music library, founded 
1819 [see ’’^Libraries C, Vienna]; (e) 
Museum, containing autographs, letters, 
pictures, musical instruments (Haydn’s 
piano), and musical curios (Beethoven’s 
car trumpets). 

5. Incorporated Society of Musicians. 
An English society founded in 1882 by 
James Dawber and Dr. Henry Hiles for 
the furtherance of the following objects: 
(i) the union of the musical profession 
in a representative Society; (2) the pro- 
vision of opportunities for discussion; (3) 
the improvement of musical education; 

(4) the organization of musicians; and 

(5) the obtaining of legal recognition of 
qualified teachers of music. Meetings arc 
held periodically in several sections and 
an annual conference is held in one of the 
large cities. The Society, which has a 
membership of 3800 professional musi- 
cians, is generally recognized and con- 
sulted by Government Departments. 

6. Maatschappij tot Bevordering dcr 
Toonkunst. The largest musical society 
in Holland, founded in 1829 and located 
in Amsterdam. It includes more than 40 
branches with over 8000 members which 
arc mainly active in choral singing. The 
choir of the Amsterdam Toonkunst, con- 
ducted by Mengelberg, is particularly 
well known. The Society has also been 
active in the editing of old music [see 
♦Editions XXIX]. 

7. Societe dcs Concerts du Conserva- 
toire. Founded by Habcncck in Paris, 
probably 1792, for the purpose of giving 
concerts [sec *Concert II]. It was defi- 



SOGGETTO CAVATO 


SOCIETIES 

nitely established in 1828 and has, from 
then, continued to the present day to give 
concerts with conservative programs. 

8. Societd Nationale de Musique. 
Founded in Paris, 1871, by Romaine Bas- 
sine and Saint-Saens, for the purpose of 
giving performances of living French 
composers. At the first concert a trio by 
Cesar Franck was performed. 

III. International, i. Internationale 
Gesellschaft fiir Musikwissenschaft (In- 
ternational Society for Musical Research). 
A society founded in 1927 to further 
musicological activities, in place of the 
former Internationale Musikgesellschaft 
[see III, 2]. The headquarters are at 
Basle. Congresses are arranged every few 
years [see under III, 2] and a periodical, 
Acta Musicologica (AM)y has been pub- 
lished since 1930. 

2. Internationale Musikgesellschaft 
(International Musical Society). A soci- 
ety founded in 1899 by O. Fleischer which 
had for its object a federation of the mu- 
sicians and musical connoisseurs of all 
countries, and which has been instrumen- 
tal mainly in the furthering of musicologi- 
cal research. It issued: a monthly periodi- 
cal, Zeitschrift der Internationalen Mu- 
sil^gesellschaft {Z 1 M\ see ^Periodicals 
VII); a quarterly magazine, Sammel- 
hande der Internationalen Musil{gesell- 
schaft (SIM) for larger articles; and book 
publications issued under the collective 
title Beihejte der Internationalen Musi\- 
gesellschajt. Congresses were held in 
1904 (Leipzig), 1906 (Basle), 1909 (Vi- 
enna), 1911 (I^ndon), and 1914 (Paris), 
and reports were published under titles 
such as Kongress der Internationalen 
Musi\gesellschajt (KIM; see p. viii). The 
Society ceased to exist in September, 1914. 

3. International Society for Contempo- 
rary Music, founded at Salzburg in 1922, 
with headquarters in London since 1923 
(president, E. Dent). The object is the 
furthering of contemporary music. See 
under ^Festivals III. National societies 
were formed in various countries; see I, 
3 and II, 3. 

See also *Accademia; * Academy; 
•Apollo Club; •Mannergesang verein; 
•Orpheon; •Singakademie. For more 


complete and more detailed information 
regarding the American societies sec 
Pierre Key’s Music Year Boo\; regarding 
the others, sec A. Einstein, Das neue Mu- 
sihJexiXpn (1926), article “Vereine,” and 
RiML^ 192011. E. B. H. 

Soggetto [It.]. Subject or theme. In 
18th-century theory the term is used in a 
more special sense to denote a fugal theme 
of a more or less orthodox character 
(somewhat similar to the subjects of the 
16th-century •ricercar), as distinguished 



I. Soggetto. 2. Andamento 

from andamento, which is a longer theme, 
usually falling into two phrases, and from 
the attacco which is a short motive such 
as are used in motets or in the episodal 
sections of fugues. The subjects of the 
fugues in C-sharp minor and in G major 
from Wt, Cl, i may serve to illustrate the 
difference between a soggetto and an an- 
damento, Sec •Tonal and real. 

Soggetto cavato [from It. cavare, to 
hollow out; see *Cavata]. According to 
16th-century theory [Zarlino, Istituzioni 
harmoniche (1588)] a musical subject 
which is derived by “carving out” vowels 
from a literary sentence and by trans- 
forming these vowels into a melody by 
means of the solmization syllables of the 
Guidonian hexachord. An example is fur- 
nished by Josquin’s Mass, WexeuXes T>u\ 
Vexxaxie (dedicated to Hercules, Duke of 
Ferrara), the main subject of which is: 
c-u-e-u-e-a-i-e or, in corresponding 
solmization syllables: re— ut-re-ut-re-fa— 
mi-re, or, in modern notes: d-c— d-c— d- 
f-e-d. Another example is the motto 
“Vive le roi” (V = u, i.e., ut) the musical 
realization of which (ut-mi-ut-re-re- 
sol-mi, i.e., c-e-c-d-d-g-e) is the tenor 
of an instrumental piece by Josquin which 
was written for a festive occasion, pos- 
sibly for Louis XII’s ascendancy to the 
throne of France, in 1498 [cf. SchGMB^ 


[ 688 ] 




SOGITHA 


SOLFfiGE 


62]. See ♦Mass B, II (b). Cf. A. Thiir- 
lings, in KIM^ 1906, p. 183. 

Sogitha. See under ♦Syrian music. 

Sol (soh). Sec *Pitch names; ♦Solmi- 
zation. 

Solea. An Andalusian type of folk song, 
with stanzas of three 8-sy liable lines, the 
first and third in rhyme. For an example 
cf. LavE i.4, 2394. 

Solemn Mass. See *Missa solemnis. 

Solennel [F.]. Solemn. 

Solesmes. The Benedictine monks of 
Solesmcs (a village near Le Mans in 
France) have become famous through 
their activity on behalf of the restoration 
of Gregorian chant. Their main achieve- 
ments are two: First, the edition of a cor- 
rect text of Gregorian chant at its high- 
point of development (9th, loth centu- 
ries), This edition was officially adopted 
in 1904 under the name Editio Vaticana^ 
to supplant the corrupt versions of the 
Editio Medicea (i6th century) and the 
similar Ratisbon Edition of the late 19th 
century [see ♦Liturgical books II]. Sec- 
ond, the first serious attempt toward a 
solution of the problem of the rhythm of 
Gregorian chant. The Solesmes interpre- 
tation of Gregorian rhythm has won wide 
acclaim and was recognized officially by 
Pope Leo XII; however, it has also met 
with serious criticism on the part of vari- 
ous musicologists [see *Gregorian chant 
VI]. The leading personalities in the mu- 
sical activities of the Solesmes Benedic- 
tines were Dom Gueranger (1805-75), 
Dom Pothier (1835-1923), and Dom 
Mocquereau (1849-1930), who inaugu- 
rated the publication of early neumatic 
MSS, called ?aUo graphic Musicale [see 
♦Editions XXIII] and who was also the 
chief champion of the Solesmes theory of 
Gregorian rhythm {Le Nombre musical 
grSgorien ou rhythmique grSgoriennCy 
1908). The present leader is Dom Gajard. 
A periodical, Revue grSgoriennCy is pub- 
lished bi-monthly^ 

Lit.: N. Rousseau, UEcole grSgorienne 
de Solesmes 1833-1910; C. Bellaiguc, “A 


I’abbaye de Solesmes” {Revue des Deux 
Mondes, Nov. 15, 1898). 

Sol-fa. See ♦Tonic sol-fa. 

Solfege [F.], solfeggio [It.], (i) 
Vocal exercises sung to a vowel or to the 
syllables of *solmization: ut (do), re, 
mi ... , these being used instead of a 
text. The latter method, which was the 
original one, combines the purpose of ac- 
quiring vocal technique with one of ele- 
mentary instruction [see (2)] since the 
student is supposed to recognize the notes 
and intervals, a requirement which is of 
basic importance, particularly from the 
point of view of ♦sight-reading. Vocal 
exercises sung to a vowel, a, o, u . . . , 
are properly called vocalises [F.], voca- 
lizzi [It.], but the name solfeggio also has 
become more common for this type, 
which includes virtuoso exercises of the 
greatest difficulty and frequently involves 
passages much too rapid to be “sol-fa”- 
ed. 

Vocal exercises without text occur in 
great number throughout the 17th cen- 
tury under the name “ricercari” [see 
♦Ricercar II]. In 1786 a volume Soljeges 
d'ltalie was published in Paris which con- 
tained exercises by Scarlatti, Porpora, 
Caflaro, and others, to be treated either as 
solfeggi or vocalizzi. A famous collec- 
tion is the Solfhges du Conservatoire ^ 
which contains contributions by Cheru- 
bini and other professors of the Paris 
Conservatoire. An outstanding collection 
of recent date is the Repertoire moderne 
de vocalises-Studes which includes contri- 
butions by Faur 4 d’Indy, Ravel, and 
others. 

(2) The term has been adopted to de- 
note instruction in the rudiments of 
music, i.e., the study of intervals, rhythm, 
clefs, signatures, etc. Extensive courses 
in “Solfege,” sometimes covering four 
years of study, were first introduced in 
France and Belgium and have been 
adopted recently by some American in- 
stitutions. Cf. R. Longy-Miquelle, Prin- 
ciples of Musical Theory (1925); A. Dan- 
hauser, ThSorie de la musique (1872 and 
many later editions). 


[689] 



SOLMIZATION 


SOLFEGGIETTO 

Solfeggietto [It.]. Title used by some 
composers (C. P. E. Bach) in the mean- 
ing of “litdc study.” 

Sollecitando [It.]. Hastening, for- 
ward. 

Solmization (from sol-mi). I. General 
term for systems of designating the de- 
grees of the scale, not by letters, but by 
syllables. The syllables mostly used today 
are: do (or doh), re^ mi^ fa, sol, la, si (//). 
There are two current methods of apply- 
ing these syllables to the scale degrees, 
known as “fixed do” and “movable do.” 
In the former, the syllables are applied 
to “fixed” notes, i.e., to those of the C 
major scale (do = C; re = D; etc.). In 
the latter, they are applicable to any major 
scale, so that do, re, mi, etc., denote tonic, 
supertonic, mediant, etc. (e.g., in D 
major: D, E, Ft, etc.). The former sys- 
tem is, of course, essentially identical 
with the current system of tone letters, 
as there is an exact and unchangeable 
correspondence between the letters (C, 
D, E . . .) and the sylables (do, re, 
mi, . . .). The syllables have, however, 
certain advantages, chiefly that they lend 
themselves better for singing purposes 
[see *Solfege] and that they have more 
“individuality.” They are used chiefly in 
France and Italy. The movable syllables 
arc of a much wider application and can 
be used with great advantage in element- 
ary studies, such as scales, different clefs, 
intervals, simple modulations, etc. A 
modern system of “movable do” is the 
*Tonic-sol-fa. This is widely used in Eng- 
land. See ^Sight-reading. 

II. The use of syllables for the designa- 
tion of tones is very old. The Chinese 
had such a system and tone-syllables are 
still used in *Hindu music. The ancient 
Greeks employed the syllables tah, td, toh, 
teh (ra, rr), to), tc) for the tones of the 
descending tetrachord (e.g., a, g, f, e). 
It is probably from similar syllables (va, 
VT), v(o, vc) that the Byzantine enechemata 
[sec *Echos] and the *Noeane of West- 
ern medieval theory were derived. The 
inventor of the modern system of solmi- 
zation was Guido of Arezzo (980-1050) 
who used the syllables ut re mi fa sol la as 


movable names, to be used with the hexa- 
chord on G (G A B-c d c), on c (c d e-f 
g a), and on f (f g a- bb c d; the hyphen 
indicates the semitone *mi-fa); for more 
details on this system sec *Hcxachord. 
The name solmization [L. solmisatio\ is 
derived from the combination sol-mi 
which, however, denotes, not g-e, but 
g-a, the syllable mi (i.e., a) being under- 
stood as belonging to the hexachord on f. 
Thus, it denotes, properly speaking, not 
so much the Guidonian syllables as such, 
but the concomitant principle of muta- 
tion (change from one hexachord into 
another). It is interesting to note that 
the Guidonian syllables were also used 
as the basis of a “fixed do” terminology, 
that is, in the compound terms C-fa-ut, 
D-sol-^e, etc. [see *Hexachord]. 

III. Guido’s system remained unal- 
tered until the end of the i6th century 
when the more and more extended use of 
chromatic tones and transposed keys ren- 
dered it more and more unsuitable. 
About 1600, French musicians began to 
use the Guidonian syllables in a fixed 
position, ut for C, etc. In order to com- 
plete the octave, the syllable si (probably 
derived from the last words S-ancte 
I-oannes of Guido’s hymn) was intro- 
duced, and around 1650 the rather unsing- 
able syllabic ut was replaced by do (Otto 
Gibelius, Seminarium modulatoriae vo- 
cahs, 1645; cf. RiML, 2097). Simultane- 
ously, various attempts were made to in- 
troduce new systems, e.g., the voces 
belgicae^ of Hubert Waclrant (1517-- 
95): bo ce di ga lo ma ni (known as 
“Bocedization”), or Daniel Hitzler’s 
(1576-1635) “Bebezation” la be ce de me 
fe ge, or Heinrich Graun’s (1701-59) 
“Damenization” da mi ni po tu la be — 
all ephemeral attempts which are occa- 
sionally classified as “Bobizations.” In the 
United States a simplified system of sol- 
mization, known as *Fasola, was widely 
used during the i8th century. More re- 
cently, attempts at reform have been 
made in England and in Germany, with 
the idea of making the solmization syl- 
lables more useful for the purpose of ele- 
mentary instruction and of sight-singing 
[sec *Tonic Sol-fa; *Tonika Do;. for two 


[690] 



SOLO 


SONATA 


other German systems, Tonwort and 
Zale^ cf. MoMLy 199 and 534]. 

Lit.: G. Lange, “Zur Geschichte der 
Solmisation” {SIM i); F. Ring, ‘‘Zur 
altgriechischen Solmisations-lehre” (AMF 
iii); Ch. E. Ruelle, “La Solmisation chez 
les anciens Grecs” (SIM ix); H. Muller, 
“Solmisations-silben in der Medicaischen 
Choralausgabe” {AMW i); RiHM i.2, 
167-187. 

Solo [It., alone], (i) Designation for 
pieces executed by one performer, either 
alone (piano solo; violin solo, e.g,, Bach’s 
Sonatas for violin solo), or with accom- 
paniment of the piano, organ, orchestra, 
etc. — (2) In orchestral scores the term is 
used for passages which are intended to 
stand out in relief. — (3) In concertos, 
designation for the soloist, in distinction 
from the orchestra (tutti). — (4) In the 
early concerto (Bach, Handel) the term 
is also used in the orchestral parts for pas- 
sages which are to be played “senza ripi- 
eni” [see ^Ripienij. See also ^Ensemble. 

Solo organ. See *Organ III. 

Solo pitch. A pitch slightly higher than 
normal; it is used occasionally in order 
to obtain greater brilliancy of tone. 

Solovox. See ^Electronic musical in- 
struments I. 

Soltanto [It.]. Solely, only. 

Sommesso [It.]. Subdued. 

Sonante [It.]. Sounding, resonant.' 

Sonata [from It. suonarcy to soun 5 ]. 

A. General, The term sonata, in its pres- 
ent-day meaning, denotes an instrumen- 
tal composition for piano (piano sonata), 
or for violin, cello, etc., with piano accom- 
paniment (violin sonata, cello sonata), 
which consists of three or four independ- 
ent pieces, called movements, each of 
which follows certain standards of char- 
acter and form, to be explained subse- 
quently. It must be noted, however, that 
practically all the features of the sonata 
are also found in certain other types of 
instrumental music, namely, the sym- 
phony, the various species of chamber 

[691] 


music (quartet, trio, quintet, etc.), and, 
with certain modifications, the concerto. 
The difference lies only in the perform- 
ing bodies, the symphony being a “so- 
nata” for orchestra, the quartet a “so- 
nata” for four strings, the concerto a 
“sonata” for a soloist plus orchestra, etc. 
From this it appears that the sonata is by 
far the most important form of 19th- 
century music, since it includes practi- 
cally all the great master works of the 
present-day concert repertory, from 
Haydn and Mozart to Brahms, Bruckner 
and more recent composers. 

The normal scheme for the movements 
of a sonata (symphony, etc.) is: Allegro, 
Adagio, Scherzo (or Minuet), Allegro. 
While the terms Allegro (Allegro mol to. 
Presto) and Adagio (Largo, Lento) 
merely mean “quick,” “slow,” the term 
Scherzo or Minuet has a specific impli- 
cation, namely that of a dance-like char- 
acter. This movement is sometimes miss- 
ing, particularly in the sonatas of Mozart 
and in most of the concertos. Symphonies 
frequently open with a slow Introduction. 
The above scheme is observed in the great 
majority of sonatas (symphonies, etc.). 
Notable exceptions are Beethoven’s Moon- 
light Sonata (deliberately designated by 
Beethoven as Sonata quasi una fantasia) 
which consists of Adagio, Scherzo, Presto; 
his op. Ill, consisting of Introduction, 
Allegro, Adagio; and Liszt’s Sonata in 
B minor, consisting of one movement 
with contrasting sections. 

Not only the sonata as a whole, but its 
single movements also are subject to cer- 
tain principles of form which are usually 
adhered to by composers — more strictly, 
needless to say, by Mozart and Beethoven 
than by Cesar Franck or Hindemith. The 
first movement (Allegro) is practically 
always in what is somewhat mislead- 
ingly called “*sonata-form”; the second 
(Adagio) is usually in sonata-form or in 
♦ternary form, but may also be in ♦binary 
form or in variation form; the third move- 
ment is normally in the ternary form 
Scherzo-Trio-Scherzo [sec ♦Scherzo]; 
the last movement (Allegro, Presto) is in 
sonata-form or ♦rondo-form (occasionally 
variation form). The fact that, certain 



SONATA 


SONATA 

exceptions notwithstanding, the above lished. These can be characterized as one- 

scheme is rather striedy adhered to in all movement pieces which fall into a num- 

sonatas, symphonies, quartets, written ber (from five to ten or more) of short 

between 1780 and 1880 is the strongest sections (approximately from four to 

possible argument against recent trends twenty or more measures each) in con- 

to minimize the importance of form in trasting styles, frequently alternating 

music [sec *Forms, Musical]. from slow sections in homophonic style 

B. History. I. Until 1650. The history to fast sections in fugal style, the latter 
of the sonata as a musical type is not usually more extended than the former, 
identical with the history of the term so- A frequent feature of these pieces is the 

nata. The latter means “sound-piece” reiteration of thematic material in dif- 

and is frequently contrasted with toccata ferent sections, a procedure which antici- 
(touch-piece) and cantata (sing-piece) as pates the ^cyclical treatment of the late 
denoting instrumental music in contrast 19th century [cf., e.g., Viadana’s Canzon 
to keyboard music and vocal music. For francese (1602) in H. Riemann, Old 
over 100 years (r. 1530-1650) it was ap- Chamber Music (OCM) i]. Around 
plied to all sorts of instrumental music, 1635 there begins a tendency to decrease 
until it came to denote something deft- the number of sections and, as a recom- 
nitc. Luis Milan, in his lute book El pense, to enlarge their extension. An 
Maestro (1535), mentions “villancicos y early example is Tarquinio Merula's 
sonadas,” the latter being instrumental canzona La Gallina which falls into three 
pieces such as dances (pavanes) or fan- distinct movements, the first and the last 
tasias. Giovanni Gabrieli’s well-known based on the same theme [cf. OCM iii]. 
Sonata pian'e forte [HAMy no. 173] is Other composers to be mentioned in this 
another piece which has a merely nominal connection are Salomone Rossi, Biagio 
connection with the sonata as we under- Marini, Carlo Fontana, Massimiliano 
stand it. It seems to be more closely re- Neri, Gio. Batt. Buonamente, all of whom 
lated to the “sonatas” of the field trum- published between 1625 and 1650 [Ex. 
peters and of other brass ensembles, such in RiMBy nos. 98, 99; Wasielewski, 'fin- 
as the German *Turmsonaten or the Eng- strumentalsdtze; ^Editions II, 7]. It is 
lish •sennets. interesting to note that, outside of Italy, 

The sonata proper can be traced back the canzona with its somewhat loosely de- 
to the French chanson of the early i6th fined aggregation of numerous sections 
century [see *Chanson (3)], a type of in an essentially polyphonic style per- 
vocal polyphonic music which is distin- sisted until the end of the 17th century, 
guished from the contemporary motet. Examples are the sonatas by Purcell 
among ethers, by its clearer sectional (1683, ’97) in which the fugal movements 
structure, frequently involving repetition are labeled “canzona,” and Buxtehude’s 
schemes such as AAB, ABB, etc. In sonatas op. i (1696; cf. DdT ii), the 
Italy, this vocal form was transferred, sixth of which falls into 13 sections, alter- 
around 1540, to the organ and, around nately slow and quick [cf. also the Sym- 
1580, to instrumental ensembles and was phonies by Pez, in DTB 
called here canzona d'organo and can- II. 1650-1730. After 1650 there de- 
zona da sonare respectively [see •Can- velops, chiefly in Venice under Legrenzi 
zona (5)]. The latter type must be con- (1626-90), a certain standard structure 
sidered as the real ancestor of the sonata, consisting of two fugal allegro movements 
Between 1600 and 1650 an enormous at the beginning and the end, frequently 
number of instrumental ensemble pieces, with identical or related thematic mate- 
entitled Canzoncy Canzone da sonary So- rial, and a homophonic movement in 
nate (the simplified term Sonate appears dance-like triple meter in the middle, a 
first in publications by Giov. Croce, 1580; three-part scheme which is usually cn- 
Andrea Gabrieli, 1586; and Cesario Gus- larged to four or five movements by the 
sago, 1608), Sinfonie, etc., were pub- insertion of shorter adagios before or/ 

[692] 



SONATA 

and after the slow movement. A piece 
such as Legrenzi’s Sonata “La Valva- 
sona” of 1655 {OCM iv), with its four 
movements, Allegro-Adagio-Allegretto 
scherzando- Allegro (the inscriptions are 
not original), comes surprisingly close to 
the form of the classical sonata [for an- 
other example cf. RiMB^ no. 102]. Need- 
less to say, there is no historical connec- 
tion between this “Venetian sonata” and 
the Viennese classical form. The “sym- 
metrical” construction of this sonata type 
is even more conspicuous in many sonatas 
by the Bolognese [see ^Bologna school] 
Gio. Batt. Vitali ( 1644-92), written in five 
movements: AJlegro-Adagio-Scherzo- 

Adagio- Allegro (the term “scherzo” is 
adopted here for the sake of short refer- 
ence); cf. his Sonata from 1667 in OCM 
iv. Vitali’s compatriot Gius. Torelli (c. 
1650—1702) introduced, in his Sinfonie a 
2, j, 4 istromenti (1687), a novel form in 
four movements, Adagio-Allegro-Ada- 
gio-Allegro, a form which, under the 
name sonata da chiesa^ was adopted by 
all the later composers, notably Arcangelo 
Corelli (1653-1713) in his 24 Sonate da 
chiesa a tre (1683, ’89). A sonata by Tom- 
maso Vitali {c, 1665-1750) of 1693 [re- 
produced in SchGMBy no. 241], written 
in this form, still shows the “archaic” cyc- 
lical treatment of the first and last move- 
ment. It should be noted that Corelli's 
second “adagio” retains the triple meter 
and the homophonic style of the central 
“scherzo” of the earlier type, but usually 
in a slower speed, adopting the character 
of a sarabande. The final movement also 
shows dance-like rhythm, in the character 
of a gigue, minuet, gavotte, etc. This ob- 
servation is important because it serves to 
correct the current distinction between 
the sonata da chiesa (church sonata) and 
the sonata da camera (chamber sonata; 
see under *Suite IV) on the basis of the 
absence or presence of dance-like move- 
ments. It is only in the later examples of 
the sonata da chiesa that the dance char- 
acter of the last two movements tends to 
disappear. Numerous examples of the 
pure chiesa-type, i.e., sonatas in four 
idealized movements, slow-fast-slow- 
fast, occur in the works of non-Italian 


SONATA 

composers, such as Bach, Handel, Jean- 
Marie Leclair (1697-1764; see ^Editions 
XXVI, 27), while the Italian composers 
of this generation frequently preferred 
enlarged or shortened schemes. E.g., the 
violin sonatas by Veracini (1685-1750) 
have from five to eight movements [see 
^Editions VI, 34] , those of Tartini ( 1692- 
1770) usually three: slow-fast-very fast 
[see ^Editions VI, 32], those of Locatelli 
always three: andante-allegro-minuet 
(or aria con variazioni). 

According to medium the repertory of 
the Baroque sonata falls into four cate- 
gories: those written in one part, in two 
parts {a due), in three parts {a tre), and 
in four or more parts. The most famous 
examples of the first category are Bach’s 
Sonatas for violin solo and for cello solo 
[for earlier compositions of this type see 
’^^Violin music; * Violoncello]. The “so- 
natas a due” usually call for three per- 
formers, one for the melody part (mostly 
violin) and two for the realization of the 
thorough-bass part [see *Thorough-bass]. 
This type, usually referred to as “violin 
sonata” (sometimes, somewhat mislead- 
ingly, as “solo violin sonata”), was culti- 
vated as early as 1617 by Marini (Affetti 
musicali) in a strikingly virtuoso style 
employing trills, rapid runs, double-stops, 
etc. [cf. SchGMB, 183; RiHM ii.2, 96]. 
The virtuoso element is even more promi- 
nent in the sonatas of the Germans Joh. 
H. Schmelzer (1623-80) and Franz H. 
Biber (1644-1704; cf. SchGMB, no. 238). 
The “sonata a tre” or trio sonata, the most 
important type of all, was executed by 
one, two, or four performers, practically 
never by three [see *Trio sonata], while 
the “sonata a quatro” or “a cinque,” culti- 
vated mainly in the 1650-80 period, prob- 
ably was for small orchestral ensemble 
[see *SinfonIa (3)]. Johann Jakob 
Kuhnau (1660-1722) was the first to 
write sonatas (da chiesa) for the harpsi- 
chord alone, in his Klavierubung ii and 
Frische Klavierfriichte (both 1692). 

III. 1730-80. The emergence of the 
“Viennese classical sonata” of Haydn, 
Mozart, and Beethoven is one of the most 
difficult chapters of music history and^ 
in fact, one of the least explored. This 



SONATA 


SONATA 


surprising fact is due, not so much to lack 
of material or to negligence on the part 
of scholars, but mainly to the exceptional 
complexity of the phenomenon. The 
change from the Baroque sonata to the 
classical sonata involves much more than 
the change from a four-movement scheme 
Adagio-Allegro-Adagio-Allegro to a 
three-movement scheme Allegro-Adagio- 
Allegro or another four-movement scheme 
Allegro-Adagio-Scherzo-Allegro. It in- 
volves also, and chiefly, changes of style 
and of formal structure of the single 
movements. Furthermore, the repertory 
now becomes divided into the three spe- 
cies of soloist sonata (piano sonata), 
chamber sonata (quartet), and orchestral 
sonata (symphony), each of which fol- 
lows a separate line of development, 
though within the same general frame. 
It is clearly impossible to describe this 
complex phenomenon within the limita- 
tions of a reference book, all the more 
since, in spite of numerous special studies, 
no comprehensive survey has as yet been 
made. Only the briefest outlines can be 
given and these, for the sake of clarity, 
under three points of view: (a) form-at- 
large; (b) form of the single movement; 
(c) style. 

(a) Form^at-large. The three-move- 
ment form Allegro-Adagio-Allegro orig- 
inated with the Italian overture of Ales- 
sandro Scarlatti [see ^Overture I]. An- 
tonio Vivaldi (c, 1680-1743) established 
it as the standard form of the concerto 
[see ^Concerto III (b)] for which it has 
been retained to the present day, without 
the addition of a minuet or scherzo. Bach 
employed this form not only for his Bran- 
denburg Concerti and his well-known 
Italian Concerto, but also for his six organ 
sonatas, probably the first sonatas written 
in this form (although, of course, in the 
striedy contrapuntal style of the Ba- 
roque). The Italian composers of harpsi- 
chord sonatas (Sammartini, 1701-75; 
Galuppi, 1706-85; Paradisi, 1710-92; Ru- 
tini, 1730-97; see ^Editions VI) reduced 
the sonata to three or, frequently, two 
movements (Sammartini, op. 7: allegro- 
minuet) — not to mention the one-move- 
ment “sonatas” of Domenico Scarlatti 


(1685-1757). It will suffice to mention 
schemes such as Andantino — Allegro - 
Presto; Larghetto — Allegro - Minuetto; 
Allegro - Minuetto [cf. the *Haffner col- 
lection] in order to illustrate the situation 
in the period from c, 1730 to 1760. Hay- 
dn’s (1732-1809) early sonatas still be- 
long to this loose type. The introduction 
of the four-movement scheme Allegro - 
Adagio — Minuet — Allegro must be cred- 
ited to the founder of the ’"‘Mannheim 
School, Johann Stamitz (1717-57), vvho 
used it in all his symphonies and chamber 
pieces as did also most of his successors, 
Anton Filtz, Anton Stamitz, Ignaz Holz- 
bauer, and others [cf. DTB 3.i; y.ii; 8.ii; 
15; 16]. Practically all the symphonies 
and quartets by Haydn and Mozart are 
in four movements, while their sonatas 
are in three movements only. With Bee- 
thoven, the four-movement scheme be- 
came the standard type for all the cate- 
gories of the sonata, and the minuet was 
replaced by the ^scherzo. 

(b) Form of the single movements, in 
the Rococo sonatas of the mid- 1 8th cen- 
tury (Sammartini, Rutini) practically all 
the movements — except, of course, the 
minuets — are in binary form A B, with 
both sections repeated. The development 
leading from this form to the sonata-form 
of the first movement is described under 
*sonata-form. The development of the 
other movements has been little investi- 
gated. Suffice it to mention that in the 
♦Haffner collection of c. 1760 there is one 
example of ternary form for a slow move- 
ment (Sonata 8 by Paradies, Aria) and 
one example of *rondo-form (Sonata 16 
by Serini). The slow movements in the 
sonatas of C. P. E. Bach are usually in a 
free form, sometimes involving elements 
of ternary construction. Haydn seems to 
have been the first to make frequent use 
of the rondo form for the final movement. 

(c) Style. The development of style is, 
of course, even more difficult to describe 
than that of form. The tendency away 
from the contrapuntal texture of the 
Baroque sonata towards a homophonic 
texture already appears in the final move- 
ments of Corelli’s sonatas. This tendency 
was supported by the brilliant and rhyth- 


[694] 



SONATA 


SONATA 

mically incisive style of Vivaldi as well as to note that, except for the last eight so- 
by the facile melody-style of the Rococo natas (opp. 79, 81, 90, loi, 106, 109, no, 
composers [see ^Gallant style] which, in m), these sonatas were all composed 
turn, was largely derived from operatic from 1795 to 1805. Beethoven’s successor 
models. The change towards a more dra- in the field of the piano sonata was Franz 
matic manner of writing is usually cred- Schubert. The general neglect of his so- 
ited to the Mannheim School, although natas is just as deplorable and unpardon- 
Italian composers (particularly Sammar- able as is that of Bruckner’s symphonies, 
tini, 1701-75) worked in the same direc- Schumann’s sonatas demonstrate, in gen- 
tion [see ^Mannheim School]. C. P. E. eral, the incapacity of this composer to 
Bach cultivated a highly expressive style master the large forms, while Chopin’s 
[see ^Empfindsamer Stil] which exer- two sonatas in B-flat minor and in B mi- 
cised considerable influence on the young nor, together with Liszt’s B Minor Sonata, 
Haydn, while his younger brother Johann are the outstanding examples of the Ro- 
Christian Bach represents the link be- mantic sonata, a category to which Mo- 
tween the Italian gallant style and Mo- scheles’ Sonate Melancolique may be 
zart. Muzio dementi’s sonatas antici- added. Brahms’s three piano sonatas, opp. 
pate many of the dramatic elements of the i, 2, and 5, stand out among the small 
Beethoven sonatas. number of important piano sonatas writ- 

IV. 1780-Present. The Viennese clas- ten after 1850. The noval trends of the 
sical sonata, as represented by the piano early 20th century [see *New music] 
sonatas, quartets, and symphonies of evoked a distinct aversion against the so- 
Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, forms nata as a typical representative of the 19th- 
a climax of the whole development known century tradition. Some composers such 
to every music lover. In referring the as Busoni and Ravel took refuge in the 
reader to the articles on ^String quartet less pretentious type of the ^sonatina, 
and ^Symphony we restrict ourselves to but it was not until after the emerging 
a general outline of the development of of *neo-classicism (around 1920) that 
the sonata, mainly for pianoforte. Stravinsky and Hindemith turned again 

Although the sonatas by Mozart, piano to the form of the sonata. Particularly 
as well as violin, are the earliest nornially the latter’s three piano sonatas would 
considered by the amateurs, students, and seem to open a period of new life for 
virtuosos of these instruments, the piano this form with its imposing history of 
sonatas by C. P. E. Bach and those by 300 years. 

Haydn may be expressly mentioned here Lit.: General: W. H. Hadow, Sonata 
because they represent an artistic treasure Form (190-); J. S. Shedlock, The Piano- 
of great significance, many of them being forte Sonata (1895); O. Klauwell, Ge- 
definitely superior to some of the early schichte der Sonate (1899); B. Selva, La 
Mozart sonatas. In his late sonatas, how- Sonate . . . (1913); R. Refoute, La Sonate 
ever, written after 1780, Mozart reached de piano {1^22) , — To I and ILf.'W .von. 
a beauty and truthfulness of expression Wasielewski, Die Violine im ly. Jahr- 
as well as a balance of form which make hundert und die Anfdnge der Instrument 
these compositions unsurpassed master- talcomposition (1874); /W., ^Instrumen- 
works. It may be remarked that there is talsdtze vom Ende des 16. bis zum Ende 
no. justification for connecting his C mi- des 77. Jahrhunderts (1874, 1905); A. 
nor Fantasy K.V. 475 with the C minor Schlossberg, Die Italienische Sonate . . . 
Sonata K.V. 457. Beethoven’s 32 sonatas im ly. fahrhundert (Diss. Heidelberg 
(to which four early sonatas, composed ^ Die deutsche Sonate 

in Bonn, must be added) are conspicuous fur mehrere Instrumente (1930); G. 
and famous, above all, for the unique in- Beckmann, Violinspiel in Deutschland 
dividuality which makes each of them a vor lyoo (1918); D. Iselin, Biagio Marini 
work in its own right, rather than a rep- (Diss. Basle 1930); E. Kuri, “Die Trio- 
resentative of a species. It is interesting sonate ... bis Haydn” {Zeitschrift fiir 

[695] 



SONATA-FORM 


SONATA-FORM 


Hausmusi\ iii, p. 37); A. Schering, “Zur arc discernible. It is probably correct to 
Geschichtc der Solo Sonata . . {Rle- say that 80 per cent of all the movements 
mann Festschrifty 1909); S. Clercx, found in the sonatas, symphonies, quar- 

hann Kuhnau et la sonate” (RdM xv). tets, concertos, trios, etc., from 1780 to the 
— To III: M. Lange, Beitrdge zur Ent- present day, are written in sonata-form, 
stehung der sudwestdeutschen Klavierso- strictly or freely applied. 
nate im 18. Jahrhundert (Diss. Giessen I. A movement written in sonata-form 
1930); F. Torrcfranca, Le Origine italiane falls into three sections, called exposition, 
del romanticismo musicale (1930); B. development, and recapitulation (also 
Studeny, Zur Geschichte der Violinso- called statement, fantasia section, and re- 
nate im 18. Jahrhundert (Diss. Munich statement), the last being usually followed 
1911); A. Stauch, Clementis KlaviersO' by a shorter or longer coda. Intheexposi- 
naten . . . (Diss. Cologne 1929); E. Stilz, tion the composer introduces his musical 
Die Berliner Klaviersonate zur Zeit Frie- ideas, consisting of a number of themes; 
drichs des Grossen (Diss. Greifswald in the development section he “develops” 
1929); H. Michel, La Sonate pour clavier this material, and in the recapitulation he 
avant Beethoven {i()oy)\V»¥Le\{cvty^Z\XT repeats the exposition, though with cer- 
Entwicklungsgeschichte der Sonaten- tain modifications. In practically all the 
form” (AMW vii); F. Tutenberg, “Die sonatas of the earlier period the exposition 
Durchfiihrungsfragen in der vorneuklas- is repeated, as is indicated by the repeat- 
sischen Sinfonie** {ZMW ix) ; E. Bosquet, sign at its end, a sign which is also helpful 
“Origine . . . de la sonate . . . de 1698 a for the reader in finding the end of the 
1742” {La Revue Internationale de Mu- exposition and the beginning of the devel- 
siquey 1939, p. 853); F. Torrefranca, “La opment section. Accordingly, the structure 
Creazione della sonata dramatica moder- of sonata-form is indicated by the scheme 
na” {RMl xvii). — To IV: P. Eger, Zur A A B A. There can be no doubt that com- 
Geschichte der Klaviersonate nach Beet- posers, when they wrote the repeat-sign at 
hoven (Diss. Munich 1929); O. Mayer, the end of the exposition, wanted this sec- 
Die romantische Klaviersonate (Diss. tion to be played twice, the more so since 
Greifswald 1929); F. Salzer, “Die Sona- they frequently took the trouble to write 
tenform bei Schubert’* {StM xv); V. Ur- two different endings {prima and seconda 
bantschetsch, “Die Entwicklung der So- volta) for this purpose. In fact, the repe- 
natenform bei Brahms” {StM xiv). See tition of the exposition finds its justifica- 
also ^Symphony. tion not only in historical facts [see II] 

but also, and mainly, in artistic considera- 
Sonata-form. A term which, unfor- tions, since it helps to impress into the 
tunately, does not designate what the hearer’s mind the themes on which the 
name implies, i.e., the form of the sonata whole movement is based. The prevail- 
[see *Sonata A], but the form used fre- ing concert practice of omitting the repe- 
quently for single movements of the so- tition is to be deplored; at any rate, it can- 
nata (symphony, quartet, etc.). Since this not serve as a reason for interpreting so- 
form is practically always used for the first nata-form as a plain ternary form ABA, 
movement of a sonata, it is also designated as is usually done. It was not until c. 
as first-movement form. This term, how- 1870 that the repetition was consistently 
ever, is also misleading since the same discarded, mainly on account of the ever- 
form is frequently employed also for the growing dimensions of each section, by 
slow and for the final movements of so- such composers as Brahms, Bruckner, 
natas. Both terms designate a form which Franck, Mahler, and all their successors, 
is of fundamental importance in music The exposition contains a number of 
from Haydn and Mozart to the con tern- themes and connecting passages (bridge 
porary composers of sonatas or sympho- passages) which fall into two groups, first 
nics although, after 1900, it was so freely and second group or, as they are also 
treated that sometimes only traces of it called, first and second theme, the other 

[696] 



SONATA-FORM 

melodies occurring in each group being 
considered as continuations of these two. 
There is usually a noticeable difference in 
character between the first and the sec- 
ond themes, the former being, e.g., dra- 
matic, the latter lyrical. Furthermore, the 
second theme is in another key, normally 
in the key of the dominant if the tonic is 
major, and in the relative key if the tonic 
is minor. Towards the end of the second 
group one frequently finds a “closing 
theme” which stands out for its individ- 
ual character. In later sonatas or sympho- 
nies (Brahms, Bruckner) this adopts a 
significance equal to that of the two other 
themes, and Bruckner, particularly, reg- 
ularly uses three themes in three distinct 
groups of the exposition. 

The development is the central section 
of the movement, on account of its posi- 
tion as well as its character. The style 
and treatment here differ radically from 
that in the exposition. A great number of 
devices and procedures are used to pro- 
duce that special character of “develop- 
ment,” “dynamic tension,” “increased 
temperature,” “fighting forces,” etc., 
which is proper to this section [see ’’^De- 
velopment]. Probably the two most im- 
portant means of development technique 
are melodic segmentation and rapid har- 
monic ^modulation. Other devices are 
contrapuntal imitation of melodic mo- 
tives (fugal style), contrapuntal combi- 
nation of different motives, use of themes 
or motives in ’•‘‘inversion or ’•‘‘diminution. 
There are, of course, no set rules as to any 
of the details of procedure. In the devel- 
opment section more than anywhere else 
the composer is free to use his ingenuity 
in forming a dynamic body from the 
building material at his disposal. Some 
composers have occasionally used new 
themes and new material in the develop- 
ment sections, but most of them seem to 
have taken pride in showing what they 
can accomplish without doing this. 

The recapitulation normally contains 
all the material of the exposition, although 
usually with certain modifications, par- 
ticularly in the bridge passages. One 
modification is obligatory, namely, that 
which makes the second theme appear In 


SONATA-FORM 

the tonic (not, as formerly, in the domi- 
nant) so that the whole movement comes 
to a close in the tonic. In modern sym- 
phonies (Sibelius) the recapitulation is 
frequently drastically reduced, e.g., to 

a restatement of the principal theme 

only. 

The coda which, in many instances, is 
only a closing sentence of moderate length, 
assumes, in others, considerable propor- 
tions and sometimes spreads out into an- 
other development section (e.g., in the 
first move;ment of Beethoven’s Eroica), 

Sonata-form may be diagramed thus: 

II : Exp. : II Dev. Recap. Coda 
I II (III) I II (III) 

T D T T 

II. History, Sonata-form emerged in 
the early part of the i8th century as 
an amalgamation of formal and stylistic 
traits encountered in several earlier forms, 
notably the dance movements of the suite, 
the da capo aria, the concerto grosso, and 
the first movement of the Neapolitan 
operatic sinfonia. As is explained under 
^Binary and ternary form, the “rounded 
binary form” ||: A :||: BA :|| was well 
established around 1720, in the move- 
ments of the suite as well as in other types 
of composition. Its scheme is identical 
with that of sonata-form, the main dif- 
ference being the use of two contrasting 
themes (for A) in the latter, as against 
the continuous style in the former. The 
root of this important principle is found 
in the contrast style of the concerto grosso, 
with its alternation between tutti and solo 
sections. The carrier of the development 
which led to the adoption and amalga- 
mation of these principles was the Nea- 
politan operatic sinfonia [see *Sinfonia 
(3); ^Overture (i)]. The first move- 
ment of the Overture (Sinfonia) to Fran- 
cesco Conti’s opera Pallade trionfante of 
1721 is a fully developed example of so- 
nata-form [ci, AdHM iiyjgj]. The same 
form was applied to chamber music by 
Maria Veracini (1721) and Giov. Batt. 
Pergolesi {c, 1730), to the piano sonata by 
C. P. E. Bach (“Prussian” Sonatas, 1742), 
and, at about the same time, by Giovanni 
Platti (b. c, 1700). The changes which, 



SONATA-FORM 

between 1725 and 1775, from the 
“Rococo’' sonata-form to the “classical” 
sonata-form are, above all, changes of 
style, from the stereotyped brilliance of 
the early Neapolitans (A. Scarlatti) to a 
pre-Mozartian style of lively or singable 
melody (Pergolesi, J. Chr. Bach), a pre- 
Beethovian style of dynamic abruptness 
(Stamitz; see *Mannheim School), and 
to the “*empfindsamer Stil” of C. P. E. 
Bach and the early Haydn. In addition, 
the scheme of sonata-form underwent 
various changes, two of which may be 
singled out here: first, the abandoning of 
the repetition for the second section, i.e., 
the change from ||: A :||: B A :|| to 
||: A :|j B A; and second, the dropping 
out of the main theme at the outset of the 
development section. Both features, which 
are left-overs from the binary form of the 
dance movements, are still found in most 
of Haydn’s sonatas (e.g., op. 42, no. 8 in 
A-flat), the former also in a number of 
sonatas by Mozart, as well as in Beetho- 
ven’s Piano Sonata in Ft (op. 78). 

The above survey will suffice to show 
that the emergence of sonata-form is the 
result of a gradual development carried 
on by a great number of composers, not 
the achievement of any single “inventor 
of sonata-form” such as have been pre- 
sented by various scholars (Riemann: 
Stamitz; Adler: Monn; Helffert: Bohe- 
mian composers; Torrefranca: Platti). 
Riemann’s claims in favor of Johann Sta- 
mitz as the originator of sonata-form arc 
definitely unjustified since in practically 
all his symphonies Stamitz uses a mosaic- 
like alternation of recurring fragments 
which is somewhat similar to the con- 
struction of Domenico Scarlatti’s sonatas. 
A symphony from 1740 by the Viennese 
Monn (DTOe i6.i), on the other hand, 
shows the essential features of sonata- 
form, exposition, development, and re- 
capitulation, as well as two distinct themes 
in the exposition. It is interesting to note 
that the basic structure of sonata-form also 
occurs, on a much smaller scale, in the 
scherzos or minuets of the sonata, as well 
as in many folk songs; see ^Binary and 
ternary form II. For literature see under 
•Sonata (Lit.: To III), 


SONG 

Sonatina. A diminutive sonata, with 
fewer and shorter movements than the 
normal type, also usually of lighter execu- 
tion, designed for instruction (Clementi, 
Kuhlau). Recent composers, however, 
such as Busoni, Ravel, have written so- 
natinas of considerable technical difficulty 
and artistic aspiration. See under •So- 
nata B IV. 

Song. A song may be defined as a short 
composition for solo voice, usually but 
not necessarily accompanied, based on a 
poetic text, and composed in a fairly sim- 
ple style so designed as to enhance rather 
than to overshadow the significance of the 
text. 

Just as •singing is the most ancient and 
most widespread kind of music-making, 
so song stands out among all the forms 
and types of music for the age of its tradi- 
tion and for the largeness of its repertory. 
Referring the reader to the article on •folk 
song we restrict ourselves here to a con- 
sideration of the art-song, i.e., song as a 
personal creation aiming at artistic per- 
fection. 

I. Up to 1600. While most of the few 
remnants of Greek vocal music fall out- 
side the category of song, owing to their 
liturgical affiliation, a charming lyrical 
song has been preserved in the •Seikilos 
song. A few examples of medieval Latin 
lyric songs have been preserved, notably 
the 10th-century love song “O admirabile 
Veneris ydolum” [cf. BeMMR, 72], the 
melody of which is interesting on account 
of its clear G major tonality. The “Planc- 
tus Karoli,” a mourning song for the 
death of Charlemagne, 814, is written in 
neumes which cannot be deciphered [cf. 
the fascimile and the abortive attempt at 
transcription in GD v, if]. Around 1100 
a great flowering period of song started 
with the French •troubadours and •trou- 
veres, and continued with the German 
•Minnesinger and •Meistersinger. The 
devotional songs of Italy and Spain, 
known as •laude and •cantigas, may also 
be mentioned in this connection. While 
all the previously mentioned songs are 
unaccompanied, songs with instrumental 
accompaniment figure prominently in the 


[698] 



SONG 

musical literature of the 14th century in 
France and in Italy [see *Ars nova; *bal- 
ladc, *ballata; ^madrigal I; *rondeau; 
^virelais]. This development reached a 
wonderful climax in the chansons of the 
^Burgundian masters Dufay and Bin- 
chois (both born c, 1400). Around 1450 
the rise of the ^Flemish school with its 
emphasis on polyphonic and sacred music 
put the lyrical song into an eclipse from 
which it emerged again in the 16th-cen- 
tury lute songs [see ’•^Villancico] of the 
Spanish Luis de Milan (El Maestro^ i 535 )) 
Valderrabano (Silva de Sirenas^ i547)) 
and others. Whether the early 16th-cen- 
tury *frottole were accompanied solo 
songs or choral music remains open to 
question. A large number of beautiful 
lute songs (*ayres) were written in Eng- 
land around 1600 by John Dowland, 
Thomas Morlcy, and many others [see 
♦Editions XI ] . At the same time the ♦air 
de court was cultivated in France. It was 
supplanted, during the 17th and i8th cen- 
turies, by the more popular types known 
as ♦vauxdevilles, ♦pastourelles, ♦berge- 
rettes, and ♦brunettes. 

II. Baroque, The rise of ♦monody, 
about 1600, brought with it fresh impetus 
for the composition of songs, by its em- 
phasis on good and careful declamation 
as well as by the reduction of the accom- 
paniment to its bare essentials. It is in- 
teresting to note that in Italy, where this 
movement originated, it did not lead to a 
lasting tradition of song writing, the rea- 
son being that all the interest was focused 
on the opera which demanded a more 
pretentious and elaborate type of vocal 
music than simple lyrical songs, the ♦aria. 
In Germany, however, the new tendencies 
led to a flowering period of genuine songs 
which opens the glorious tradition of the 
German lied which is treated separately 
under the heading ♦lied. 

III. Modern Song, It was not until 
long after the German lied had reached 
its high-point under Schubert that a new 
activity in the field of art-song started 
among the other nations, particularly in 
France, where composers of rank, in- 
spired by the refined poetry of Verlaine 
and Baudelaire, inaugurated a typically 


SONG 

French tradition of song. Among the ear- 
liest and most impressive examples are the 
sixteen songs by Duparc (1848-1933), 
composed between 1868 and 1877. About 
the same time Faure (1845-1924) began 
to write songs, mostly in cycles such as 
La bonne chanson (1892), La Chanson 
d'Eve (1907-10), Le Jardin clos (1915- 
18), UHorizon chimSrique (1922). In 
the meantime Debussy (1862-1918) had 
appeared with his sensational Chansons 
de Bilitis (1897) which marked a decisive 
turn away from German models towards 
a typically French (impressionistic) style 
and expression. The songs of Ravel and 
Albert Roussel follow the same general 
trend. The more recent development of 
French vocal writing shows a shift from 
impressionism towards neo-classicism or 
towards a sophisticated type of pseudo- 
popular chanson. 

The Russians, beginning with Glinka, 
have evolved a highly effective type of 
romance, usually in symmetrical (terna- 
ry) song-form. Thus, the songs of Tchai- 
kovsky, Rachmaninov, Gretchaninov, Gli- 
ere, are mostly lyrical and somewhat sen- 
timental, with texts taken from mediocre 
contemporary poets. Moussorgsky cre- 
ated a vigorous and un-academic type of 
song, often employing an expressive and 
realistic recitative — a style which influ- 
enced not only the Russian but also 
French and Spanish song-writers. Rim- 
sky-Korsakov, Balakirev, and Borodin 
wrote numerous songs in a strongly na- 
tionalistic idiom, with emphasis on an 
elaborate accompaniment. The Soviet 
school largely follows the Moussorgsky- 
Borodin tradition, but Tchaikovsky’s in- 
fluence is also apparent. 

The Italian song literature of the 19th 
century consists of a great number of 
popular and sentimental songs of an ap- 
pallingly low level of taste. Here the pre- 
occupation with the opera, together with 
the lack of a tradition of Italian folk mu- 
sic, proved fatal for the song, and it was 
not until the reversal of these trends, 
around 1910, that Italian composers took 
a serious interest in songs. While the 
songs of Ottorino Respighi are written in 
the sensuous and hedonistic style of the 



SONG CYCLE 

late Romanticism, there has been recently 
a trend towards simplification and to- 
wards archaism, based on the study of old 
Italian song types (Casella, Malipiero, 
Petrassi). 

In England, also, hardly any song of 
importance was written during the 19th 
century. Among the modern English 
composers who have been active in this 
field, Vaughan Williams, Holst, Bax, 
Goossens, John Ireland, and Roger Quil- 
ter may be mentioned. 

In the United States Stephen Foster 
was the creator of a national type of song, 
and many of his songs have become gen- 
uine folk songs. In the development of 
art-song Henry F. Gilbert and Horatio 
Parker were pioneers. The Romantic 
type is represented by MacDowell, Had- 
ley, Carpenter, Cadman, and others; the 
impressionistic by Loeffler and Griffes; 
the modern song has found an impressive 
representative in Charles Ives. 

Lit.: H. T. Finck, Songs and Song 
Writers ( 1900) ; J. J. Geller, Famous Songs 
and Their Stories (1931); G. Kobb^ Fa- 
mous American Songs (1906); W. T. 
Upton, Art'Song in America (1930); 
H. C. Colies, Voice and Verse (1928); 
F. Kidson, English Songs of the Georgian 
Period', H. P. Greene, ‘‘Stanford’s Songs” 
(ML ii, no. 2); id., “The Future of the 
English Song” (ML i, no. i); M. Cooper, 
“Liszt as a Song Writer” (ML xix, no, 2); 
E. Walker, “Songs of Schumann and 
Brahms” (ML iii, no. i); H. Bedford, 
“Unaccompanied Song” (ML iii, no. 3); 
E. Oliphant, “A Survey of Russian Song” 
(MQ xii). See also *Ayre , ^Ballad, 
*Folk song; *Licd; ^Shanty; *Tcxt and 
music. 

Song cycle [G. Lieder\reis ] . A string 
of songs of related thought and character, 
designed to form a musical entity. Fa- 
mous examples are Beethoven’s An die 
feme Geliebte, op. 98 (composed 1816 to 
the words of A. Jeitteles) ; Schubert’s Die 
\schdne Miillerin (1823) and Winterreise 
(1827); Schumann’s Frauenliebe und 
Leben (1840; poems by Chamisso), and 
Dichterliebe (1840; poems by Heine); 
Brahms’s Magelone (i86i~68; poems by 


SOPRANO 

Tieck); Faur^’s La bonne chanson (1892; 
poems by Verlaine); Debussy’s Chansons 
de Bilitis (1897; poems by Pierre Louys). 

Song-form [G. Liedform], A gener- 
ally accepted, though not very fortunate, 
designation for the simple ternary form 
A B A, a form which, as a matter of fact, 
is much more frequent in instrumental 
(particularly piano) music than in songs. 
The term was used first (by B. Marx; cf. 
GD iv, 195) to designate the M T M form 
of the minuet with trio, a species for 
which the term ternary form is, no doubt, 
preferable, in view of the wide discrep- 
ancy in style between these dance-like 
pieces and a song. 

In modern writings, the term song-form 
is also used for ^binary form, a distinction 
being made between ternary song-form 
and binary song-form. Actually, the 
word “song” might just as well be omitted 
here, unless it is taken to indicate that the 
sections in each of these forms are simple 
and small enough to be suggestive of a 
song. However, it would be quite diffi- 
cult to carry through such a distinction, 
e.g., in the case of the dances (all binary) 
in Bach’s suites, where the term “song”- 
form might perhaps be applied to the 
minuets or bourrees, but is rather out of 
place for the elaborate allemandes or 
gigues. 

Songs Without Words. See *Lieder 
ohne Worte. 

Sonnenquartette. See under ’’^Russian 
quartets. 

Sonneries [F.]. Signals given by trum- 
pets or by church bells. 

Sonsbouches [F.]. The stopped notes 
in horn playing. See *Horn I. 

Sopra [It.]. Above. Come sopra, as 
above. M.d, (or Mj.) sopra means right 
(or left) hand above the other (in piano- 
forte playing); see *Sotto. 

Soprano [G. Sopran]. The highest fe- 
male voice; see * Voices, Range of. Solo- 
ists are classified as dramatic, lyric, or 
coloratura. Voices of similar range are 
the unchanged boy’s voice, “boy soprano,” 


[700] 



SOPRANO CLEF 


SOUNDHOLES 


and the “male soprano/^ i.e., cither a 
*falsettist or, formerly, a *castrato. The 
term is also used in connection with cer- 
tain instruments, to denote the highest 
member of a family, e.g., the soprano 
recorder. 

Soprano clef. See *Clefs. 

Sorcerer’s Apprentice, The (“L’ap- 
prenti sorcier”). See ^Symphonic poem 
IV. 

Sordamente [It.]. Subdued, muffled. 

Sordino [It.], (i) See *Mute. — (2) 
Old Italian name for the *kit or the 
^clavichord. 

Sordun. See *Oboe family III. 

Sospirando [It.]. Sighing, plaintive. 

Sostenente (sostinente) piano- 
forte. Generic name for a pianoforte 
which produces a sustained sound, as the 
violin or the organ. A great number of 
such instruments, all more or less ephem- 
eral, have been invented. There are four 
principal means of obtaining the desired 
effect: (i) by currents of air directed 
against the strings; (2) by repeating ham- 
mers; (3) by a bowing mechanism; (4) 
by means of electricity. The first method 
was used in SchnelEs AnSmochord [see 
under ^Aeolian harp]. The second, in 
which rapidly striking hammers produce 
a tremolo, was invented by Hawkins in 
1800, improved in the Melopiano of c, 
1873, and patented, in a new form, by 
E. Moor in 1931 and by Cloetens in 1932. 
The third is realized in a great number 
of instruments, generically called piano- 
violin [G. Bogen]{lavier\ Str€ichl(lavier\ 
GeigenwerWy of which the ’"'hurdy- 
gurdy may be considered the ancestor. 
Usually, the ordinary violin bow is re- 
placed by one or several wheels bearing 
rosined strings, and set in rotation by a 
foot-mechanism, while the strings are 
pressed against the wheel by a mecha- 
nism connected with the keys. The first 
perfect instrument of this type was Hans 
Haiden’s Gambenwer\ (r. 1575; de- 
scribed in Praetorius De Organographia^ 
1619 and Teatrum Instrumentorumy 


1620). Later constructions frequently 
used complete violins, violas, etc., which 
are placed inside a big circular bow and 
pressed against this, in different positions, 
by a mechanism connected with the key- 
board. Regarding the fourth category, 
see ^Electronic musical instruments. Cf. 
SaRMy 360; GD v, 82; GD, Suppl. Vol., 
598ff- 

Sostenuto, sostenendo [It.]. Sustain- 
ing the tone or slackening the tempo. 
Andante sostenuto calls for a slow an- 
dante. 

Sostenuto pedal. See ^Pianoforte I. 

Sotto [It.]. Under. Sotto voce (under 
the voice) means performance, vocal or 
instrumental “in an undertone,” i.e., with 
subdued sound. M,d. (Mj,) sotto means 
right (left) hand underneath the other 
(in pianoforte playing); see *Sopra. 

Soubrette [F., a young servant]. The 
term has been adopted into German usage 
to denote operatic sopranos of a light and 
somewhat comical type, e.g., the Zerlina 
in Mozart’s Don Giovanni, The cor- 
responding French term is dugazony 
after a famous singer Louise Dugazon 
(1755-1821) who excelled in such roles. 

Sound board [F. table d*harmonie\ G. 
Resonanzboden], In pianofortes, the 
wooden surface expanding beneath the 
strings which serves as a resonator (also 
called *belly). Most defects in sound, 
such as usually develop in pianos after a 
number of years, are due to the cracking 
or bending of the sound board. 

Sound-film. See ^Electronic musical in- 
struments VII. 

Soundholes [F. oute) G. Schalloch\ It. 
occhi ] . The apertures in the shape of an 
/ (F-holes) which are cut in the table of 
violins, etc. Their function is to give 
greater freedom of movement to the cen- 
tral segment of the table, thus making it 
more serviceable for its purpose of rein- 
forcing the tones produced by the strings. 
Savart (1791-1841) has shown by experi- 
ments that in violins, violas, etc., the tra- 
ditional /-form of the holes is superior to 


[701 ] 



SOUND IDEAL 

any other form. In earlier instruments 
of the violin type (viols) the holes were 
in the shape of a sickle or half-moon (C- 
holes). The apertures of lutes and guitars 
are in the form of a full circle in the cen- 
ter of the table [see *Rose]. Their par- 
ticular shape and position bring about 
prolongation of the sound while the 
soundholes of the violins have rather the 
opposite effect. 

Sound ideal. A recent term (transla- 
tion of G. Klangideal) used by music 
historians to refer to the characteristic 
‘‘sonorities” of the various periods of 
music, particularly the earlier ones. For 
instance, the ^Burgundian sound ideal 
(early 15th century) is that of a light, 
multicolored combination of vocal sound 
with many instrumental timbres of a 
somewhat nasal character, extremely rich 
in overtones, indeed rather harsh and 
piercing. To this sonority that of the 
early ^Flemish School (late 15th century) 
forms a most striking contrast, being 
darker in color, lower in range, rela- 
tively uniform in timbre, and preferably 
vocal. Cf. A. Schering, in JMP xxxiv; G. 
Pietsch, in AM iv, nos. 2 and 3; K. G. 
Fellerer, in JMP xliv; FI. Brunner, Das 
Klavierf^langideal Mozarts (i933)« 

Sound post [F. ame', G. Seeie^ Stimm- 
stocJ{) It. anima]. In violins, etc., a small 
pillar of pine wood fixed between the 
table and the back. It serves not only to 
counter the heavy pressure exercised by 
the bridge upon the table (a purpose for 
which it was originally introduced), but 
chiefly to convey the vibrations of the 
table to the back of the instrument and 
to bring the various vibrating sections 
into conformity with each other. The 
correct position of the sound post is 
slightly behind the right foot of the 
bridge. Attempts to change the material 
or the shape of the sound post have proved 
unsuccessful. Cf. W. Huggins, On the 
Function of the Sound-post (1883). 

Soupir [F.]. See *Notes. 

Soupirant [F.]. Sighing, plaintive. 

Sources, Musical, prior to 1450 . 
These can be grouped under four catego- 


SOURCES, MUSICAL 

ries: Gregorian chant; Secular monoph- 
ony; Organ music; Polyphonic music. 
For the first category, see ^Editions 
XXIII; for the second, see under *Trou- 
veres, ^Minnesinger, *Laude, *Cantigas; 
for the third, under *Organ music I. The 
most important sources of polyphonic 
music prior to 1450 are listed below. 
Before 1100, Theoretical treatises dealing 
with *Organum; Winchester Proper [see 
under *Troper]. 

1 2th Century, i. MSS of *St. Martial, 
c, 1150: Paris B.N. lat. 37 3549- 
London, Br. Mus. Add, MS ^6881, 

2. Codex Calixtinus of Santiago de 
Compostela, c, 1150 [cf. P. Wagner, Die 
Gesdnge der ]a\obusUturgie (1931)]. 
13th Century, 3. Various MSS containing 
the repertory of the School of Notre 
Dame. The three most important of these 
are indicated under ^Magnus liber or- 
gan!. For the others cf. F. Ludwig, Reper- 
torium organorum , , , et motetorum 
. . . (1910). 

4. Codex ^Montpellier, Montpellier, 
Fac. des Medecins H igS (Mo), Con- 
tents: motets. New ed. in Y. Rokseth, 
Polyphonies du XI He siecle, 4 vols. (fac- 
simile, transcriptions, commentary), 

1936-39- 

5. Codex Bamberg, Bamberg, Kgl. 
Bibl. Ed, IV. 6 (Ba). Contents: motets, 
*In scculum-compositions. New ed. in 
P. Aubry, Cent motets du XI lie siccle, 
3 vols. (facs., transcr., comm.), 1908. 

6. Codex Huelgas or Burgos, Monas- 
tery of Las Huelgas near Burgos (Hu). 
Contents: motets and monophonic 
hymns. New ed. in H. Angles, El Codex 
musical de Las Huelgas, 3 vols. (facs., 
transcr., comm.), 1931. 

7. Codex Torino, Turin, Bibl. Reale, 
man. var. N. 42. 

14th Century, 8. Roman de Fauvel, Paris, 
Bibl. Nat. fr. 146 (c. 1315). Contents: 
motets and monophonic songs inserted in 
a continuous narrative. New ed. in P. 
Aubry, Le Roman de Fauvel (facs.), 1907. 

9. Codex I area, Ivrea (Italy), Library 
of the Chapter. Contents: French compo- 
sitions of the early 14th century. Cf. 
AMW vii, 185. 


[702] 



SOURCES, MUSICAL 

10. Machaut MSS of the Bibl. Nat., 
Paris. Contents: complete works of G. 
de Machaut (1300-77). New ed. in F. 
Ludwig, G. de Machaut^ Musi\alische 
Wer\e^ 3 vols., 1926-29. 

11. Florence, Bibl. Nac. Panciatichi 26, 
Contents: madrigals, caccias, ballatas, of 
early Italian composers. Cf. WoGM i, 
244 (for corrections of the various lists of 
contents given in WoGM, cf. F. Ludwig, 
in SIM iv). 

12. London, Brit. Mus. Add, 
Contents: Italian compositions of the 
14th century, also instrumental ^estam- 
pies. Cf. WoGM i, 268. 

13. Codex Squarcialupi, Florence, 
Bibl. Laurenziana Pal, 8y, Contents: 
works of Francesco Landini and of nu- 
merous other 14th-century Italian com- 
posers (madrigals, ballatas, caccias). Cf. 
WoGM i, 228. Partly repr. in L. Ellin- 
wood, The Worlds of Francesco Landini, 
1939. 

14. Paris, B.N. ital, ^68, Contents: 
Italian compositions of the 14th century. 
Cf. WoGM i, 250. 

15. Codex Reina, Paris, B.N. fonds fr, 
nouv, acq, 6yyi, Contents: (i) Italian 
14th-century pieces; (2) French 14th- 
century pieces; (3) compositions of the 
period of Dufay. Cf. WoGM i, 260. 

16. Modena, Bibl. Estense L. ^68. 
Contents: French and Italian composi- 
tions of the late 14th century. Cf. WoGM 

335 - 

17. Chantilly, Musee Conde lo^y. 
Contents: French compositions of the late 
14th century. Cf. WoGM i, 328. 

18. Torino, Bibl. Naz. / II 9. Con- 
tents: French and Italian compositions of 
the late 14th century. Cf. AMW vii, 210. 

19. Codex Apt, Apt (France), Library 
of the Chapter, c, 1400. Contents: chiefly 
Mass items. CL AMW y\i, 201, New cd. 
in A. Gastoue, Le Codex d'Apt [ see *Edi- 
tions XXIV, A 10; cf. the review by G. 
de Van, in AM xii, 64]. 

i$th Century, 20. Bologna, Lie. Mus. 37. 
Contents: Compositions by Dunstable and 
many composers of the early Burgundian 
School. Cf. WoGM i, 197. 

21. Modena, Bibl. Estense ^7/. Con- 


SOUTERLIEDEKENS 

tents: similar to that of 20. Cf. AMW 
vii, 236. 

22. Bologna, Bibl. Univ. 2216. Con- 
tents: similar to that of 20. Cf. WoGM i, 
199. 

23. Oxford, Bodl. Libr. Selden B. 26, 
Contents: English 15th-century pieces. 
Cf. WoGM i, 368. Facs. in Stainer, Early 
Bodleian Music i, 37—97. 

24. Canonici MS, Oxford, Bodl. Libr. 
Ms, Can, misc, 21^ (c, 1450). Contents: 
Mass items, motets, chansons. New ed. 
of the secular pieces in Stainer, Dufay and 
His Contemporaries (1898); of the sacred 
in Ch. van den Borren, Polyphonia sacra, 
3 vols. (1935). 

25. Old Hall MS, Catholic College of 
St. Edmunds, Old Hall, England (c, 
1450). Contents: Mass compositions, 
hymns. New ed. by A. Ramsbotham and 
H. B. Collins, 3 vols., 1935-38. 

26. Trent Codices, See separate entry. 

27. Cancionero musical, Madrid, Bibl. 
del Palacio, MS 2, 1-5 {c, 1500). Con- 
tents: 459 Spanish accompanied songs, 
mostly ^villancicos. New ed. in F. A, 
Barbieri, Cancionero musical del los sighs 
XV y XVI (iSgo), 

See also *Chansonnier; *Liederbuch. 
For more complete lists cf. ApNPM, 
20iff (i2th-i4th centuries); WoHN i, 
35iff and 444!! (i4th-r6th centuries); 
AMW vii, 245 (i4th-i5th centuries). 

Sourd [F.]. Pedale sourde, soL 

pedal. 

Sourdine [F.]. (i) *Mute {sordini), 
— (2) An obsolete wind instrument of 
muffled sound; see *Oboe family III. — 
(3) *Kit. 

Sousaphone. See *Brass instruments 
III (e). 

Souterliedekens [Neth., psalter 
songs]. A 16th-century Netherlands col- 
lection of 158 monophonic psalm tunes, 
published in 1540 and reprinted in more 
than thirty editions. From the literary 
standpoint the publication is interesting 
as the earliest complete translation 
(rhymed) of the psalms into the ver- 
nacular [sec ^Psalter]. Its musicological 


[703] 



SOUTH AMERICAN MUSIC 


SPANISH MUSIC 


importance lies in the fact that the melo- 
dics are not newly composed, but taken 
from popular folk melodies of the period, 
and that the editor has indicated with 
each melody the beginning of the original 
secular text, thus preserving to posterity 
a wealth of early folk melodies, mostly 
from the Netherlands. In 1556-57 Clem- 
ens non Papa published the same melo- 
dies in a three-voice setting [cf. Ex. in 
BeMMRy 259], while his pupil Gherar- 
dus Mes made an edition in four parts 
(1561). 

Lit.: E. Mincoff-Marriage, ^Souter- 
liede 1 {€ns (1922; facs. cd.); D. F. Scheur- 
leer, De Souterliede^ens (1894); 

Bernet Kempers, in Tijdschrtft der Ver- 
eeniging voor Nederlandsche Muzie}^ 
GeschiedeniSy xii (1928); H. Commer, 
*Collectio operum musicorum Batavo- 
runty xi (Clemens non Papa). 

South American music. See *Latin 
American music, 

Soviet music. See ^Russian music. 

Sp. [G.]. Short for ^Spitze. 

Spacing. The arrangement of the notes 
of a chord according to the demands of 
the single voices. When the three upper 
voices are as close together as possible, 
the spacing is described as close position 
or close harmony [Ex. i, 2]; sometimes 



the term is reserved for positions not ex- 
ceeding a twelfth [Ex. 3, 4]. The other 
arrangements, frequent in vocal music, 
are called open position or open harmony 
[Ex. 5, 6]. 

Spandendo [It.]. Expanding (i.e., in 
power). 

Spanish music. Spain has an ancient 
and extremely interesting tradition of 
music. Unfortunately many phases of its 


musical history are still obscure, owing 
partly to the lack of source material, partly 
to the fact that the extant material has 
been jealously guarded by narrow-minded 
state and town authorities. Only during 
the last decade has a somewhat more 
obliging attitude been taken. 

I (Until 1500). The Christianization 
of Spain which took place during the 4th 
century led to the establishment of the 
so-called Visigothic chant, the Spanish 
counterpart of the Gregorian (Roman) 
chant. It persisted until about the nth 
century when it was superseded by the 
Gregorian chant. Since it remained in 
use during the Arab domination (71 1- 
1085) it is usually referred to as *Moz- 
arabic chant [see also *Chant]. In the 
pre-Arabic period Seville, Toledo, and 
Saragossa were great centers of musical 
culture, particularly under the bishops 
St. Leander (d. 599) and St. Isidore (d. 
636). The latter’s writings contain valu- 
able information concerning contempo- 
rary practice of church music [cf. 
ReMMAy no]. There also exist a num- 
ber of secular songs, unfortunately no- 
tated in neumes which cannot be de- 
ciphered. One of the most discussed 
problems of early Spanish music is the 
Arabic element which, according to some 
scholars (Farmer), exercised a basic influ- 
ence not only on Spanish music but also 
on European music in general. Few of 
these sweeping claims have stood up 
under the scrutiny of unbiased examina- 
tion [see ^Arabian music I]. A highly 
important source of devotional songs is 
preserved in the 13th-century MSS of 
cantigaSy written for (and partly by) King 
Alfonso X (1252-82). These volumes 
are also of the highest importance as a 
unique source of information on medi- 
eval instruments of which they contain 
numerous reproductions [see ’•^Cantiga]. 
In the 1 2th century the monastery Santi- 
ago de Compostela in the Pyrenees was a 
leading center of polyphonic music, side 
by side with the School of *St. Martial 
[Codex Calixtinus; see ^Sources 2; cf. 
ReMMAy 26yU AdHMy 181 ; ApNPM, 
2i2f]. Very likely one of the most impor- 
tant sources of the repertory of the French 


[704] 




SPANISH MUSIC 


SPANISH MUSIC 

School of Notre Dame, the MS Madrid, portant organ pieces written before Bach. 

Bibl. Nat. HhiSj (formerly 20486), was No less outstanding are the Spanish lute 

written in Spain. The influence of French composers Luis Milan, Luis de Narvaez, 

polyphonic music is also apparent in the Enriquez de Valderrabano, Miguel de 

Codex Huelgas (or Codex Burgos) [see Fuenllana, Diego Pisador, and Esteban 

^Sources, no. 6], which contains original Daza, who published lute music between 

Spanish pieces, monophonic as well as 1535 and 1576 [see ’•‘‘Vihuela]. The above 

polyphonic, and in which Johan Rodriguez list may be completed by the names of 

is repeatedly mentioned as a composer. musicians who were active mainly in the 

From 1300 till 1450 we have very scant field of theory: Juan Bermudo, Tomas de 
information about the music in Spain, Santa Maria [cf. O. Kinkeldey, Orge/ 
and musical sources are entirely lacking. Klavier . . . (1910)], Diego Ortiz (Tra- 
Fortunately, an invaluable collection com- tado de glosas . . . , 1553, new ed. by M. 
piled shortly after 1500, the ^Cancionero Schneider, 1913), and Francisco Salinas 

musical del palacio [see: no. (1513-90) whose De musica libri VII 

contains, among its 459 compositions, a (1577) is a valuable, yet little explored, 
vast number of pieces by 15th-century source of information [see *Tempcra- 
Spanish composers such as Johannes de ment II]. See also ^Madrigal IV; *En- 
Cornago (also represented in the *Trent salada. 

codices), Juan Urrede, Fernando della After 1600 the polyphonic tradition was 
Torre (fl. around 1450), composers who continued mainly by Aguilera de Heredia 
wrote secular polyphonic compositions in (b. 1570?), Joan Pujol (1573-1626; com- 
the styles of Dufay and Ockeghem and in plete works ed. by H. Angles, 1926-32), 
the French forms of the ^ballade and the Mateo Romero (d. 1647), Carlos Patino 
*virelai. The latter form was widely (d. 1647), and Joan Rebello (1609-61). 
adopted, under the name of *villancico. The School of Montserrat, entirely un* 
by the later composers of the Cancionero, known until recently, has stepped into the 
notably the poet-musician Juan dell En- foreground, owing to the publication of 
cina (1469-1529?) [for a list of other the works (motets, Masses, villancicos) of 
composers cf. ii. I, 284] . A famous Joan Cererols (in D. Pujol, Mestres de 

theorist of the same period was Ramos Vescolania de Montserrat, 3 vols., 1930). 
de Pareja (1440— 1521; see ^Theory II). For the organ music of this period see 
II (1500-1800). The 1 6th century is *Organ music II (d). 
the golden period of Spanish music. In The middle of the 17th century saw the 
the fields of sacred vocal polyphony as rise of the *zarzuela, the Spanish type of 
well as of organ and lute music it has opera, which, however, differs essentially 
produced masters of the highest rank. In from that of the other countries. After 
the first group we find Cristobal Morales 1750 it was replaced by more popular 
(c. 1500--53), his pupil Francisco Gue- types of lyric theater, the ’••'tonadilla and 
rrero (1528-99), the “Spanish Palestrina” the ^sainete. During the i8th century 
Tomas Luis de Victoria {c, 1540-1611), Italian influence became more and more 
and Juan Gines Perez (1548-1612). Mo- predominant in Spain, owing mainly to 
rales particularly stands out as a great the unlimited power which the Italian 
genius who sometimes even surpasses a castrato Farinelli, favorite of King Philip 
master like Josquin in a typically Span- V, held. Operas of Neapolitan composers 
ish expression of dark-glowing ecstasy, were performed at the royal theater and, 
and whose motet “Emendemus in melius” on the other hand, two Spanish musi- 
is one of the greatest works in all music cians were absorbed completely by the 
history. The Spanish organ music of the Italian opera, Domingo Terradellas (Ital- 
i6th century is represented by Antonio ianized name Domenico Terradeglias, 
de Cabezon (1510-^6; Obras de musica, 1713-51) who came to Naples as a boy, 
1577; see ^Editions XIII) whose *tientos and Martin y Soler (1756-1806; frequent- 
and *difercncias rank among the most im- ly confused with the organ composer An- 

[ 705 ] 



SPANISH MUSIC 


SPANISH MUSIC 

tonio Soler) who, from 1780 on, spent his (b. 1905), whose neo-classical tendencies 
life in Florence, Vienna, and St. Peters- are apparent in his Sinfonietta (1923-27), 
burg. He is remembered mainly as the a poly tonal revival of Haydn’s symphony; 
composer of the opera Una cosa rara and his brother, Rodolfo (b. 1900, now 
(1786) from which Mozart quoted an living in Mexico), composer of numerous 
entire section in the final scene of his Don ballets in an acrid modernistic vein, as 
Giovanni^ a fact which is all the more re- well as a virtuoso type of instrumental 
markable as Solcr’s opera had completely music in the national Spanish manner 
eclipsed for a time Mozart’s Figaro, The (Violin Concerto, 1942). The Catalonian 
Spanish harpsichord music of the Rococo composer Jaime Pahissa (b. 1880, now 
is represented chiefly by Antonio Soler living in Buenos Aires) has developed a 
(1729-83). He wrote a great number of personal system of composition, based cx- 
harpsichord pieces in the style of Dome- clusively on unisons and multiple octaves 
nico Scarlatti who was active in Madrid producing a polyphonic effect through 
from 1729 to 1754. contrary motion (Intertonal Suite). Os- 

III (1800-present). During the first car Espla (b. 1886) is distinguished in 
half of the 19th century musical produc- Spanish music as a theorist as well as a 
tion came to an almost complete stand- composer. Julian Bantista (b. 1901, now 
still. Bellini, Donizetti, Rossini, reigned living in Buenos Aires) is the composer 
supreme on the operatic stage, until the of modernistic pieces outside of the na- 
popular zarzuela, in the form of short tional tradition. 

comic operas with spoken dialogue, was More than any other country Spain is 
revived by F. A. Barbieri (1823—94). conspicuous for its wealth of national 
Felipe Pedrell (1841-1922), Tomas Bre- dances which, time and again, have in- 
ton (1850-1923), Ruperto Chapf (1851- spired the fancy of composers, Spanish as 
1909), gradually worked towards a more well as foreign. See Alala; Alborado; 
artistic type of Spanish opera. Aurrescu; Bolero; Cante hondo; Fan- 

The founder of modern Spanish music dango; Flamenco; Folia; Guajira; Haba- 
is Isaac Albeniz (1860-1909) who became nera; Jaleo; Jota; Muneira; Murciana; 
famous mainly through his “Iberia’’ Pavane; Polo; Rueda; Saeta; Sarabande; 
(1906-09), a collection of 12 piano pieces Sardana; Seguidilla; Seises; Solea; Zort- 
in which Spanish dance rhythms are pre- ziko. Also Auto; Mystery; Sainete; Tona- 
sented with a most colorful imagination dilla; Zarzuela; Madrigal IV. 
and a virtuoso piano technique. His Lit.: G. Chase, The Music of Spain 
brothcr-in-arms was Enrique Granados (1941; bibl.); LavE i.4, pp. 1913-2400; 
(1867-1916) whose numerous piano A. Soubis, Histoire de la Musique: Es- 
pieces, notably the “Goyescas” (1912— 14), p<^gne^ 3 vols. (1900). — To I: J. B. Trend, 
though lacking the dash and exuberance The Music of Spanish History to 1600 
of Albeniz’ music, are actually closer to (1926); P. Aubry, “Iter Hispanicum” 
the national soul of Spain in their aristo- (SIM viii, ix); I. Pope, in Speculum ix 

cratic grace and elegance. Even more (i3th-cent. song); O. Ursprung, in ZM IP 

“Spanish” in its tense passion and ardent iv (i4th-cent. songs); H. Angles, in Kroy- 
severity is the music of Manuel de Falla er-Festschrift, 1933 (i5th-cent. song); G. 
(b. 1876), author of two important op- Chase, “Juan del Encina ...” (ML xx, no. 

eras, Im Vida breve (1907) and El Re^ 4). See also under *Mozarabic chant; 

tablo de Maese Pedro (1922, after an *Cantigas; *Villancico. — To //: H. Col- 
episode from Don Quixote), and of the let, Le Mysticisme musical espagnol au 
ballet El Sombrero de tres picos (The (1913); M. Eslava, fL/>a! ^^rro- 

T hree<ornered Haty 1919). Similar in hispanica (i^6^^y^F,Pcdid[\y'^Hispaniae 
approach, though much weaker in sub- schola musica sacra, 7 vols. (1894-98; see 
stance, is the music of Joaquin Turina ^Editions XIII); D. Pujol, Mestres de 
(b. 1882). The main representatives of Vescolania de Montserrat (1934, ’36); H. 
the modern school arc Ernesto Halffter Angles, Johannis Pujol , . . opera omnia, 

[706] 



SPARTE 


SPRINGER 


2 vols. (1926, '32); F. Pedrell, '\Antologia 
de organistas clusicos espanoles (1908); 
L. Villalba Munoz, "fAntologia de organis- 
tas cldsicos espanoles\ H. Angles, Musici 
organici ]. Cab^nilles opera omnia (1927— 
36); W. Apel, “Early Spanish Music for 
Lute and Keyboard Instruments” (MQ 
xx). See also *Tonadilla; *Vihuela; 
^Zarzuela. — To III: Van Vechtcn, Mu- 
sic of Spain (1933); H. Collet, UEssor 
de la musique espagnole au xxe siecle 
(1929); id.^ in iS/M, 1908 and RdM, 1936. 
— Folk, Tnusic: K. Schindler, '\Folk Music 
of Spain and Portugal (1941); F. Pedrell, 
^Cancionero musical popular espanol, 4 
vols, (1918-22; new ed. in two vols., 
1936); M. Torner, Cancionero musical 
(1928); C. Rice, Dancing in Spain\ H. 
Angles, “Das Spanische Volkslied” (AMF 
hi); J. B. Trend, “Salinas and 16th-Cen- 
tury Folksongs” (ML viii, no. i); F. Pe- 
drell, “Folk-lore musical castillan du xvie 
sikle” (SIM i). 

Sparte [G.]; sparta, spartita [It.]. 
Partition score. Spartieren means to write 
a partition score. The term is used spe- 
cifically with reference to early vocal ttiu- 
sic (prior to 1600) which is originally 
written in single parts. Therefore, it is 
synonymous with “transcribing of early 
music,” a process which demands a knowl- 
edge of ^mensural notation. See also 
under *Intavolatura. 

Spasshaft [G.]. Jocular. 

Spatium [L.j. The space between two 
lines of a staff. 

Speaker key. In wind instruments a 
key which facilitates the production of 
tones by overblowing. It opens a small 
hole which causes the air column to vi- 
brate in one-half or one-third of its entire 
length. The oboe usually has two such 
keys, producing the first and second oc- 
tave respectively, while the clarinet has 
only one, producing the twelfth. 

Speaking stops. On organs, all the 
stops which produce sounds, as distinct 
from others which merely operate cou- 
plers, etc. 


Sperdendosi [It.]. Fading out. 

Spezzato [It.]. See *Cori spezzati. 

Spianato [It.]. “Leveled,” i.c., smooth, 
even. 

Spiccato [It.]. See *Bowing (d). 

Spiegando [It.]. “Unfolding,” becom- 
ing louder. 

Spiegelfuge [G.]. ^Mirror fugue. 

Spieldose [G.]. Musical box. 

Spieloper [G.]. Name for German 
19th-century *comic operas (Lortzing, 
Marschner). 

Spinet [from L. spina^ thorn]. Origi- 
nally, a name for the ^harpsichord (with 
reference to the thorn-like points of leath- 
er or quills which pluck the strings), par- 
ticularly the smaller variety in square 
form and with one manual only, thus 
practically identical with the virginal. The 
Italian spinets usually had a pentagonal 
case. In the i8th century the name desig- 
nated harpsichords in the form of a short 
triangle, in which the strings ran out from 
the keyboard at an angle of about 45 de- 
grees, while in the older type they ran 
parallel to it. Today the term is some- 
times incorrectly used for the small, ob- 
long pianofortes of the early 19th century. 

Spiritoso [It.]. Spirited. 

Spirituals. See *Negro music I, II. 

Spitze [G.]. Abbr. Sp, indicates in vio- 
lin music the point of the bow; in organ 
music the toe of the foot. 

Spitzig [G.]. Pointed, sharp. 

Sponsus play. See ^Liturgical drama. 

Sprechgesang [G. sprechen, to speak]. 
German term for ^recitative; also for the 
“elevated” speech used in the ^melodrama 
(more properly called Sprechstimme), 

Springbogen [G.]. Sautill^ spiccato; 
see ^Bowing (d). 

Springer. An agrement used in 17th- 
century English lute and viol music and 
belonging to the class of the *Nachschlag, 


[707] 



STAFF 


SQUARCIALUPI, CODEX 


Squarcialupi, Codex. See *Sources, 
no. 13. 

Square notation [G. Quadratnota- 
Uon\, The German term has been intro- 
duced by F. Ludwig to designate the nota- 
tion of the School of *Notre Dame (c. 

1 1 75-1 250) which, for the first time, 
shows square shapes of the notes and 
ligatures, as distinguished from the less 
definitely drawn, neume-like symbols of 
the preceding periods (School of *St. 
Martial). The chief sources of square 
notation are the three MSS containing 
the ^Magnus liber organi. 

Recent writers have frequently replaced 
the term square notation by modal nota- 
tion, a substitution whose suitability is 
questionable. The term square notation 
has the advantage that it merely states an 
undeniable feature of external appearance, 
while the term modal notation implies 
that the notational signs are to be inter- 
preted in modal meter, i.e., in the scheme 
of the rhythmic *modes, a presupposition 
which does not hold good in a general 
sense. Actually, the pieces written in 
square notation fall into several categories, 
only one of which — the most important 
one, no doubt — deserves the name modal 
notation, i.e., the repertory of the organa 
tripla, quadrupla, and clausulae. With 
others, such as the earlier organa dupla 
(Leoninus), the conductus, the mono- 
phonic songs, modal interpretation is at 
least doubtful. For an example see *No- 
tation, Ex. 2. Cf. ApNPM, 215-281; 
WoHN i, 198-250. 

Stabat mater [L.]. A 13th-century 
^sequence {Stabat mater dolor osa\ There 
stood the Mother) of the Roman Catholic 
liturgy, probably written by the Francis- 
can Jacopone da Todi {c, 1228-1306), 
and still sung today at the feast of the 
Seven Dolours (Sept. 15). For the text 
and the liturgical melody cf. GR^ 445. 
The famous text has also been composed 
by Josquin, Palestrina, Astorga (ed. by 
R. Franz), Steflani, Al. Scarlatti, Caldara 
(cf. DTOe I3.i), Pergolese, Haydn, Schu- 
bert, Rossini, Verdi, Dvorak, Stanford, 
and Szymanovski. 

Lit.; Bitter, Studie zum Stabat Mater 


(1883); Schmitz, Das Madonnenideal 
in der 7 on\unst (1910); B. E. Clifford, 
in SIM ii; P. Mies, in Kf, 1932; W. 
Baeumker, in X/, 1883, p. 59. 

Stabreim [G.]. * Alliteration. 

Staccato [It., detached]. A manner of 
performance indicated by a dot or the 
sign f placed over the note, calling for 
a reduction of its written duration with 
a rest substituted for half or more of its 
value. Thus, a quarter-note will be re- 
duced to perhaps a sixteenth-note, fol- 
lowed by three sixteenth-rests. In piano- 
and violin-playing as well as in singing 
there exist various types of staccato pro- 
duced by different touch, bowing, attack, 
etc. [see ^Bowing (g)]. Earlier com- 
posers, such as Ph. Em. Bach, Haydn, 
Beethoven, indicated staccato normally 
by the wedge [cf., Schencker’s edition 
of Beethoven’s piano sonatas], reserving 
the dot for a less rigid staccato (portato), 
preferably in slow movements. Today 
the dot is used as the normal sign, and 
the dash for a more pronounced staccato. 
Cf. A. Kreutz, “Die Staccatozeichen in 
der Klaviermusik” {Deutsche Ton\unst- 
lerzeitung 1937/38, p. 127). 

Standchen [G.]. ♦Serenade. 

Staff or stave [F. porte€\ G. Liniensys- 
tern. System) It. rigo\, A series of hori- 
zontal lines, now invariably five in num- 
ber, upon and between which the musical 
notes are written, thus indicating (in con- 
nection with a ♦clef) their pitch. The 
positions of the notes on the staff give a 
satisfactory image of the pitches, although 
one not entirely correct, in so far as they 
fail to indicate the difference between 
whole-tones and semitones, as well as the 
modifications of pitch produced by acci- 
dentals (e.g., C-double-sharp is actually 
higher in pitch, but lower in staff location, 
than D-flat). 

The use of horizontal lines for the rep- 
resentation of pitches occurs first in the 
*Musica enchiriadis (9th century). How- 
ever, only the spaces between the lines are 
used here, with the syllables of the text 
written in at their proper place [cf. 


[708] 



STAFFLESS NEUMES 


STIL 


ApNPMf facs. 42]. The invention of the 
staff proper is ascribed to Guido of Arezzo 
(c, 1000) who, in his Regulae de ignotu 
cantu [GS ii, 34], recommends the use 
of three or four lines, denoting f a c' or 
d f a c' (the use of one or two lines, red 
for f and yellow for c', occurred in 
slightly earlier MSS). The four-line staff 
has been preserved to the present day for 
the notation of Gregorian chant. For the 
writing down of polyphonic music the 
five-line staff was used as early as 1200 
[cf. ApNPMy facs. 47] . For compositions 
in simple note-against-note style (*con- 
ductus) the different staves were fre- 
quently written so closely that they give 
the impression of a single staff of ten or 
more lines [cf. ApNPM, facs. 46]; how- 
ever, the fact that on such a staff the same 
clef letter (c') is used simultaneously in 
different positions clearly shows that this 
is a juxtaposition of several staves, not 
one single staff. It was not until the i6th 
century that real staves with more than 
five lines came into general use, for the 
writing down of keyboard music [cf. 
ApNPM, facs. 1, 3, 4, 5] . 

In the lute music and in the Spanish 
keyboard music of the i6th century series 
of lines are used which are identical In 
appearance with the staff but have an 
entirely different significance. In the for- 
mer case they represent the strings of the 
lute, in the latter the voice parts of a com- 
position. See ^Tablature. For modern 
reforms of the staff, cf. WoHN ii, 347!! 
{passim). 

Staffless neumes. See *i^eumes II. 

Staffless notation. General term for 
methods of notation in which the tones 
are indicated, not by notes written on a 
staff, but by letters or similar symbols. An 
ancient method of this type is the German 
organ- and the German lute-tablature 
[see ^Tablature], a recent one the *Tonic 
Sol-fa. 

Stahlspiel [G. Stahl, steel]. The mili- 
tary ’••'Glockenspiel [see ’••‘Lyra (3)]. 

Stampita, stantipes. Sec *Estampie. 

Stark anblasen [G.]. Blow strongly. 


Star-Spangled Banner, The. The 
♦national anthem of the United States of 
America, officially adopted by a Bill passed 
on March 3, 1931. The words were writ- 
ten by Francis Scott Key in September, 
1814, while he watched, from the cartel- 
ship “Minden,” the British bombardment 
of Fort McHenry, near Baltimore. It is 
sung to a tune by the English John Staf- 
ford Smith, composed originally for a 
poem “To Anacreon in Heaven.” It is 
not known whether Key had this tune in 
mind when he wrote his words, or wheth- 
er text and music were united later, pos- 
sibly by Joseph Hopper Nicholson. Cf. 
O. Sonneck, The Star-Spangled Banner 
(1914); J. Muller, The Star-Spangled 
Banner (1935). 

Statement. Same as exposition in ♦So- 
nata-form. 

Steel guitar. See ♦Electronic musical 
instruments III. 

St eg [G.]. Bridge of the violin, etc. See 
♦Bowing (k). 

Stegreif [G.]. Improvisation, or per- 
formance without preparation. Stegreif- 
\om6dien, i.e., farcical plays with im- 
provised dialogue, were extremely popu- 
lar in Vienna toward the end of the i8th 
century. Cf. DTOe 33.!. 

Stendendo [It.]. “Extending,” i.e., 
rallentando. 

Stentando [It.].. “Laboring,” i.e., re- 
tarding. 

Sterbend [G.]. Dying away. 

Steso [It.]. Same. 

Sticheron. In the ♦Byzantine church 
music of the 8th century and later, poetic 
intercalations between the verses {stichos) 
of a psalm; in other words, psalm-^tropcs. 
A collection of such hymns was called 
sticherarion. 

Stickers. See *Organ II. 

Stil [G.], stile [It.]. ♦Style. Stile an- 
tico {obbligato, grave, osservato, romano), 
the strict contrapuntal style of the older 



STIMM- 


STOPPED PIPE 


period (Palestrina) which was continu- 
ously cultivated during the 17th century 
in Rome [see *Roman School]. Stile 
concertante {moderno)y the style of con- 
certo-like treatment, i.e., of rivaling in- 
struments [see ^Concerto III] . Stile con- 
citato^ style of dramatic expression and 
excitement (Monteverdi, “II Combatti- 
mento di Tancredi e Clorinda,” 1624; cf. 
W. Kreidler, H. Schiitz und der Stile 
concitato von Monteverdi^ Diss. Bern 
1933) • Stile nuovo {espressivOy rappre- 
sentativOy recitativo)y the *monodic style 
of the early 17th century [see *Nuove 
musiche], in which ^recitative is used 
for the purpose of heightened expression 
and “representation” of feelings. Stile 
galantey the “*gallant” style of the i8th 
century [see *Rococo]. Stile suetOy the 
“*freistimmige” style of the late i8th 
century (Haydn, Mozart). 

Stimm- [G., voice]. Stimmbdndery vo- 
cal chords; Stimmbil dungy voice training; 
Stimmbruchy mutation; Stimmbuchety 
part-books; Stimm gabel y tuning fork; 
Stimmhorny a tool in the shape of a hol- 
low cone used in the tuning of organ pipes 
(widening or narrowing of the mouth); 
Stimmfuhrungy *voiceJeading; Stimm- 
bruc\€y ^tuning wire; Stimmpfeifey 
•pitch pipe; Stimmritzey glottis; Stimm- 
stoc\y sound post; Stimmumfangy range; 
Stimmwechsely mutation (of the voice); 
Stimmzugy slide (of trombones). 

Stimme [G.]. (i) Voice. — (2) Voice 
part. — (3) Sound post. 

Stimmen [G.]. To tune. 

Stimmenkreuzung [G.]. Crossing of 
voice parts. 

Stimmtausch. The execution of a pas- 
sage in contrapuntal style by exchanged 
voices, so that, c.g., the soprano sings the 



part of the alto and vice versa (without 
the octave transposition, found in •in- 


vertible counterpoint). This method was 
practiced in the 13th century, suggested 
and facilitated by the fact that in the or- 
gana tripla and quadrupla of this period 
(Perotinus) the two or three parts above 
the tenor move in the same range. The 
accompanying example, from Walter 
Odington’s treatise [cf. CS i, 247], serves 
as an illustration. Cf. also *HAMy nos. 
32c and 33b. Better known, though not 
usually recognized as such, is the strict 
application of Stimmtausch in all the 
•rounds (circle canons). See also •Repe- 
tition. Cf. J. Handschin, in ZMW x, 535. 

Stimmung [G.]. (i) Mood; thus, 

Stimmungsbildy title for pieces meant to 
express some definite mood. — (2) Tun- 
ing, intonation, e.g., reine Stimmungy 
just intonation; also the process of tuning 
an instrument. — (3) Pitch. 

Sting. See under •Vibrato (i), 

Stinguendo [It.]. Fading out. 

Stirando, stiracchiando [It.]. Re- 
tarding (lit. “stretching”). 

Stockhorn. •Pibgorn. 

Stollen [G.]. See under •Barform. 
Sometimes used as a term for exposition 
which, in sonata-form, corresponds to the 
Stollen of the medieval Bar. 

Stop. On the organ, the handle by which 
the organ-player can draw on or shut off 
the various registers. The term is also 
used to denote the •registers themselves 
[see •Organ II, III]. The stops acting on 
pipes are more specifically called sounding 
(speaking) stops, as distinct from those 
which control couplers and similar me- 
chanical devices. A stop is called short- 
stop (half-stop) if the pipes governed by 
it do not go through the whole compass; 
in particular, it is called a divided stop if 
the whole rank of pipes is divided into a 
lower and upper half, each having a sep- 
arate stop. — Stops also occur in a limited 
number on •harpsichords. 

Stopped notes. See •Horn I. 

Stopped pipe. See •Organ IX; also 
•Wind instruments III. 


[710] 




STOPPING 


STRINGED INSTRUMENTS 


Stopping, (i) On stringed instruments 
(violins, lutes), the placing of the tips of 
the fingers of the left hand so that they 
shorten the vibrating length of the string. 
See ’••‘Double stops. — (2) On the natural 
horn, see ’••‘Horn. 

Stracciacalando [It.]. Prattling. 

Stradivarius violins (frequently ab- 
breviated Strad). See * Violin. 

Straff [G.j. Tense. 

Strambotto. A type of 15th-century 
Italian poetry, written in stanzas of eight 
lines in iambic pentameters, with the 
rhyme scheme ab ab ab ab or, more fre- 
quently, abababcc (the latter type is 
known as ottava rima\ cf. Byron’s “Don 
Juan”). In Petrucci’s *Frottole (1504- 
14) strambotti are composed in strophic 
form, the music of the first two lines be- 
ing repeated four times [Ex. in RiHM 
ii.i, 356]. Later examples are through- 
composed, in the manner of the madrigal. 
For literature see under ’••‘Frottola. 

Strascinando [It.]. Dragging, slur- 
ring. 

Strathspey. A slow Scottish dance in 
-meter, with many dotted notes, fre- 
quently in the inverted arrangement of 
the ’••'Scotch snap. The name, derived 
from the strath (valley) of the Spey, was 
originally coterminous with *reel; later, 
the term reel was given to somewhat 
quicker dances in a more smoothly flow- 
ing rhythm, lacking dotted notes. Im- 
portant early collections of strathspeys 
(reels) are: A. Cummings, A Collection 
of Strathspeys or Old-Highland Reels . . • 
(Strathspey, 1780); Niel Gow, A Collec- 
tion (A Second . . . , Sixth Collection) of 
Strathspey Reels (Dunkeld, 1784-1822). 
Niel Gow (1727-1807) was the most fa- 
mous performer of strathspeys and reels. 

Stravagante [It.]. Extravagant, fan- 
tastic. 

Stravaganza [It., extravagance]. Gen- 
eral term for pieces in free style or involv- 
ing some sort of fanciful treatment. As 
early as the end of the i6th century the 

[71 


name was used by Giov. Macque (d. 1614) 
for a prelude in free style [see ^Editions 
XVII, 4, pp. 60, 69]. 

Strawfiddle. See ^Xylophone. 

Straziante [It.]. “Tearing,” piercing. 

Street organ, hand organ. A ♦me- 
chanical instrument of the barrel-and-pin 
principle in which the pins operate reed 
pipes similar to those of the organ. A 
crank turns the barrel and also operates 
a bellows which furnishes the air to set 
the reeds into vibration. The instrument, 
which is associated with the Italian street 
musician and his monkey, is popularly 
but erroneously called ♦hurdy-gurdy. 

Streich- [G. streichen^ to bow] . Streich- 
instrumente, bowed instruments. Streich- 
quartett {-quintett), string quartet (quin- 
tet). Streichhlavier^ piano-violin [see 
♦Sostenente pianoforte]. 

Strepitoso [It.]. Noisy. 

Stretta [It.]. Same as ♦stretto (2). 

Stretto [It., close], (i) In a fugue, the 
imitation of the subject in close succes- 
sion, with the answer coming in before the 
subject is completed [G. Engfuhrung^, 
The resulting dovetailing of the subject 
with its imitation brings about an increase 
of intensity which is particularly suitable 
for a climactic conclusion of the fugue 
[see the illustration, from the fugue in D, 



Wt, CL ii]. — (2) In non-fugal composi- 
tions stretto {stretta) means a concluding 
section in increased speed, as, e.g., at the 
end of the last movement of Beethoven’s 
Fifth Symphony. 

Strich [G.]. Bow stroke. 

Stringed instruments. Instruments 
in which the sound-producing agent is a 
stretched string. The scientific name is 

i] 



STRINGENDO 

chordophone [see under ^Instruments IV 
for their classification]. The most im- 
portant members of this large group are 
the violin (and its family), the harp, and 
the piano. In each of these instruments a 
different manner of sound generation is 
used, namely, bowing, plucking, or strik- 
ing by hammer. Ordinarily, the name 
stringed instruments (“strings”) denotes 
the members of the violin family or of 
the violin type. Cf. H. Panum, The 
Stringed Instruments of the Middle Ages 
(1941); A. Riihlmann, Geschichte der 
Bogeninstrumente ( 1 882) . 

Stringendo [It.]. Quickening, accele- 
rando. 

String quartet [F. quatuor h cordes\ 
G. Streichquartett\, Chamber music for 
four strings, practically always first and 
second violin, viola, and cello. The string 
quartet is the chief type of ^chamber mu- 
sic and is frequently considered, by seri- 
ous musicians as well as by cultured ama- 
teurs, the ideal type of music, because “it 
always says what is necessary, and never 
too much.” For its form, see the explana- 
tions given under ^Sonata. 

I. The Present Repertory, The present- 
day repertory of string quartets begins 
with the later quartets of Haydn (written 
between 1780 and 1790) and with those 
by Mozart written in the same decade. 
In these works Haydn and Mozart estab- 
lished the string quartet not only as a 
definite ensemble and form, but also 
stylistically as the realization of that ideal 
perception of “foursome companionship” 
w’hich — in spite of all stylistic changes 
and a certain amount of side-stepping in 
the late 19th century — has always re- 
mained the basic principle of quartet 
writing. Their heritage was taken over 
by Beethoven whose earlier works (op. 
18, nos. 1-6, 1801; op. 59, ^Russian quar- 
tets, 1808) are what might be called 
“Haydn quartets in Beethoven’s lan- 
guage,” while his late quartets (opp. 127, 
130--133, 135) lead far away from “dis- 
tinguished entertainment” into a realm 
of sublime thought and of transcendental 
subjectivism. Beethoven’s successor was 
Franz Schubert whose late quartets (A 


STRING QUARTET 

minor, D minor) deserve much more 
recognition (and performance) than is 
generally awarded them. While the quar- 
tets of the immediately following period 
(Cherubini, Schumann, Mendelssohn) 
are of secondary importance, a new peak 
is reached in the quartets of Brahms (op. 
51, op. 67) who filled the traditional form 
wnth a new expression of restrained Ro- 
manticism. The Romantic period of the 
string quartet came to its conclusion with 
the works of Dvorak (eight quartets, 
1874-1895), Franck (D minor, 1889), 
d’Indy (op. 35, 1890; op. 45, 1897; op. 96, 
1930), and Max Reger (opp. 54, 74, 109, 

121, 133)- 

The French impressionism with its em- 
phasis on coloristic effects and the tur- 
bulent decades of the early 20th century 
with their complete disintegration of all 
previous standards [see *New music] 
were not particularly favorable to the 
cultivation of so traditional a form as the 
quartet. Nonetheless, the quartets of this 
period are interesting documents showing 
the attempt to utilize the medium of 
strings as a vehicle for impressionistic 
methods (Debussy, Ravel); for atonality 
(Schonberg, Alban Berg, Webern); for 
twelve-tone technique (Schonberg, op. 
30); for motoric and percussive rhythms 
(Bartok, nos. 3 and 4); for neo-classical 
texture (Stravinsky, Sessions, Piston); for 
an archai|^ folklorism (Malipiero, Rispetti 
€ strambotti) ; for quarter-tone technique 
(Bartok, no. 6, Burletta), etc. 

II. History. The string quartet is one 
of the most recent types of music. To 
trace it back to the i6th or early 17th cen- 
tury, as is occasionally done, is somewhat 
amateurish, not only because the four- 
voice chamber music of this period 
(*ricercares and similar pieces by Isaac, 
Hofhaimer, Senfl, Willaert, and Pado- 
vano; instrumental *canzonas by Ma- 
schera and many others) is, needless to 
say, entirely different from the modern 
quartet in form and style but, particular- 
ly, because it has no historical connection 
with the latter, since the medium of four 
strings was almost completely abandoned 
in the Baroque period, except in England 
where the *fancy was cultivated until c. 


[712] 



STRING QUARTET 

1680. Still more amateurish is the at- 
tempt, made in a recent reference book, 
to single out a special composition (by 
Allegri, 1582-1652) as ‘‘the first work 
for four stringed instruments” [see also 
A. Eaglefield-Hull, in MQ xv]. Even be- 
fore Allegri v^as born a great number of 
such pieces had been written any one of 
which might just as well be called “the 
first string quartet.” During the first half 
of the 17th century quite a number of 
four-voice instrumental pieces were writ- 
ten in Italy and Germany; these, however, 
would seem to have been destined for 
small string orchestras rather than for a 
quartet [see ^Sonata B, II, close] . Around 
1675 the four-part ensemble was largely 
abandoned, and the ^trio sonata became 
the chief type of chamber music during 
the later Baroque period. 

Certain sonatas by Alessandro Scarlatti 
(1659-1725) bear the (authentic?) re- 
mark per due violini^ violetta, e violon- 
cello^ the earliest extant indication of the 
medium of the modern string quartet. 
Its history proper, however, does not be- 
gin much before 1750. The question of 
precedence is very difficult to settle since 
various claimants lived at the same time 
(Tartini, 1692-1770; Sammartini, 1705- 
75; Franz Xaver Richter, 1709-89; cf. 
DTB 15), while others (Starzer; cf. 
DTOe 15. ii; Pugnani; Boccherini; Ca- 
nales; Karl Stamitz; Anton Stamitz; 
Gyrowetz) belong to the gei^&ation of 
Haydn (b. 1732). In general, it can be 
said that the earliest string quartets (in- 
cluding those of the young Haydn) are 
orchestral rather than chamber music, as 
they were performed by several players to 
the part. Their form is frequently that of 
the ^divertimento. Haydn wrote 83 quar- 
tets, Boccherini 91, Gyrowetz 60. 

Lit.: W. Altmann, Handbuch fur 
Streichquartett-Spieler (1928); J. Lener, 
The Technique of String Quartet Flay- 
tng\ M. D. H. Norton, String Quartet 
Playing (1925); E. Heimeran and B. 
Aulich, The Well-Tempered String Quar- 
tet (1938); J. dc Marliave, Beethovens 
String Quartets (1928); M. Pincherle, 
“On the Origins of the String Quartet” 
{MQ xv); A. Sandberger, “Zur Gcschich- 


STROPHIC BASS 

te des Haydn’sehen Streichquartetts” (in 
Gesammelte Aufsatze i, 224!!); M. Scott, 
“Haydn's ‘83' ” (ML xi, no. 3); E. Goos- 
sens, “The String Quartet since Brahms” 
(ML iii, no. 4). See also •Chamber music. 

String quintet. Chamber music for 
five strings. See •Quintet. 

Strings. Colloquial abbreviation for the 
stringed instruments of the orchestra 
(string section) or of the string quartet, 
quintet, etc. 

String trio. Chamber music for three 
strings. See •Trio. 

Strisciando [It.]. Smooth, slurred; 
also glissando. 

Strohfiedel [G.]. *Strawfiddle [see 
•Xylophone] . 

Stroh violin (cello). Instrument in- 
vented by Charles Stroh in 1901 for the 
purpose of recording, in which the usual 
body is replaced by an aluminum plate 
connecting with an amplifying horn. 

Stromento [It.]. Instrument. Stro- 
mentato, instrumented, accompanied by 
instruments; see •Recitative. Stromenti 
a cordey stringed instruments; d*arcOy 
bowed instruments; di legnOy wood-wind 
instruments; d'ottone or di metallOy brass 
instruments; a percossUy percussion in- 
struments; a fiato or di ventOy wind in- 
struments; da tastOy keyboard instruments. 

Strophenbass [G.]. See •Strophic 
bass. 

Strophenlied [G.]. Strophic song. 

Strophic [from Gr. strophey stanza]. 
A song is termed strophic if all the stanzas 
of the text are sung to the same music. 
The opposite treatment, with new music 
to each stanza, is called durchhpmponiert 
or •through-composed. Generally the 
former method is preferred for simple 
lyrical texts, the latter for texts of a dra- 
matic character and for more refined lyrics 
involving subtle shades of mood and ex- 
pression. 

Strophic bass. The term refers to a 
method, frequent in the early cantatas. 


[713] 



STROPHIC SONG 


SUBDOMINANT 


of using the same bass line for all the 
stanzas of a song, with varying melodies 
in the upper part. From the ‘"'ground 
proper {basso ostinato) the strophic bass 
is distinguished by its considerably longer 
extension and by the fact that it comes to 
a definite close at its end. Briefly, basso 
ostinato and strophic bass are examples 
of continuous and sectional ’"'variation, 
respectively. A typical example of strophic 
bass (by Alessandro Grand i, 1620) is re- 
produced in RiHM ii.2, 39-45. See *Can- 
tata I; *Aria III; "“Ruggiero. 

Strophic song. See under ♦Through- 
composed. 

Strophicus. See ♦Neumes I. 

Strumento d’acciaio. See under 
♦Glockenspiel, 

Stiick [G.]. Piece, composition. 

Sturmisch [G.]. Stormy, passionate. 

Sturze [G.]. Bell of the horn. Sturze 
hoch, i.e., the bell turned upward. 

Stufe [G.]. Degree (of the scale). 

Stundenofficium [G.], ♦Office hours. 

Stutzflugel [G.]. Baby grand piano. 

Style [F. style] G. Stil] It. stile\, “Dis- 
tinctive or characteristic mode of presen- 
tation, construction, or execution in any 
art” (Webster). Musical style, therefore, 
means “characteristic language” or “char- 
acteristic handwriting,” particularly with 
reference to the details of a composition, 
as distinguished from its large outlines, 
i.e., ♦form. By and large, form and style 
stand in the relationship of “fixed” and 
“fluid,” there being many pieces in the 
same form, but differing in style (e.g., 
sonatas by Beethoven and by Brahms). 
Each style, however, also has its “fixed” 
features which recur in different forms 
(e.g., the style in all the works of Mo- 
zart). 

There exists a full “scale” of stylistic 
points of view leading from the more 
limited ones to those of widest applica- 
tion. The term style may be applied: to 
single works (e.g., the style of Tristan as 


compared with that of the Meister singer: 
work style); to composers (e.g., the style 
of Wagner as compared with that of Bee- 
thoven: personal style); to types of com- 
position (operatic style, symphonic style, 
motet style, church style); to mediums 
(instrumental style, vocal style, keyboard 
style); to methods of composition (con- 
trapuntal style, homophonic style, mo- 
nodic style); to nations (French style, 
German style); to periods (Baroque style. 
Romantic style); etc. Naturally, several 
such points of view may be combined in- 
to one, as, e.g., “Beethoven’s symphonic 
style,” “German Romantic style,” “instru- 
mental style of the Baroque,” etc. 

The stylistic point of view was intro- 
duced into music by the Italian writers of 
the 17th century who invented a remark- 
able vocabulary to denote various “lan- 
guages” of music [see ♦Stile]. The 
founder of the modern stylistic analysis is 
Guido Adler (1855-1940). 

Lit.: G. Adler, Der Stil in der Musi\ 
(1911); id.y Prinzipien und Arten dcs 
musi\alischen Stils (2d ed., 1929); E. 
Katz, Die musi\alischen Stilbegri^e des 
ly, Jahrhunderts (Diss. Freiburg 1926); 
G. Adler, “Style-Criticism” {MQ xx); E. 
Closson, “Du style” {AM iii, no. 3); K. 
Meyer, “Zum Stilproblem in der Musik,” 
{ZMW v); A. Sobering, “Historische 
und nationale Klangstile” {JMP xxxiv). 

Style galant [F.]. ♦Gallant style. 

Suave [It.]. Sweet. 

Subdiapente; subdiatessaron. See 

♦Diapentc; Diatessaron. 

Subdominant. The fourth degree of 
the scale (f in C major or C minor), so 
called because this tone is a fifth below 
{sub) the tonic, just as the dominant is a 
fifth above it [see ♦Scale degrees]. In 
harmonic analysis the triad of the sub- 
dominant is indicated IV or S. It occurs 
chiefly in the combination IV V I, i.e., as 
the antepenultimate chord in cadences. 
In early music it frequently occurs as the 
penultimate chord IV I, a combination 
known as plagal cadence. More than any 
other triad, the subdominant is capable of 


[714] 



SUBITO 


SUBTONIC 


modifications which, in the current sys- 
tem of ♦harmonic analysis, are considered 
and labeled as different chords with dif- 


ffH 




“TV* 



jt/O ft/O fejQ 1 

* 



r 

33::: 

I 


ferent roots [cf. Ex.], although from a 
functional point of view they are essen- 
tially identical [see ♦Functional har- 
mony]. 

Subito [It.]. Suddenly. 

Subject [F. sujet^ th^me\ G. Thema\ It. 
temUy soggetto\, A melody which, by vir- 
tue of its characteristic design, its promi- 
nent position, or its special treatment, be- 
comes a basic factor in the structure of the 
composition. The subject (or, if there are 
several, the main subject) is always stated 
at the outset of the composition. In ♦so- 
nata-form there are normally two subjects 
or, in more extended examples, two groups 
of subjects. A fugue usually has only one 
subject, except in special types such as 
double or triple fugues. 

The development of music shows an 
ever-increasing importance of musical 
subjects as the staple of the composition 
and as an element of unification. Early 
music (prior to 1500) has no subjects 
proper, unless the borrowed ♦cantus firmi, 
which form the basis of numerous com- 
positions (motets), are considered as such. 
During the second half of the 15th cen- 
tury (Ockeghem, Isaac) characteristic 
figures (motives) were gradually adopted 
as material for short passages, in imita- 
tion, sequential treatment, or occasionally 
as ♦ostinati. The use of identical or sim- 
ilar motives for the beginning of all the 
movements of a Mass may also be men- 
tioned as indicative of a certain tendency 
towards unification [see ♦Mass B, II]. 
The fully developed imitative style of the 
Josquin period used numerous subjects 
in succession, one for each ♦point of imi- 
tation. The contemporary ♦ricercares 
usually reduce the number of such sub- 


jects, and make more extensive use of 
each one. In fact, they can already be con- 
sidered as “fugues in several sections,” 
each fugue being based on one theme. 
An important step forward occurs in the 
♦variation-canzonas (-ricercares) of Fres- 
cobaldi, which use rhythmic modifica- 
tions of one and the same subject for the 
different sections of the piece [see ♦Can- 
zona (5) I]. The development of the 
monothematic fugue is described under 
♦Fugue. Bach brought this form to its 
peak of perfection, and also created the 
“ideal type” of fugal subjects [see ^Sog- 
getto]. New efforts had to be made in 
order to develop that different type of 
subjects which suited the needs of the 
sonata. The details of the development 
leading from the “continuous melody” of 
the sonata da chiesa (Bach, Handel) to 
the incisive and individualized subjects 
of the late Haydn and Mozart (r. 1780) 
are too involved to be indicated in a brief 
summary. Suffice it to mention D. Scar- 
latti, Pergolesi, J. Stamitz, Johann Chris- 
tian Bach, as landmarks on this road. 

Submediant. See ♦Scale degrees. 

Subsemitonium. The “semitone be- 
low the tonic,” an older term for the lead- 
ing tone (e.g., fl^g), in contradistinction 
to the subtoniuniy i.e., the whole-tone be- 
low the tonic (e.g., f-g). These terms are 
important in the theory of the ♦church 
modes, all of which have the subtonium, 
except for the Lydian and Ionian. The 
replacemepr, in any of the other modes, 
of the subtonium by the subsemitonium 
(e.g., the use of f# in Mixolydian) was 
considered as ♦musica ficta. 

Subsidiary subject. A *subject of 
lesser importance, particularly one of 
those subjects which, in the fully grown 
examples of sonata-form, follow after the 
“first subject” or the “second subject,” 
thus forming the “first group” or the 
“second group.” 

Subtonic. The tone “below the tonic,” 
i.e., the leading tone, a semitone below 
the tonic [see ♦Scale degrees]. In 16th- 
century theory, however, subtonium 




SUITE 


SUITE 


means “whole-tone below the tonic,” in 
distinction from ^subsemitonium. 

Suite. An important instrumental form 
of Baroque music, consisting of a number 
of movements, each in the character of a 
dance, and all in the same key. 

I. The Suite of Bach, The standard 
scheme of the suite as it occurs with Bach 
is A-C-S— O— G, where A stands for *al- 
lemande, C for *courante, S for *sara- 
bande, G for *gigue, and O for what is 
called optional dance or optional group, 
i.e., one or several dances of various types, 
chiefly *minuet, *bourree, ^gavotte, *pas- 
sepied, ^polonaise, *rigaudon, ^anglaise, 
*loure, *air. Bach wrote for the harpsi- 
chord, aside from some single suites, six 
“English Suites,” six “French Suites,” 
and six “Partitas.” Only the last term, 
borrowed from Italian terminology, has 
a certain significance since some of the 
movements show Italian features [see 
’"‘Partita]. The English suites and the 
Partitas are preceded by an introductory 
piece (prelude). The preludes of the 
English suites are (except for the first) in 
the character of a *concerto-grosso move- 
ment. Those of the first three partitas are 
modeled after the *Inventions (as are also 
numerous preludes of the * Well-tem- 
pered Clavier) y that of the fourth is a 
French overture [see ^Overture I], and 
the last two borrow their style from the 
•toccata. The dance movements are in- 
variably in binary form, either symmetri- 
cal (i.e., with both sections of about the 
same length) or asymmetrical, i.e., with 
the second section expanded in a manner 
foreshadowing the sonata-form [see •Bi- 
nary and ternary; •Sonata-form]. Stylis- 
tically the dances of the optional group 
form a contrast to the others, being usu- 
ally simpler in style and more clearly sug- 
gestive of dance types. The reason for this 
ihiportant difference is that the allemande, 
courante, sarabande, gigue, are much 
older types which originated in the i6th 
century and which, at the time of their 
adoption as the constitutional elements of 
the suite {c, 1650) had already lost their 
dance connotation and had become ideal- 
ized types, rhythmically weakened but 


elaborate in texture and style. The op- 
tional dances, on the other hand, origi- 
nated in the French ballets of the late 17th 
century (Lully) and retained, even in the 
latest suites (Bach,r. 1735) their character 
as actual dance music. 

II. The Modern Suite, The suite be- 
came practically extinct after 1750, leav- 
ing only traces in the •divertimento and 
•cassation as well as in the minuet of the 
classical •sonata (symphony). An anti- 
quarian attempt at revival was made by 
Franz Lachner (1803-90) in his eight 
orchestral suites, written in a learned con- 
trapuntal style. Of greater importance 
was the establishment of a modern type 
of suite in which the traditional scheme 
of dances is replaced by a free succession 
of movements of different character, fre- 
quently in the character of national 
dances or ballet dances. This type of or- 
chestral music gained favor in the i88o’s 
and 1890’s. Particularly frequent are or- 
chestral arrangements from operas and 
ballets, e.g., Bizet’s Arlesienne Suite 
(from the play with incidental music, 
U Arlesienne y 1872), Grieg’s Peer Gynt 
Suite (from the incidental music to Ib- 
sen’s play, 1875), Tchaikovsky’s Nut- 
cracker Suite (from the ballet, 1892), 
Stravinsky’s Petrouch\a Suite (from the 
ballet, 1911). In the period from 1915 to 
1930 the “back-to-Bach” movement led 
to a somewhat demonstrative revival of 
the abstract (non-operatic) suite, and 
Bach’s example served as welcome pre- 
text for the introduction of jazz dances 
into the field of art music (Hindemith, 
Suite i^22\ Krenek, Schulhoff, Conrad 
Beck). 

III. The Suite before Bach, The devel- 
opment leading to the suites of Bach pre- 
sents an interesting picture of interna- 
tional cooperation. Briefly stated, Italy 
contributed the early development (i6th 
century), England the gigue, Spain the 
sarabande, France the great wealth of 
dance types (early 17th century), and 
Germany the conception of the suite as a 
unified and definite musical form. 

The origin of the suite is usually looked 
for in the frequent combinations of two 
dances, one in duple time, the other in 



SUITE 


SUITE 


triple time, such as occur throughout the 
1 6th century, c.g., Pavanc — Galliard or 
Passamezzo — Saltarello [see ^Nachtanz] . 
More important than these somewhat ir- 
relevant combinations are the combina- 
tions, not infrequent in 16th-century lute 
books, of three or more dances played in 
succession. Examples are the combination 
Basse danse- Recoupe — Tor dion which 
occurs in the lute books of Attaingnant 
( 1529), Passamezzo — Gagliarda — Pado- 
vano in that of Rotta (1546), or Passa- 
mezzo — Padovano — Saltarello — Ripresa 
in that of Waisselius (1573). After 1600 
this course was further pursued by Ger- 
man composers such as Paul Peuerl, Isaak 
Posch (both in DTOe 36.ii), Samuel 
Scheldt (1587—1654), and Hermann 
Schein (1586-1630), each of whom es- 
tablished his own standard form, e.g., 
Paduana — Intrada — Dantz — Gagliard 
(Peuerl, 1611; cf. EiBM, no. 26), or Pa- 
vana - Galliarde — Courante — Allemanda 
-Tripla (Schein, Banchetto musicale, 
1617; cf. HAMy no. 199). While the idea 
of the suite as a unified musical form is 
clearly present in these compositions, it is 
lacking in the works of French composers 
such as Jean-Baptiste Besard (1567-?), 
Chambonnieres (1602-72), Louis Cou- 
perin (1626-61), d’Anglebert (1635-?), 
who merely arranged the dances either 
according to types (Besard, Thesaurus 
hartnonicuSy 1603: one “Livre” of alle- 
mandes, another of courantes, .etc.) or, 
later, according to keys, but in sfech large 
numbers as to exclude the idea of a defi- 
nite form. E.g., a “suite” by Chambon- 
nieres, as contained in the Bauyn-MSS 
{c, 1650) includes 5 allemandes, ii cou- 
rantes, 4 sarabandes, 2 gigues, 5 courantes, 
I chaconne — all in C major. This loose 
aggregation still exists in the harpsichord 
works of Francois Couperin (publ. 1713- 
30) who, perhaps deliberately, avoids the 
name suite — then long established — 
and prefers the more suitable name “Or- 
dre” which might well be applied in the 
case of the earlier French composers like- 
wise. 

If the French failed to grasp the idea of 
the suite as a musical form, they made 
other important contributions to its de- 


velopment. Not only did they transform 
the allemande, courante, gigue, sara- 
bande, from their 16th-century plainness 
to Baroque refinement (the ^courante is 
particularly interesting in this respect), 
but they also enlarged the repertory by 
those numerous dances which were 
adopted, around 1700, into the optional 
group of the suite. 

To the best of our knowledge the crea- 
tion of the classical suite must be credited 
to Johann Jacob Froberger (1616—67) 
who, born in Stuttgart, educated partly 
in Rome and spending the late time of his 
life in France, was eminently suited for 
the task of imbuing the German “Renais- 
sance”-suite of Peuerl and Schein with the 
stylistic achievements of the French Ba- 
roque. It must be noted that, around 
1650, the prevailing type of suite was one 
in three movements only: A— C-S. Many 
suites of Froberger have this scheme, as 
do also all those by Kindermann {c, 1645; 
cf. DTB 21 1 2^) and nearly all the instru- 
mental suites of the Kassel MS (ed. by 
ficorchevillc). The gigue was introduced 
at a slightly later time as an “optional” 
dance, either before or after the courante, 
with the sarabande retaining its position 
as the concluding movement: A-G-G— S 
or A-G— C-S. In Froberger's autograph 
MSS his four-movement suites invariably 
close with the sarabande, as do also, e.g., 
Rosenmiiller’s Sonate da camera of 1670 
and the suites in M. Locke’s Melothesia 
(1673). One will hardly go wrong in 
interpreting this arrangement, which re- 
serves the slow dance for the conclusion, 
as an evidence of that “Romantic” spirit 
which so frequently steps forth in Baroque 
music [see remark under ^Classicism] . 
It was not until after Froberger’s death 
that the positions of the sarabande and 
the gigue were exchanged, as appears 
from the earliest printed edition of his 
suites (published posthumously in 1693) 
which bears the remark: “mis cn meilleur 
ordre” (put in better order). Other ex- 
amples of the A-C-S-G arrangement 
occur in the suites of Georg Bohm ( 1661— 

1733)- 

Around 1700 we find the earliest exam- 
ples of the “complete suite,” e.g., in Johann 


[717] 



SUITE 


SUMER IS ICUMEN IN 


Krieger’s suites (Seeks Musi\aUsche Par- 
tieriy 1697; DTB 18; see ^Partita) which 
follow the scheme A-C~S-G -0 and in 
those of Pachelbel (1699; DTB 2.i) which 
have the arrangement A-C-O-S-G. 

}. S. Bach seems to have been the first to 
place the O-group before the gigue. 

IV. The Sonata da Camera, Side by 
side with this “central development*’ there 
were others of a somewhat freer char- 
acter, chiefly in the field of chamber and 
of orchestral music. In Italy the suite was 
cultivated mainly as a chamber music 
type, under the name of sonata da camera 
(chamber sonata) as opposed to the so- 
nata da chiesa [see ^Sonata B, II]. As 
early as 1629 and 1637 we encounter 
instrumental suites such as Sinfonia - 
(Brando) -Gagliarda-Corrente in pub- 
lications by G. B. Buonamente [cf. P. 
Nettl, in ZMW ixj. The earliest extant 
record of the term sonata da camera is in 
a publication (from 1667) of the German 
Johann Rosenmuller ( 1620-84) which con- 
tains pieces mostly in the form Sinfonia — 
Allemanda - Corrente - Intrada - Ballo ~ 
Sarabande [cf. DdT 18; HAM, no. 218]. 
After Buonamente no other Italian se- 
nate da camera are known until Corelli’s 
op. 2 (1685) and op. 4 (1694), containing 
twelve suites each, mostly in four move- 
ments such as Preludio — Allemanda - 
Corrente (or Sarabanda) — Giga (or Ga- 
votta) [Ex. in HAM, no. 253]. Vera- 
cini’s Sonate da camera (op. i) show the 
tendency towards amalgamation with the 
sonata da chiesa, by the inclusion of free 
movements, e.g., Fantasia - Allegro - 
Allemanda — Pastorale -- Giga. 

V. The French Overture, Still another 
type of suite, designed for orchestral per- 
formance, originated (we may assume) 
in a practice similar to that exemplified 
by, e.g., Tchaikovsky’s Nutcracker Suite, 
i.c., the performance of Lully’s operas or 
stage ballets “in abstracto,” as a succession 
of their most successful dance numbers 
preceded by the operatic overture. This 
idea was taken over by numerous Ger- 
man composers who wrote orchestral 
suites consisting of a French overture [sec 
*Overturc I] followed by a series of 
“modern” dances, such as rigaudon, 


marche, chaconne, bourr( 5 , traquenard, 
and many others. Such suites, briefly 
called “Ouverture,” were written by Jo- 
hann S. Kusser (Composition suivant la 
methode jrangaise, 1682), Georg Muflat 
(Florilegium, 1695/96; DTOe i.i, i.ii), 
J. K. F. Fischer (Le Journal de Printemps, 
1695; DdT 10), J. A. Schmierer (Zodia- 
cus musicus, 1698; ibid.), Joh. Jos. Fux 
(Concentus musico-instrumentalis, 1701; 
DTOe 23.ii), Telemann (Musique de 
table, 1733; DdT 61/62), and J. S. Bach 
(4 Orchestral Suites). Bach also trans- 
ferred this type to the harpsichord in his 
Franzdsische Ouverture (contained in the 
^Clavierubung iii, 1739) as did Georg 
Bohm before him [see his Sdmtliche 
Werhe i (1927), no. 2]. In its use of 
“modern” dances this suite comes much 
closer to the 19th-century type than the 
idealized “classical” suite. 

Lit.: K. Nef, Geschichte der Sinfonie 
und der Suite (1921); F. Blume, Studien 
zur V or geschichte der Orchester-suite im 
Jahrhundert (1925); G. Conda- 
min. La Suite instrumentale (1905); 
AdHM i, 5631!; E. Noack, “Ein Beitrag 
zur Geschichte der alteren deutschen 
Suite” (AMW ii); T. Norlind, “Zur Ge- 
schichte der Suite” (SIM vii); G. Adler, 
in RMl iii (Gottlieb Muffat); B. Wojci- 
kowna, in ZMW v (Joh. Fischer). 

Suivez [F.]. Same as *colla parte. 

Sul [It.]. On, at. Sul G, on the G-string 
of the violin. Sul ponticello indicates 
bowing near the bridge; sul tasto, sulla 
tastiera, bowing near the finger board. 
See ^Bowing (k), ( 1 ). 

Sumer is icumen in, A famous com- 
position of r. 1310 [see Addenda, p. 825], 
preserved in MS Brit. Mus. Harleyan 
gyS (facs. reprod. in GD v, frontis- 
piece; in OH i, 333, and elsewhere) writ- 
ten in the form of two simultaneous cir- 
cular canons, the upper in four parts, the 
lower (called pes in the original) in two. 
This piece, called *rota in the original, is 
remarkable not only as the oldest existing 
canon, but also for its charming and folk' 
like character in melody as well as in har- 
mony. Its artistic and historic signifi- 



SUMMATION(AL) TONES SWEDISH MUSIC 


cance, however, is frequently grossly over- 
rated. Regarding the former point it may 
be noticed that its very structure as a cir- 
cular canon excludes really great artistic 
excellence, much in the same way as is the 
case with the innumerable rounds of the 
1 8th and 19th centuries, even including 
those by Haydn, Mozart, or Beethoven. 
Regarding the latter point it suffices to 
mention that a canon-like exchange of 
parts (*Stimmtausch) is encountered 
frequently in the organa quadrupla of 
Perotinus {c. 1160-1220; see *Ars anti- 
qua) who treats this device with much 
more imagination than the “monk of 
Reading.” A statement such as that 
quoted in GD v, 191 (“. . . artistically we 
may say that nothing written for two hun- 
dred years afterwards can touch it”) 
shows so clearly a preponderance of en- 
thusiasm over historical knowledge that 
it cannot be taken seriously. 

Brahms has imitated the construction 
of the Sumer canon in his op. 113 {Ka- 
nons)y no. 13, 

Summation (al) tones. Sec *Combi- 
nation tones. 

Superdominant. See *Scale degrees. 

Superius. See *Part books. 

Supertonic. See *Scale degrees. 

Surprise Symphony. Haydn’s Sym- 
phony in G major (no. 3 of the Salomon 
Symphonies; no. 94 of the current enu- 
meration), composed in 1791; so called 
on account of the “surprise” caused by 
the sudden fl-chord in the middle of the 
peaceful theme of the slow movement. 
Another name, referring to the same ef- 
fect, is Drum Stroke Symphony. 

Suspension, (i) See *Nonharmonic 
tones II. — (2) An 18th-century agr^- 
ment, in which the written note is slighdy 
delayed by a short rest: 

Suspirium [L.]. Old name of the rest 
of the v^lue of a minima^ the equivalent 
of the modern half-note. The modern 


French term soupir, however, denotes a 
quarter-note rest. See *Notes. 

Sussurando [It.]. Whispering. 

Sustaining pedal. The sostenuto ped- 
al (middle pedal) of the ^pianoforte. 
Sometimes used for the damper pedal 
(right pedal). 

Svegliando [It.]. Brisk, alert. 

Svelto [It.]. Smart, quick. 

Svolgimento [It.]. Development. 

Sw. Abbreviation for Swell Organ. 

Swedish music. The tradition of Gre- 
gorian chant led, in the 13th century, to 
a national production of sequences [see 
Lit., Moberg] . Aside from this, very little 
is known about the music in Sweden 
prior to the 17th century. Dietrich Buxte- 
hude was born in the Swedish town of 
Helsingborg, but his German parentage, 
his life (mostly in Liibeck), and his work 
definitely classify him as a German com- 
poser, Another German, Gustav Diiben 
(1624-90), who became court conductor 
in 1640, is important as the compiler of a 
famous MS collection of music, now in 
the possession of the library of Upsala. 
His sons succeeded him in his position at 
the court. The first native composer of 
Sweden was Johan Helmich Roman 
(1694-1738), who studied in London 
under Ariosti and Pepusch, possibly also 
under Handel. He became director of the 
court music in 1729 and wrote a consid- 
erable number of instrumental and vocal 
pieces in the style of hlandel [cf. RiML, 
1538]. Johann Joachim Agrell (1701— 
63) spent most of his life in Germany 
(Kassel, Niirnberg) while, on the other 
hand, the German Johann Gottlieb Nau- 
mann (1741—1801) is worth mentioning 
for the success of his operas Amphion 
(1776) and Gustav Vasa (1783), both 
produced in Stockholm. Other Germans 
who played a role in the musical life of 
Sweden were G. J. Vogler (Abbe Vogler, 
1749-1814; opera Gustav Adolf och Ebba 
Brahcy 1788) and his pupil J. Martin 
Kraus (1756-1792; symphonies). Par- 
ticularly successful was the French-Swiss 


[719] 



SWEDISH MUSIC 


SWISS MUSIC 


Jean-Baptiste du Puy (1770-1822) with 
his opera Ungdom og Gals\ab (1806) 
which was on the repertoire of the Copen- 
hagen and Stockholm operas throughout 
the 19th century. 

Johan Fredrik Palm (1753-1821) and 
Olof Ahlstrom (1756-1838) were among 
the first to write Swedish songs and were 
also active in collecting Swedish folk 
songs. Bernard Crusell (1775-1838), a 
native of Finland, wrote chamber music 
for the clarinet, and songs to Tegner’s 
Frithiof. Passing over numerous other 
composers of minor importance, Franz 
Adolf Berwald (1796-1868) deserves 
mention as a composer of valuable sym- 
phonies, string quartets, and other cham- 
ber music. Ivar Hallstrom (1826-1901) 
gained a reputation as a composer of op- 
eras some of which show clearly national 
idioms, a fact which has earned him the 
title of “The Swedish Glinka.” August 
Soderman (1832-76) encouraged the na- 
tional movement by his orchestral bal- 
lades and solo songs. This movement, al- 
though widely supported by the public 
and by musical societies, did not, however, 
find a champion comparable in stature to 
the Norwegian Grieg. Andreas Hallen 
(1846-1925) wrote operas {Harold the 
Vil^ingy 1881) and symphonic poems in 
the styles of Wagner and Liszt, but with- 
out lasting success. Emil Sjogren (1853- 
1918) wrote piano pieces and songs in 
Romantic style, with a certain admixture 
of national idioms. Wilhelm Stenhammer 
(1871-1927) and Hugo Alfven (b. 1872) 
followed the direction inaugurated by 
Hallen, the former in symphonic poems, 
the latter in operas (also chamber music 
and songs). 

The Swedish music of the present day 
is represented mainly by Natanael Berg 
(b. 1879), Edwin Kallstenius (b. 1881), 
Ture Rangstrom (b. 1884), and Kurt At- 
terberg (b. 1887), whose works show the 
influence of Richard Strauss and Pfitzner. 

Lit.: LavE i.5, 2587!!; AdHM ii, iii8fl 
(modern); A. A. Moberg, Die schwe- 
dischen Sequenzen (1927); K. Valentin, 
Studien iiber die schwe dischen Vol\s- 
melodien (1865); A. Soubies, “La Mu- 
sique scandinave avant le xixe siecle” 


{RMl viii); C. A. Moberg, “Der gre- 
gorianische Gesang in Schweden” (K/, 
1932); id,y “Essais d operas en Suede sous 
Charles XII” (in ^Editions XXIV, B, 
3/4); T. Norlind, “Die Musikgeschichte 
Schwedens in den Jahren 1630-1730” 
{SIM i); id,y in SIM ii; /W., in Festschrift 
fur Johannes Wolf (1929). For Swedish 
literature cf. MoML, 774. 

Swell. In organs a contrivance to obtain 
a gradation of sound, crescendo and di- 
minuendo. It consists of a large room 
(swell box) built around one or more 
divisions of the pipes, and provided with 
shutters similar to those of Venetian blinds 
— hence the name Venetian swell [G. 
Jalousieschweller], The enclosed division 
is called swell organ, a name which also 
applies to the manual from which it is 
played. The swell box is opened and closed 
by a swell pedal, operated by the feet. The 
swell mechanism was invented in 1769 by 
Shudi, and was applied to harpsichords 
before it was adopted for the organ. See 
=»Organ III and VII. 

Swing. See *Jazz V. 

Swiss music. In the early Middle Ages 
the monastery of St. Gall was one of the 
chief centers of Gregorian chant. Its MSS, 
written in the so-called St. Gall neumes 
[see ^Neumes I], are among the most 
valuable sources of Gregorian chant [see 
^Editions XXIII A i, B i, 2] although 
their former position as the “true source 
of the chant” is no longer recognized (P. 
Wagner). In the 9th and loth centuries 
St. Gall became foremost in the writing 
of ^sequences (Notker, Tuotilo) while 
Hermannus Contractus (d. 1054) and 
Berno (d. 1048), both monks of the abbey 
of Reichenau, wrote important treatises 
{GS i, ii). In the 15th century organ 
building and organ playing flourished in 
Switzerland, and in the early i6th cen- 
tury we find here a highly important 
group of organ composers, Hans Kotter 
in Bern, Fridolin Sicher in St. Gall, and 
Johannes Buchner in Basle [see *Organ 
music I]. Above all stands Ludwig Senfl 
(1490-?), born in Zurich, and Eicnricus 
Glareanus (Heinrich Loris, 1488-1563), 


[720] 



SWISS MUSIC 


SYMPHONIC POEM 


the author of the ’••'Dodekachordon 
(1547). Benedictus Appenzeller [cf. W. 
Barclay Squire in SIM xiii], Sixtus Die- 
trich {c. 1490-1548), Gregor Meyer (fre- 
quently mentioned and quoted in the 
Dodekachordon), are other Josquin pu- 
pils of rank, while Johann Wannenmacher 
(d. 1551) is noteworthy particularly for 
his Bicinia germanica (1553). After 1550 
the impulse of the ^Humanism faded out, 
and musical activity declined consider- 
ably in Switzerland. Johann Melchior 
Gletle (d. before 1684) was a prolific com- 
poser of Masses, psalms, motets, and is 
interesting as the composer of some pieces 
for the *tromba marina. Heinrich Bins- 
wang (fl. 1700) from Weissenburg, better 
known as Albicastro, wrote trio sonatas 
and concertos. 

The inborn Swiss penchant for com- 
munity life and festive gatherings found 
an expression in the foundation of nu- 
merous choral societies — a movement 
which was inaugurated by Hans Georg 
Niigeli (1773-1836) and which brought 
about a remarkable repertory of outstand- 
ing compositions for male chorus, notably 
by Karl Attenhofer (1837-1914) and Frie- 
drich Hegar (1841-1927). The two out- 
standing representatives of modern Ger- 
man-Swiss music are Othmar Schoeck (b. 
1886), chiefly known as a writer of lyrical 
songs, and Hermann Suter (1870-1926), 
who wrote string quartets and sympho- 
nies. The connection with France and 
with the novel tendencies of the 20th cen- 
tury (*Ncw music) is represented by 
Frank Martin (b. 1890) and Ernst Levy 
(b. 1895, now in the United States), while 
the Germanic influence app)ears in Kon- 
rad Beck (b. 1901). The Swiss-born 
Ernest Bloch (b. 1880, now in the United 
States) is a champion of national Jewish 
music. 

Lit.: LavE i.5, 2665!!; AdHM ii, 10381!, 
1077!!; G. Becker, Musique en Suisse 
(new ed. 1923); A. Geering, Die schwei- 
zerischen Komponisten in der i, Hdlfte 
des 16. Jahrhunderts (Diss. Basle 1933) i 
K. Nef, \Musi\alische Wer\e schwei- 
zerischer Komponisten des 16,-18. Jahr- 
hundertSy 3 vols. (1927-34). For addi- 
tional bibl. cf. MoMLy 777. 


Syllabic style. See ^Gregorian chant 
III. 

Sympathetic strings. Strings which 
are not played upon but which merely 
serve to reinforce the sound of the bowed 
or plucked strings to which they run par- 
allel at a close distance, and to whose pitch 
they are tuned in unison or octave [see 
’•^Resonance]. Various old instruments 
had such strings, e.g., the *viola d’amore, 
the *viola bastarda, the *baryton, the 
^trornba marina. They have also been 
added, under the name of ^aliquot strings, 
to the highest register of pianos. Cf. T. L. 
Southgate, in PM A xlii. 

Symphonia [Gr., simultaneous sound], 
(i) Ancient Greek term for unison, as 
distinguished from antiphonidy the octave 
[see ’•^Antiphon] and ^paraphoniuy the 
fifth; also for consonance. — (2) In the 
Middle Ages the term was applied to vari- 
ous instruments, the drum (Isidorus de 
Sevilla, 7th century), the *hurdy-gurdy, 
also called cinfonie (Joh. de Muris, c, 
1300), the bagpipe (hence the modern 
name *zampogna), and a type of clavi- 
chord (i6th century). — (3) Beginning 
with the 17th century the name was used 
for various types of orchestral music which 
gradually led to the modern ’’‘'symphony, 
but which, for the sake of clarity and dis- 
tinction, are discussed in this book under 
the heading of ^sinfonia. 

Symphonic poem. I. Symphonic poem 
or tone poem is the name given to a type 
of 19th-century symphonic music which 
is based upon an extramusical idea, either 
poetic or descriptive. Thus the symphonic 
poem belongs to the general category 
known as ^program music of which it 
represents the most recent and most thor- 
ough embodiment. The term is usually 
restricted to compositions in one move- 
ment, while a programmatic composition 
which follows the scheme of the four- 
movement symphony is called program 
symphony. Beethoven’s Pastoral Sym- 
phonyy Berlioz’ Symphonie fantastique, 
Liszt’s symphonies Dante (1855) and 
Faust (1854—57), Dvorak’s symphony 
From the New World (1893) belong to 


[ 721 ] 



SYMPHONIC POEM 


SYMPHONIC POEM 

this category. The symphonic poem prop- Wheel (1871) and Phaeton (1873), and 
cr was inaugurated by Liszt in his one- by Franck with Les bolides (1876), Le 
movement compositions Ce qu on entend Chasseur maudit (1882), Les Djinns 
sur la montagne (1848, after a poem of (1885), Psychi (1886, with chorus). 
Victor Hugo), (1849, after Byron), HI. A new period of the symphonic 
Les Priludes (after Lamartine’s Medita- poem began in 1895 when Richard Strauss, 
tions poetiques), Mazeppa (1851, after after some preliminary works of lesser 
Hugo), Die Ideale (1857, after Schiller), importance {Aus Italien, 1887; Macbeth, 
Hunnenschlacht (^iheT 2i p^intinghyKsiul- iSSy;Don Juan, i888),madeanoutstand- 
bach, showing the slaughter of the Huns), ing contribution in his Tod und Ver^ 
Hamlet (1858), etc. Usually these com- hj'drung ('‘Death and Transfiguration”), 
positions follow, in a somewhat free man- It was particularly the realistic approach 
ner, the form of the first movement of a and the extremely bold and skillful han- 

symphony [sec *Sonata-form]. A com- dling of the orchestra which made this 

position such as Beethoven’s Coriolanus work famous, although it met with vio- 

Overture (1807) may ibe considered as lent criticism on the part of the profes- 

a predecessor of the symphonic poem. sional writers and of a large section of the 

11 . Liszt’s innovation was eagerly seized public. In 1895 he wrote T ill Eulenspiegel, 
upon by a great number of composers to by far his most spontaneous and best 
whom literary, pictorial, and other ideas work. There followed: Also sprach Zara- 
revealed a new source of inspiration. Par- thustra (“Thus Spake Zoroaster,” after 
ticularly favored were works descriptive Nietzsche, 1896); Don Quixote, a series 
of national life and scenery, and it was a of free variations which include such re- 
happy circumstance that the symphonic alistic effects as the bleating of sheep and 
poem came into being at the same time a wind machine to represent an imaginary 
that ^nationalism was awakening in mu- flight through the air; Ein Heldenleben 
sic. The first contribution in this particu- (“A Hero’s Life,” 1898), a musical auto- 
lar province were Smetana’s six symphonic biography including among its scenes one 
poems Md Vlast (“My Fatherland”), called “The Hero’s Battlefield” in which 
composed in 1874-79 [earlier symphonic the artist fights his critics who, as may 
poems of his were Richard 111 (1858), well be imagined, do not fare too well. 
Wallensteins Camp (1858), and Hal{on His Sinfonia domestica (1903) describes, 
Jarl (1861)]. His example was followed with realistic rather than musical success, 
by a host of successors, and there is scarce- a day in the composer’s family life, and 
ly one country which has not been de- his Alpensinfonie (1915) is a detailed de- 
scribed in music. Compositions such as scription of a day’s experience in climbing 
Borodin’s Steppes of Central Asia (1880), the Alps. 

Saint-Saens’s Africa (1891), Sibelius’ Fin- IV. Shortly before 1900 two important 
landia (1899), Vaughan Williams’ A symphonic poems were written in France, 
London Symphony (1914), Respighi’s Debussy’s impressionistic VAprh-midi 
Fontane di Roma (1917), F. Grofe’s d'un faune (1895) and Paul Dukas’ re- 
Grand Canyon, E. Bloch’s America alistic LApprenti sorcier (1897). Both 
(1928), illustrate the scope of the “musi- of them have the distinction, not shared 
cal atlas” which, perhaps not by mere by many other works of the category, of 
chance, includes few, if any, pictures from possessing outstanding musical qualities 
Germany and France where the national even apart from the realization of the 
movement had but little following. programmatic idea. Sibelius wrote a 

The poetic type inaugurated by Liszt number of tone poems, mostly based on 

was continued, among others, by Tchai- the Kalevala, the Finnish national epic: 
kovsky who wrote the symphonic poems En Saga (1892), Kullervo (1892), The 
Romeo and Juliet (1870), Francesca da Swan of Tuonela Lemminl^dinen 

Rimini (1876), and Hamlet (1885); by and the Maidens Lemmin^dinen 

Saint-Saens with Omphale s Spinning in Tuonela The Return of Lem- 

[7^^] 



SYMPHONY 


SYMPHONIE FANTASTIQUE 

minXainen (1895), Pohjolas Daughter theme, called In the “March to 

(1906), Nightride and Sunrise (1909), the Scaflold” the caricatured appearance 
The Bard (i^i^),Luonnotar of the *Dies irae melody is worth men- 

Oceanides (1914), Tapiola (1925). To tioning. 
the list of 20th-century symphonic poems 

may be added Debussy’s ha Mer (1903- Symphony. A symphony may be de- 
05), consisting of three pieces (“De I’aube fined as a sonata for orchestra. For all the 
^ midi sur la mer”; “Jeux de vagues”; details of form, the reader is referred to 
“Dialogue du vent et de la mer”) in which the explanations given under *sonata, 
atmospheric sensations are captured *sonata-form, etc. Naturally, the use of a 
with consummate skill; Stravinsky’s Fire- large orchestral body instead of a single 
wor\s (1908); Loeffler’s A Pagan Poem instrument (pianoforte sonata) or a small 
(1909), based on an Eclogue by Vergil; group of |:)erformcrs (trio, quartet) leads 
Elgar’s Falstaff (1913), perhaps the most to a broadening of the form (the sym- 
detailed musical description of a literary phony is normally in four movements of 
subject; Respighi’s Roman Trilogy Fon- considerable extension, frequently pre- 
(“The Fountains of Rome,” ceded by an introduction) and also ac- 
1917), Pini di Roma (“The Pines of counts for differences in style, for greater 
Rome,” 1924), and Feste Romane (“Ro- richness in texture and variety of colors, 
man Festivals,” 1929). A. Honegger’s for a greater emphasis on climactic effects, 
Pacific 2]i (1923) and Rugby (1928), for stronger contrasts within a single 
realistic glorifications of the modern age, movement as well as between one and the 
indicate, in their subject-matter — the other. 

machine and active sport — as well as in I. The Present-day Repertoire. This 
their percussive and motoric idiom, an begins with the latest symphonies of Mo- 
altempt to instill new lifeblood into the zart and Haydn. Mozart, although the 
symphonic poem which, with its sensu- younger man by nearly a quarter of a cen- 
ousness and over-refinement, had outlived tury, was the first to write truly great 
its time. On the whole, this attempt has symphonies, namely the ^Prague Sym- 
not proved successful. The neo-classical phony (D major, K.V. 504, written in 
tendencies of the present day with their 1786) and his last three symphonies, in 

emphasis on purely musical forms and E-flat major (K.V. 543), C minor (K.V. 

styles would seem to have brought the 550), and C major (* Jupiter Symphony, 

development of the symphonic poem to K.V. 551), written in June, July, and Au- 

its conclusion. gust 1788. Among Haydn’s symphonies. 

Lit.: R. Mendl, “The Art of the Sym- which number more than one hundred, 
phonic Poem” {MQ xviii). only the twelve written in 1790-95 for 

Salomon, his London impresario, show 
SymphonieFantastique. A symphony the same maturity of style as those by Mo- 
by Hector Berlioz (1803-69), composed zart [see ^London Symphonies]. The 
in 1831, which holds a prominent place in advance of these works over the earlier 
the symphonic literature of the 19th cen- ones is chiefly threefold: thematic inven- 
tury owing to its outstanding artistic qual- tion, development technique, and obbli- 
ities as well as to its historic importance in gato accompaniment. Not until after 1785 
the field of program music [see also *Sym- did Haydn and Mozart succeed in creat- 
phonic poem] and in the development of ing that special type of instrumental mel- 
the ^leitmotif. The five sections of the ody which is comparable in greatness, al- 
symphony (with its subtitle “Episodes though different in character, to the melo- 
from an Artist’s Life”) are headed: “Reve- dies and themes of the Bach-period; a 
ries-Passions,” “A Ball,” “Scene in the melody which is unified and individual 
Country,” “March to the Scaffold,” enough to serve as an impressive motto 
“Dreams of a Witch’s Sabbath,” and are and yet which lends itself to all the ma- 
held together by the use of a recurring nipulations demanded in the development 

[723] 



SYMPHONY 


SYMPHONY 


section. Hand in hand with this goes an 
increasing emancipation of the lower in- 
struments from their former servant role 
as a mere chordal background, leading to 
their active participation in the statement 
as well as in the development of the themes 
[see ♦Accompaniment] . 

Beethoven, in limiting himself to nine 
symphonies — as compared with the sev- 
eral score written by his predecessors — 
established the character of the symphony 
as an “individual,” rather than as an “ex- 
ample of a type.” His first two sympho- 
nies (op. 21, in C, 1800; op. 36, in D, 
1802) already show, if compared with 
those of Haydn and Mozart, a greater se- 
riousness of purpose, a more dynamic 
vitality, larger dimensions, and a more 
advanced orchestration. The later ones, 
particularly the nos. 3 (♦Eroica, op. 55, 
1804), 5 (C minor, op. 67, 1809), 6 (♦Pas- 
toral Symphony, op. 68, 1809), and 9 
(♦Choral Symphony, op. 125, 1817-23), 
stand out as unparalleled peaks of sym- 
phonic literature. Beethoven's heir to the 
symphonic tradition was Franz Schubert 
(eight symphonies), mainly with his lyr- 
ico-dramatic Unfinished Symphony (B 
minor, 1822) and the magnificent C ma- 
jor Symphony, no. 7 (1828). Of equal 
artistic rank is Hector Berlioz* ♦Sym- 
phonie fantastique [see also ♦French mu- 
sic] while the four symphonies of Men- 
delssohn (C minor, 1824; Scotch Sym- 
phony, 1830-42; Italian Symphony, 1833; 
Reformation Symphony, 1830-32) and 
the four symphonies of Schumann (B-flat, 
“Spring,” 1841; C major, 1846; E-flat, 
“Rhenish,” 1850; D minor, 1841, revised 
1851) are noticeably weaker in substance 
?nd expression. 

Although in the subsequent decades the 
novel type of the ♦symphonic poem ab- 
sorbed the interest of composers, the sym- 
phony arrived at a new peak around 1880, 
mainly with the four symphonies of 
Brahms (op. 68, 1875; op. 73, 1877; op. 
90, 1883; op. 98, 1885) and the nine sym- 
phonies of Anton Bruckner (particularly 
no. 4, 1874; no. 5, 1876; no. 6, 1879; no. 7, 
1883; no. 8, 1885; no. 9, 1894). Brahms 
took over the basic idea as well as the form 
of the Beethovian symphony, modifying 


its style from a straightforward dyna- 
mism to a pliable and Romantic lyricism 
of great impressiveness. Bruckner, on the 
whole a more truly creative genius than 
Brahms, established a symphonic form 
and style of his own the artistic signifi- 
cance of which is even today far from be- 
ing understood or recognized. Scarcely 
second to Beethoven in the greatness of 
melodic invention, he created an “archi- 
tectural” type of symphony whose huge 
dimensions are matched by a deeply reli- 
gious ethos and an almost superhuman 
pathos. His movements, as compared with 
those of Beethoven, are the realization, 
not so much of one continuous thought, 
but of changing visions, each represented 
as a painting in its frame, with the result 
that a static (sectional) element is inter- 
polated between the dynamic forces of the 
single sections (first, second, third theme, 
etc.) and the huge arch of the whole 
movement. 

Much better known than Bruckner’s 
symphonies are those by Tchaikovsky, 
although only the sixth (Pathetic Sym- 
phony, 1893) can be included in the list of 
truly great works. Its highly subjective, 
even autobiographical, nature forms a 
most interesting contrast to the almost 
liturgical character of Bruckner’s sym- 
phonies. Dvorak wrote nine symphonies 
the last of which is the popular “From the 
New World” (op. 95, 1893). Other works 
of this period are the D minor Symphony 
by Franck (‘iSSS), and d’Indy’s “Sym- 
phonie sur un chant montagnard fran- 
^ais” (1886). 

Gustav Mahler, one of the first admirers 
of Bruckner, followed, in his nine sym- 
phonies (written from 1888 to 1909), the 
latter’s trend toward huge symphonic di- 
mensions, but from a more subjective and 
Romantic standpoint. Taking the mod- 
ern position that “the contents should 
shape the form,” he largely discarded the 
traditional forms (sonata-form, ternary 
form, etc.) of the single movements, mak- 
ing his symphonies deeply moving expres- 
sions of his spiritual experiences, messages 
of a life filled equally with tragic despera- 
tion and with never diminishing hope. 
A characteristic feature is the frequent 


l7H] 



SYMPHONY 

use of solo instruments as well as ( in nos. 
2, 3, 4, 8) of solo voices, to say nothing 
about the masterly orchestration in gen- 
eral. Frequently the massive chording of 
the Romantic era is replaced by a thin 
linear texture, a procedure which fore- 
shadowed the neo-classical return to poly- 
phonic style. Sibelius wrote seven sym- 
phonies of which the first three (1899, 
1901, 1904-07) are conceived in an idiom 
mixed of Romantic, national, and impres- 
sionistic elements, while with his Fourth 
Symphony (1911) there occurred a de- 
cided change towards purely musical pur- 
pose and design. His symphonies, though 
extremely popular in England and in the 
United States, have never gained a foot- 
hold in continental Europe. 

The radicalism of the movement known 
as *New music led to a rather general 
neglect of the symphony, the huge form 
and dramatic emotionalism of which did 
not agree with the novel tendencies of the 
20th century. Nonetheless, composers of 
more conservative affiliation continued 
to cultivate the symphony, e.g., Roussel 
(four), Vaughan Williams (five), Rach- 
maninov (three), Prokofiev (five, includ- 
ing the “Classical Symphony,” op. 25, 
1917), Howard Hanson (four). Around 
1930, however, progressively minded com- 
posers also turned their interest to the 
symphony, frequently in a compact one- 
movement form or with choral participa- 
tion. Among this group we find Stra- 
vinsky (“Symphony of Pfalms,” with 
chorus, 1930), Honegger '*(^930), Roy 
Harris (five symphonies, 1929-35, one a 
cappella, one for chorus and orchestra), 
Malipiero (1934? ’36), Piston (1938, ’44). 
A special place must be reserved for the 
Russian Dmitri Shostakovich who, at the 
age of 38, could boast of a record of eight 
symphonies among which the ist, 5th, 
and 7th have been particularly successful, 
owing mainly to a skillful blending of 
modernistic and popularizing elements. 
The most prolific symphonist of the pres- 
ent day is, no doubt, Nicolas Miaskovsky 
(b. 1881), composer of 24 symphonies. 

II. The Early History, The symphony 
developed during the i8th century side by 
side with the *sonata, its counterpart in 


SYMPHONY 

the field of chamber music. It developed 
in particular from the Italian operatic 
overture which was called Sinjonia avanti 
V opera and which, around 1700, had been 
standardized as a composition consisting 
of three sections in the succession: fast — 
slow — fast (for the earlier Italian sin- 
fonia, see ^Sinfonia; see also ^Overture I). 
Although examples of such sinfonias oc- 
cur as early as in the works of Alessandro 
Stradella {c, 1645-92; operatic cantata 11 
Barcheggio, 1681) the type became estab- 
lished under Alessandro Scarlatti (1659- 
1725), who used it first in his opera Dal 
male di bene, of c. 1696. It should be noted 
that in Scarlatti’s sinfonias the slow section 
is always short and transitional in char- 
acter; that the first as well as the second 
section usually closes with a half-cadence; 
and that the third section is in the char- 
acter of a minuet or gigue [for an example 
cf. HAM, no. 259]. While this type was 
perpetuated in a rather unimaginative 
manner by the later composers of the Ne- 
apolitan opera [see '"'Neapolitan School], 
the tendency towards a more developed 
type appears in the sinfonia of the opera 
Ballade trionfante (1722) of Francesco 
Conti (1681-1732) who worked in Vi- 
enna. Here the first and the third sections 
arc independent movements in sonata- 
form, with two themes, development and 
(shortened) recapitulation, while the 
middle movement still is transitional in 
character [reprint in H. Botstiber, Ge- 
schichte der Ouverture (1913); also 
AdHMy 797]. The operatic sinfonias 
were frequently played in concert per- 
formance, a practice which, around 1730, 
led to the composition of independent or- 
chestral pieces in the same style, the first 
symphonies proper. Locatelli (1693- 
1764), Rinaldo di Capua (c, lyoo-c. 80), 
and G. B. Sammartini (1701-75) were 
the pioneers in this field. Particularly Ri- 
naldo’s compositions are remarkable for 
their relatively large form and their “dy- 
namic” style resembling that of the 
♦Mannheim group. German composers 
such as Georg Monn (1717-50) and Ge- 
org Wagenseil (i7i5“77) in Vienna, 
Franz Xaver Richter (1709-89) and Jo- 
hann Stamitz (1717-57) in Mannheim 


[725] 



SYNCOPATION 


SYNCOPATION 


developed the symphonic dualism (first 
and second theme) and cultivated a style 
of dynamic and militant conciseness 
which the later Mannheimers (Beck, 
Cannabich, Anton Stamitz) mitigated by 
the inclusion of melodic and lyrical ele- 
ments, thus preparing the way for the 
symphonies of Haydn (1732-1809) and 
Boccherini (1743-1805). See also *So- 
nata; *Sonata-form. 

Lit.: To I: O. Downes, Symphonic 
Masterpieces (1935); P. Goetschius, Mas- 
ters of the Symphony (1919); Ch. O'Con- 
nell, The Victor Boo\ of the Symphony 
(1934); P. Bekker, Die Sinfonie von Bee- 
thoven bis Mahler (1918). — To II: K. 
Nef, Geschichte der Sinfonie und der 
Suite (1921); Flueler, Die Norddeutsche 
Sinfonie (Diss. Berlin 1910); F. Tuten- 
berg. Die Sinfonil^ /. Chr. Bach's (1927); 
R. Sondheimer, Die T heorie der Sinfonie 
im 18. Jahrhundert (1925); R. Sond- 
heimer, “Die formale Entwicklung der 
vorklassischen Sinfonie” (AMW iv); id.^ 
“Die Sinfonien Franz Becks” (ZMW iv); 
iW., in ZMW iii (Sammartini); id,y in 
RMI 1920 (Boccherini); H. Kretzschmar, 
“Die jugendsinfonien Josef Haydns” 
(JMP xv); P. Gradenwitz, in MR i (Sta- 
mitz); J. Tiersot, “La Symphonie en 
France” {ZIM iii); G. de Saint-Foix, 
“Contribution a I’histoire de la symphonie 
frangaise vers 1750” {Uannee musicale, 
1911); id.y in RMI xxxi (Clementi); A. 
Casella, in RdM xvii (Clementi); R. Viol- 
lier, in RdM xvii, no. 60 (Jean Mauret); 
F. Torrcfranca, “Le Origin! della sin- 
fonia” (RMI xx, xxi, xxii). 

Syncopation. Syncopation is, generally 
speaking, any deliberate upsetting of the 
normal pulse of meter, accent, and rhythm. 
Our system of musical rhythm rests upon 
the grouping of equal beats into groups 
of two and three, with a regularly recur- 
rent accent on the first beat of each group 
[see ♦Rhythm II (a)]. Any deviation 
from this scheme is felt as a disturbance 
or contradiction between the underlying 
(normal) pulse and the actual (abnor-* 
mal) rhythm. 

Ex. I shows the three most common 
methods of shifting the accent to the nor- 


mally weak beats of the measure, namely: 

(a) by holding on over the strong beat; 

(b) by having rests on the strong beats; 

^ ajj j Ji iijjjijj j| 
u)\j jjj I 

\U I 

(c) by placing a stress on the weak beat. 
The examples given under Ex. 2 show 
the practical application of these methods 
[(a): Beethoven, Piano Sonata op. 28, 
no. i; (b): Beethoven, Appassionata; (c): 
Brahms, Symphony no. 4, Scherzo]. 

Normally, syncopation is only “par- 
tial,” i.e., it occurs in one part only (either 
the melody or the bass), while other parts 
maintain and emphasize the normal pulse 
of the meter. In the late works of Bee- 
thoven, however, there occur the earliest 


5(a) 



examples of “complete syncopation,” i.e., 
the displacement of accents in the entire 
texture [Ex. 3, Piano Sonata, op. loi]. 
This procedure brings about a complete 
unbalance of our feeling of rhythmic se- 
curity, an effect which occurs in Romantic 
music (Schumann) as a means of blur- 


[726] 




SYNEMMENON 


SYRIAN CHANT 


ring, while, in modern music (jazz), it ’brosianhymns).Ambrosius also imported 
rather has the effect of a shock. Still an- from Syria the practice of *antiphonal 
other type of syncopation, resulting not singing. Important successors of Ephrem 
from a displaced accent in unchanged were Narses of Edessa (end of the 5th 
meter, but from a sudden change of the century), Jacob of Serugh (451-528), and 
meter itself, is frequent in the pieces of Simeon of Gesir, the Potter (after 500). 
modern composers, particularly those of They founded a novel principle of poetry, 
Stravinsky [Ex. 4]. based upon a given number of accents in 

Syncopation appears first in the French a line, with a changeable number of weak 
Ars nova (G. de Machaut), and reached syllables in between, similar to doggerel 
its all-time peak of complication in the verse. The two chief types of ancient 
music of the late 14th century (Cunelier, Syrian poetry are the madrashe (ode). 
Grimace, Cordier, Solage, and others). It consisting of a number of stanzas for a 
should be observed that, in 14th-century soloist with a refrain for chorus, and the 
theory, syncopation is explained, not as it sogitha (hymn), which was performed 
is today (such an explanation being im- antiphonally by two choruses, with soloist 
possible since accent or strong beat is a leaders. 

j a Since no early MSS of Syrian chant (if 

it was ever written down) have been pre- 
® served, the present practice of Syrian chant 

^ k I K IK is the only material available for investi- 

I ^ ^ • I gation. Modern Syrian chant is based on 

measured rhythm [see ’"'Rhythm II (b)], 
concept foreign to early theory), but as as appears from the accompanying exam- 
a separation of a normal group of notes pic. It is a good deal more rhythmic and 
by the insertion of larger values, e.g. as 
in Ex. 5a. Instead of rendering this 
rhythm by tied notes in unchanged meter 
(b), a rendition similar to the methods 
employed by contemporary composers syllabic — thus, in a way, less “Oriental” 
[see Ex. 4] is preferable in order to con- — than Gregorian chant. To what degree 
vey the true meaning of early syncopation, the Syrian chant of today is representative 
as in 5c. For still another method of ren- of the early chant is a matter of conjecture 
dering and for the original notation of and dispute. Contentions to the effect 
14th-century syncopation (punctus syn- that Syrian chant shows Hellenic influ- 
copationis) cf. ApNPM, 395!!. ence [cf. BeMMR 48] would seem to be 

rather far-fetched. Such rational features 
Synemmenon. See*GreckmusicII (a), as are evident in Syrian chant may well 

■be the result of i8th- and 19th-century 
Syntagma musicum. See ♦Theorists. Occidental influence [cf. ReMMA, 70]. 

A characteristic trait of Syrian church 
Syntonic comma. See *Comma. music is the use of standard melodies for 

a number of different poems of a similar 
Syrian Chant. Syria, being one of the verse-pattern. Such standard melodics 
first countries to be Christianized, has a (which allow for a certain amount of 
long and interesting history of church rhythmic modification) are known as m- 
music. Christian poetry re^hed an early qolo (for similar methods used in other 
peak in the hymns, still in use today, of musical traditions, see ’•^Melody types). 
St. Ephrem (d. 373) which represent the In a Syrian MS of 515, the Plerophoriai, 
beginning of Christian hymn writing • we find the earliest mention of the 0^/0- 
and which were imitated by St. Hilarius, echos [see ""Echos], 
bishop of Poitiers (d. 366), and by St. Am- Lit.: Dom J. Jeannin, Melodies litur- 
brose, bishop of Milan (d. 397; sec ""Am- giques syriennes et chddiennes^ 2 vols. 

[727] 




T 


TABLATURE 


(1926, ’28); A. Z. Idelsohn, “Der Kir- 
chengcsang dcr Jakobiten” {AMW iv); 
L. Bonvin, “On Syrian Liturgical Chant” 
(MQ iv); Dom J. Jcannin, “L’Octoechos 
syricn” (Oriens Christianus^ New Scries 
iii, 82, 277). Cf. ReMMAi 432. 


Syrinx. The Greek name for the *pan- 
pipcs (also for a single flute). 

System. The collection of staves, two or 
more, as used for the writing down of 
keyboard, chamber, or orchestral music. 


T 


T. Abbreviation of tonic, tutti, toe (in 
pedal parts of organ pieces), trill (in 17th- 
century music, usually a mordent only), 
tasto, talon (in violin music). In 16th- 
century *part-books, abbreviation of tenor. 

Tabatiere de musique [F.]. See ♦Me- 
chanical instruments III. 

Tablature [G. Tabulatur\ It. intavola- 
tura], (i) General name for the various 
early (isth-iyth centuries) systems of 
notation (for keyboard instruments, lute, 
guitar, viol, flute, etc.), in which the tones 
arc indicated, not by notes on a staff (as in 
the contemporary ♦mensural notation for 
vocal music), but by letters, figures, or 
other symbols. The most important ones 
are the organ tablatures (more properly 
keyboard tablatures) and the lute tabla- 
turcs. There exist two types of keyboard 
tablature, the German and the Spanish, 
and three types of lute tablature, the Ital- 
ian (also used in Spain), the French (used 
everywhere after 1600), and the German. 
It may be noticed that what are frequently 
called “French, Italian, and English or- 
gan tablatures” (e.g., in WoHN ii) are 
not tablatures in the sense defined above, 
since they arc written entirely in notes on 
two staves, in practically the same manner 
as the modern piano score. Although 
they were called intavolatura in the i6th 
century, they arc omitted from the follow- 
ing consideration. 

I. German Keyboard Tablatures, The 
Examples i and 2 illustrate what is called 
“old” and “new” German keyboard tabla- 
ture. The former, which employs notes 
for the upper part, letters for the lower 
parts, was in use prior to 1550; the latter, 
written in letters exclusively, after 1550 
(as late as 1720 Bach reverted to this sys- 


tem in his Orgelbtichlein when there was 
not sufficient space on the page to com- 
plete the piece in ordinary staff notation; 

I. *Buxheitn Organ Boo\y c. 1460 






mmm 

null 

mill 



■ ■K 11 

mhii 

iiaiiii 

■■rim 

mull 

m 

■■ 

■ ■■ 

fllll 

umift 

lU 

II 

1^ ■ 


1 

■(■■■A m 

m 

■I 

B 



1 _ 1 _i 1 I 1 ! 




i J 

]j i 

J Jfl 




g tWBT ■ t 


cf. ApNPM, facs. no. 13). The letters 
a, b, c, etc., have their present-day signifi- 
cance; it must be noted, however, that 
in German terminology b means B-flat, 
while the B-natural is indicated by the 
letter h [sec ♦B]. Chromatic alterations 

2 . B. Schmid y Tabulatur Buchy 1607 


77 

Tf 

/ 


^ FW mm 


^ ^ -u. fwmm 

Tf 

1 tt r# J rr r 
T n^jTQ r tr r 

TT / TT 77 tt / 
tt TT TT / / / 

Pf Ttf V ^ t 



are indicated by affixing to the letter a 
graph in the form of a loop or hook. This 
was the stenographic sign for the Latin 



TABLATURE 


TABLATURE 


syllabic is (e.g., arbor-is) so that c with 
this loop means cis^ the German term for 
C-sharp. The tones of the higher octave 
(usually from c' to b'; in some sources 
from a to g') are marked by a dash above 
the letter: c (one-line c). Rhythmic val- 
ues arc indicated by the signs illustrated, 

. I r 

denoting successively a semibrevis, min- 
imUf semiminima, and fusa» The tran- 
scription with Ex. I and 2 will help to 
clarify additional details of the notation. 

II. Spanish Keyboard Tablature. Here 
a number of lines (three, four, five) rep- 
resent the different voice-parts of a com- 
position. The figures i to 7 stand for the 
notes of the diatonic scale beginning with 
f (i=f; 2 = g; 3 = a; 4 = b or bb, accord- 
ing to whether the sign b or B is given at 


3. CabezSn, Obras de Musica, 1^78 



the beginning of the piece; 5 = c', etc.). 
Higher and lower octaves arc marked by 
special signs, e.g., a tick on the 3 = A (cf. 
the third symbol on the bottom line of 
Example 3); the plain figure 3 = 3; a dot 
beside it = a'; a prime beside it, a". A com- 
ma (,) indicates tying of the preceding 
note, a diagonal dash (/) indicates a rest. 

III. Italian (Spanish) Lute Tablatures, 
All lute tablatures arc based upon the 
idea, revived in certain modern instru- 
ments (ukulele, zither, guitar), of direct- 
ing the fingers of the players to the posi- 
tion necessary for the desired tone or 
chord. Thus they avoid the entire matter 
of “solfege” (pitch, interval, scale, key, 
accidentals, etc.). They arc a “finger- 
notation” [G. Griffschrift], as distin- 
guished from the usual “pitch-notation.” 
In the Italian system six horizontal lines 
represent the six strings of the lute, tuned 
G-c-f-a-d'-g', in reversed order, so that 


the highest line represents the string G 
(only in Milan’s 11 Maestro, 1535 is the 
highest line used for the highest string; 
sec also under IV). On each line, figures 
from 0 to 9 appear which indicate the fret 
on which the player is supposed to put his 
finger, with 0 signifying the open string, 
I the first fret, etc. Since these frets pro- 
ceed in semitones, the figures i, 2, 3 . . . 
represent tones which are one, two, three 
. . . semitones higher than the open string. 
E.g., 3 on the second line from above in- 
dicates c (second open string) plus 3 
semitones, i.e., d# or cb. The rhythmical 
values are indicated above the staff by the 
accompanying signs, the first of which 

I r r ^ 

represents the semibrevis (usually tran- 
scribed as half-note). In spite of the con- 
trapuntal character of i6th- and 17th-cen- 
tury lute music, no differentiation is ever 
made between the different temporal val- 
ues of simultaneous sounds, e.g., between 
an eighth-note in the upper part as against 
a simultaneous half-note in a lower part. 
The rhythmic signs merely give the short- 
est of all the simultaneous notes, e.g., the 
eighth-note. The two transcriptions of 
Example 4 illustrate the “exact” rendition 

4. Vuenllana^ Orphenica lyra^ iss4 


A lU i u uu 



together with the contrapuntal interpre- 
tation usually preferred in modern edi- 
tions (as to this point, cf. ApNPM, 6ofI). 

IV. French Lute Tablature. This sys- 
tem differs from the Italian merely in de- 
tails. The staff has only five lines which 
represent the five highest strings in their 
natural order (as in Milan), while the 


[729] 




TABLATURE 


TACE 


lowest string is represented underneath 
on short ledger lines. Instead of the ci- 
phers 0, 1, 2, 3 , the letters a, b, c, d . . . 

are used, with a standing for the open 
string. Sec Ex, 5. After 1600 this system 

5. H. Bataille, Airs^ 1611 



the alphabet (complied by two special 
signs designated here 7 and 9) for the 
frets 1-5; the same letters with dashes for 
the higher frets. These tabulations show 
that, e.g., the sign h denotes the tone b 
(two semitones above a), and the sign x 
the tone f (five semitones above c). Sec 
Ex. 6. 

6 H. Gerht Lautenbuch, 1552 


rrrrrrri r rrr rrr rrr 

K r: r*' i'.lmii' tur.l 

nim tnt nnl.^m 

.4 I 4 »“ I f 




of notation underwent various modifica- 
tions which, around 1650, led to a new 
system, based on Denis Gaultier’s novel 
method of tuning (nouveau ton) A-d-f— 
a-d'~f'. Here, the Italian staff of six lines 
is used for the six strings which cross the 
frets, while the signs 

a, a, a, a, 4 

written underneath the staff indicate the 
bass-courses tuned (normally): G, F, E, 
D, C, which are unalterable in pitch. 

V. German Lute Tablature. This sys- 
tem is much more awkward than the 
others, mainly because it was originally 
designed for a (15th-century) lute with 
only five strings, and was broadened later 
(i6th century) by the inclusion of signs 
for the sixth (lowest) kring. Our table 
shows the most common system of desig- 
nation: figures 1-5 for the open strings 
(read from bottom to top); the letters of 

Frets 

01234567 

g' 5ckpv9c k 

d' 4diot7di 

String,]* 3 c h n s z c h.... 

f ibgmrybg 

I a f 1 q X a £. . . . 
12345678 


VI. Modern Tablatures, Tablature no- 
tation is used today for several popular 
instruments the playing of which is great- 
ly facilitated by a notation which directs 


El A <L g b •' 



the fingers of the player immediately to 
the desired place, avoiding the cumber- 
some medium of musical notes and the 
study of pitch, intervals, accidentals, scales, 
etc. The accompanying Example 7 illus- 
trates the notation of the modern guitar 
which is similar to the 16th-century lute 
tablatures. The vertical lines represent 
the six strings of the guitar, tuned E-A- 
d-g-b-e'; the horizontal lines the frets in 
chromatic progression. The dots indicate 
the position of the fingers. A similar meth- 
od is used for the four-stringed ukulele. 

Lit.: ApNPMy 21-81; WoHN ii, i- 
247; GD, article Tablature. 

(2) The set of rules which regulated the 
musical activities of the *Meistersinger. 

Tabor, taboret, tabourin, tabret. 

See *Tambourin. 

Tabulatur [G.] . See ^Tablature. 

Tace [It.],tacet [L.]. “Is silent,” giv- 
en with orchestral parts which are not 


[730] 


c 

G 



TACT 

wanted for a movement or a long section 
thereof. 

Tact [G.]. See *Takt. 

Tactus. The 15th- and 16th-century 
term for beat, in its temporal significance 
as well as in the meaning of “conductor’s 
beat.” There is, however, an essential 
difference between the tactus and the 
modern beat in so far as the former is a 
relatively fixed duration of time, about 
M.M. 50-60 (one second), while the lat- 
ter may take on any value between large 
limits, according to the tempo and char- 
acter of the composition. This means 
that in the period of Flemish music there 
existed a uniform “normal tempo” from 
which only slight deviations were pos- 
sible. Since the tactus was normally rep- 
resented by the semihrevis (S), the proper 
tempo of the motets of Ockeghem, Jos- 
quin, Palestrina, can be expressed by the 
metronomic mark: 5 = M.M. 50-60. For 
certain complications, caused chiefly by 
the use of the alla-breve sign (j: instead of 
the “alla-semibreve” sign c, cf. ApNPM^ 
188-195. ^Iso *Tempo marks. 

In the 13th and 14th centuries there 
existed similar units of time, called 
pus (e.g.. Franco of Cologne) which, 
however, were considerably shorter of 
duration and which changed somewhat 
during the course of these centuries. There 
also was a successive shift in the note val- 
ues used to represent the “normal beat,*^ 
namely from the longa (around 1200, 
School of Notre Dame) to the brevis (13th 
century), the semibrevis (i4th-i6th cen- 
turies), the minima (around 1550), and 
finally the semiminima^ i.e., our quarter- 
note (during the 17th century). For a 
tentative table of the changes in tempo 
prior to 1400 cf. ApNPMy 343. 

Lit.: E. Praetorius, Die Mensuraltheorie 
des Franchinus Gafurius (1905), pp. 68ff; 
A. Chybinski, Beitr'dge zur Geschichte 
des T a\tschlagens (Krakau, 1908); G. 
Schiinemann, Handbuch des Dirigierens 
(1913), Kapitel III. 

Tandelnd [G.]. Bantering. 

Tafelmusik [G.]. Table music, i.c., 
music designed to be performed at a ban- 


TAMBOURIN 

quet. Cf., e.g., Telemann’s Musique de 
table in DdT 61/62, and }. A. Reutter’s 
Servizio di tavola in DTOe I5.ii. 

Tagliato [It.] . An obsolete term for the 
*alla-breve sign. 

Tagelied [G., day song]. See *Alba. 

Taille [F.]. Old name for a middle 
voice, particularly the tenor. The term 
was also used for instruments performing 
such parts, e.g., taille de bassouy tenor 
oboe; taille de violon or simply taille y 
viola. The indication “taille” in some of 
Bach’s cantatas would seem to always call 
for the tenor oboe (oboe da caccia, Eng- 
lish horn). In French 17th-century organ 
music an inscription such as Recit de 
tierce en taille means solo-passage {rScii) 
in a middle part {taille) for the left hand, 
played on the organ stop Tierce, Haute 
taille and basse taille denote higher and 
lower tenor parts. 

Takt [G.]. (i) Beat {schwereryleichter 
Ta\ty i.e., strong, weak beat); (2) meas- 
ure {nach 10 Takteny after 10 measures); 
(3) meter, time {^/^•Ta'kfy %-meter). Im 
Ta\ty in strict tempo and meter; Ta\tarty 
meter; Ta^tmdssigy in strict meter; Taht- 
messer, metronome; TaJ{tstoc]{y baton; 
Ta\tstrichy bar-line; T a\tvorzeichnungy 
time signature; Taktweehsely change of 
meter; Ta\tzeicheny time signature; tab^ 
tiereuy to indicate the beat. 

Talea. See *Isorhythmic. 

Talent. See ’"'Tests and Measurements. 

Tales of Hoffmann, The. See *Contes 
d'Hpffmann, Les. 

Talon [F.] . The *nut of the violin bow. 

Tambour [F.]. Drum; also a drum 
player. Tambour militairCy snare drum. 

Tambourin [F.]. An oblong, narrow 
drum (about double as deep as wide) of 
Provencal origin, also called tambour de 
Basquey tambour the Provence (English 
tabor). It is usually played together with 
the galoubet, a small flute (English: pipe 
and tabor; sec *Pipe). In the iSth cen- 
tury the word also denoted dances ac- 


[731] 



TAMBOURINE 


TANNHAUSER 


companied by the galoubet and tambou- 
rin. Several examples occur in Rameau’s 
opera FStes d^Hebiy one of these also in 
his works for harpsichord. If found in 
modern scores, the term always denotes 
the ^tambourine. 

Tambourine. See ♦Percussion instru- 
ments B, 4. If occurring with reference 
to early music the term denotes the *tam- 
bourin. 

Tamburin [G.], tanburino [It.]. 
Both terms usually denote the modern 
♦tambourine, rarely the obsolete ♦tam- 
bour in. Note that words such as tambufy 
tamhurUy tampur are likely to be designa- 
tions for the ♦tanbur or similar Oriental 
lutes. 

Tamburo [It.]. Drum; t. grande y gr os- 
sOy old name for the bass drum; /. rullantCy 
tenor drum; /. militairey snare drum. 

Tampon [F.]. Two-headed drumstick 
used to produce a roll on the bass drum. 
It is held in the middle and moved by 
shaking the wrist. 

Tamtam. Same as ♦Gong. Not to be 
confused with ♦tom-tom. 

Tanbur (also called tanburiy tambufy 
tambouray tampur y etc.). A lute with a 
long neck and a small round body, found 
in Persia, Arabia, India, etc. See *Lute II. 

Taner [Sp.]. Scc^Tastar. 

Tangent [G. Tangente], Sec ♦Clavi- 
chord. 

Tango. A modern dance which origi- 
nated around 1900 in the suburbs of 
Buenos Aires from elements of the ♦haba- 
nera and the ♦milonga. After 1905 it 
adopted syncopation as its characteristic 
trait. It was soon imported into the ball- 
rooms of the whole world, creating a sen- 
sation and shocking the Church and edu- 
cators into open denunciation of the dance 
as utterly immoral [see ♦Forlana]. Later 
it became more tame and was widely cul- 
tivated in good society. About 1920 the 
tango made its way into the realm of art 
music, especially in the modern suites of 


German composers, e.g., Hindemith, 
Krenek, Conrad Beck, Erwin Schulhoff 




'■saam. 


1 

I ' — 

h?7^T!- 






_HJ 

i 







. 



. 


. 


Si 

gap 



E 

5 



BE 

— 



S 

cd 

pd 

' ^ 


mI 


fC 


mm 

1— 1 



[see Ex., by Schulhoff]. For a plausible 
explanation of the name, i.e., as a Negro 
onomatopoetic for drumbeat (tan-go), cf. 
Vicente Rossi, Cosas de Negros (1926). 

Tannhauser, or Der SdngerJ^rieg auf 
der Wartburg (“The Singers’ Contest at 
the Wartburg”). Opera in three acts, text 
(after a medieval legend) and music by 
Richard Wagner, first produced in 1845. 
The plot centers around the *Minnesinger 
Tannhauser (Tenor) who, after a year 
of sinful life spent in the Venusberg, the 
abode of Venus (Soprano), longs for free- 
dom (Scene i) and breaks the unholy 
spell by imploring the Virgin Mary. In 
Scene 2 he is found by the Landgrat/e 
(Bass) and his knights — among them 
Wolfram von Eschenbach (Baritone) — 
who take their long-lost associate to the 
Wartburg, where the Landgrave’s niece, 
Elizabeth (Soprano) has been waiting 
faithfully for his return. Act II shows the 
Sangerkrieg in which Elizabeth’s hand is 
to be the prize of the contest [see ♦Puy]. 
While Wolfram and the other Minne- 
singer praise virtuous love, Tannhauser 
in shameless defiance extols the sensuous 
pleasures of love lust. Indignantly all the 
ladies leave the hall, and only Elizabeth 
remains. Deeply touched by her faithful 
love, Tannhauser expresses his penitence, 
and joins a procession of pilgrims, to ob- 
tain forgiveness from the Pope. In Act III 
the pilgrims return from Rome, but with- 
out Tannhauser, and Elizabeth, who has 
been waiting for him, goes away broken- 
hearted. Finally Tannhauser appears, 
seeking again the cavern of Venus, since 
the Pope has not forgiven his sin. In this 
moment a funeral procession arrives, car- 
rying the body of Elizabeth, and Tann- 
hauser, overwhelmed with emotion, joins 
hfcr in death. Pilgrims enter carrying 


[732I 



TANTO 

Tannhauscr’s staff which has put forth 
fresh leaves in evidence that God has for- 
given him. 

The score of Tannhduser shows Wag- 
ner working with the tools of the “grand 
opera” of Meyerbeer and Bellini, but try- 
ing to create with them a new work of 
higher artistic and human significance. 
The formal structure is essentially that of 
the traditional ^number opera, with dis- 
tinct arias, numerous choruses, and even 
a ballet (first scene), although the actual 
numbering of the different items is aban- 
doned. The harmonic style also is fairly 
traditional. It is by reason of its expres- 
sive and emotional qualities that Tann- 
hduser opens a new period in the history 
of opera. Wagner’s “eternal theme,” sal- 
vation through love, is presented here 
with a stirring emotionalism hardly less 
than that of his T ristan and Parsifal. 

Tanto [It.]. Much, so much. Nontanto^ 
not too much. 

Tanz [G.]. Dance. 

Tap box. Same as *Clog box. 

Tapiola. See ^Symphonic poem IV. 

Tarantella. A Neapolitan dance in rap- 
id % -meter, named probably after Ta- 
ranto in South Italy or, according to a 
widespread legend, after the spider taran- 
tula whose poisonous bite the dance was 
believed to cure. In the mid-i9th century 
it was frequently composed (Chopin, 
Liszt, St. Heller, Auber, Weber, Thal- 
berg) in the style of a brilliant perpetuum 
mobile. 

Tarbouka. A North African drum 
which Berlioz used in the Slave Dance of 
his hes Troyens. 

Tardo, tardamente [It.]. Slow, slow- 
ly. Tardando, slowing. 

Tarogato. Hungarian instrument of 
ancient origin, originally a wooden trum- 
pet having only natural tones. Such in- 
struments were used for the sounding of 
military signals such as occur in the well- 
known melody of the ^Rakoezy march. 
Later, the name was used for a wooden 


TECHNIQUE 

shawm (oboe mouthpiece) with five or 
more holes. The modern tarogato, built 
by W. J. Schunda, is a wooden saxophone, 
i.e., with a clarinet mouthpiece. It has a 
somewhat darker timbre than the normal 
saxophone. See ^Clarinet II. Illustration 
on p. 152. 

Tartini’s tones. Same as ♦differential 
tones. 

Taschengeige [G., pocket fiddle]. 
♦Kit. 

Tasso. Sec ♦Symphonic poem I. 

Tastar [It.]. Italian 16th-century term 
for lute pieces in the style of a free prelude 
( tastar de corde, “touching of the strings” ) . 
Examples in HAM, no. 99, and in ApMZ 
i. The Spanish synonym was taner (Luis 
de Milan). See ♦Ricercar II (a). 

Taste [G.]. Key (of the piano, organ, 
etc.). Untertaste, white key; ObertastCy 
black key. 

Tastiera [It.]. The finger board of the 
violin, also called *tasto. Sulla tastiera 
(sul tasto), sec ♦Bowing ( 1 ). 

Tasto [It.], (i) The key of a keyboard. 
For tasto solo {t.s.) see ♦Thorough-bass 
6. — (2) On the violin, same as ♦tastiera. 

Tattoo [F. rappel, G. *Zapfenstreich]. 
The military signals sounded on bugles 
and drums by which the soldiers are re- 
called to their quarters at night. 

Technique [G. Technil(\. The me- 
chanical skill which is the foundation of 
the mastery of an instrument or, in other 
words, the complete coordination of all 
the bodily movements required. It should 
always be remembered that such a coordi- 
nation is not only a matter of the fingers, 
wrist, arm, etc., but also of psychological 
discipline. Many technical problems (c.g., 
big leaps on the pianoforte) arc chiefly a 
problem of mental coordination and prep- 
aration. In fact, it would not be too much 
to say that most of the problems of ad- 
vanced technique may be conquered by 
the precept: “think even faster than you 
play” [see ♦Pianoforte playing VI]. The 


[733] 



TECLA 

desire for acquiring a perfect technique 
has led to a tremendous output of “tech- 
nical studies’* which intentionally neglect 
the musical element (still preserved to a 
certain degree in most *ctudes) and pro- 
vide only training for the fingers, etc. 
Daily practice for this routine material is 
generally recognized to be necessary for 
the improvement and the maintenance of 
technique, even by the most advanced 
virtuoso. It should hardly be necessary to 
warn the student against overrating tech- 
nique and technical studies, which are 
nothing but the indispensable basis upon 
which to build up interpretation. 

Tecla [Sp.]. The Spanish i6th- and 
17th-century term for key and keyboard. 
Musica para tecla (e.g., Cabezon’s OhraSy 
1578) is music for keyboard instruments. 

Tedesca [It., German, i.e., dance]. In 
the 17th century, name for the ^allemande. 
Around 1800, name for the ^Landler and 
similar dances in rather quick triple meter 
[cf. Beethoven, op. 79 and op. 130]. 

Te deum laudamus [G. usually T<?- 
deum], A celebrated hymn of praise and 
rejoicing which has been erroneously at- 
tributed to St. Ambrose (hence the desig- 
nation Ambrosian Hymn), but which was 
probably written, both text and music, 
by Nicetas (r. 400), Bishop of Remesiana 
(now Nish, Serbia). In the Roman lit- 
urgy it is sung at matins of greater feasts 
of a joyful character [cf. AR, 66 **], Its 
present form is the result of several addi- 
tions and intercalations such as are very 
uncommon in the tradition of Gregorian 
chant [for the structure cf. GD v, 295; 
also RiHM i.2, 42 (in wrong rhythmic 
interpretation); P. Wagner, Einfiihrung 
in die Gregorianischen Melodien, iii, 225] . 

The Te deum has been widely used 
outside of the service as a text for com- 
positions designed for occasions of thanks- 
giving, e.g., after great victories. Com- 
posers of the 1 6th century (Palestrina, 
Anerio, de Vaet) used the plainsong mel- 
ody as a basis of contrapuntal elaboration, 
while later examples are free compositions 
in a grandiose style, frequently for double 
chorus with orchestra (Purcell, 1694; 

[734] 


TEMPERAMENT 

Handel, for the peace of Utrecht, 1712, 
and for the victory of Dettingen, 1743; 
Graun, 1756, performed at the close of the 
Seven Years’ War; Berlioz, for the Paris 
Exhibition of 1855; Bruckner, 1884; 
Dvorak, 1896; Verdi, 1898; Sullivan, for 
Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee, 1897). 

The English translation is “We praise 
Thee, O God”; the German (by Luther) 
“Herr Gott wir loben Dich.” Under the 
latter title J. S. Bach wrote an extended 
organ piece (hardly to be classified as a 
“Chorale prelude”) in which he exhibits 
a great ingenuity in providing different 
polyphonic settings for the frequently 
repeated phrases of the (somewhat sim- 
plified) plainsong melody. 

Telharmonium. See ^Electronic mu- 
sical instruments. 

Telyn. The Welsh harp. See *Harp III. 

Tema [It.]. Theme, subject. 

Temperament [G. Temper atur], I. 
General, The term denotes those systems 
of tuning in which the intervals deviate 
from the “pure,” i.e., acoustically correct 
intervals as used in the ^Pythagorean sys- 
tem and in *Just intonation. These devia- 
tions represent adjustments necessitated 
by the fact that the two systems just men- 
tioned, although perfect within a small 
range of tones (mainly those of the C 
major scale), become increasingly inade- 
quate with the successive introduction of 
the chromatic tones. For instance, the 
acoustically perfect fifth [see * Acoustics 
III] might well be used to obtain a suc- 
cession of five or six fifths, c, g, d, a, e, b. 
If, however, tones such as f#, c#, g#, d# 
are added in the same manner, the result- 
ing tones cannot be satisfactorily used for 
melodies such as d e flf g, or d# f g gf 
(meaning cb f g ab). Moreover, the 
twelfth tone of the succession of fifths, 
is noticeably higher than the tone c which 
it would represent in our system of nota- 
tion [see ''^Circle of fifths] . It follows that 
compromise methods are necessary which, 
instead of being perfect in the simple 
keys and intolerably wrong in the others, 
spread the inevitable inaccuracy over all 



TEMPERAMENT 


TEMPERAMENT 


the tones and keys. The most consistent 
realization of this principle is the equal 
temperament which is universally used 
today. Prior to its general acceptance 
various other systems of tempered inter- 
vals, generally referred to as “unequal 
temperament,” were in use, among which 
the mean'tone system was the only one to 
attain practical significance. 

11 . The Mean-Tone System. This sys- 
tem, which was in use around 1500 (A. 
Schlick, Spiegel der Organisten ...,1511) 
and fully discussed by F. Salinas {De mu- 
sica libri VII, 1577), is based on a fifth 
which is one-fourth of the syntonic *com- 
ma (c. 20 *cents) smaller than the perfect 
fifth (697, instead of 702 cents), the result 
being that four such fifths, if taken in 
succession (c-g-d'-a'-e"), lead to a per- 
fect third (e"). In the simple keys with 
one or two sharps or flats, the mean-tone 
scale is very satisfactory from both the 
melodic and the harmonic point of view. 
In fact, owing to the presence of a perfect 
third and an almost perfect fifth, the triads 
sound much purer than in equal tempera- 
ment. However, the continuation of the 
series of mean-tone fifths leads to a very 
noticeable discrepancy between the sharp 
and flat tones, namely to a difference of 
almost a quarter-tone (41 cents) between 
any two enharmonic tones (e.g., G# = 773, 
Ab = 814), a difference known as the 
“wolf.” Having to choose between these 
two tones (the corresponding choice be- 
tween C# and Db, or between D# and Eb, 
being relatively easier, namely, in favor 
of C# and of Eb), Schlick interestingly 
enough preferred the Ab, in order to ob- 
tain the “siiss und fremd lautende Kon- 
kordanz” (the sweet and strange-sound- 
ing consonance) of the Neapolitan sixth 
c-eb-ab, which actually occurs in his “Da 
Pacem” [cf. the new edition by G. Harms, 
p. 37; all the pieces are transposed here a 
fourth below]. Since this tone could not 
be used to represent G#, Schlick recom- 
mends avoiding the G# or covering it up 
by a ^coloratura [cf. G. Frotscher, Ge- 
schichte des Orgelspiels, I, 94]. A ^ttcr 
expedient out of this dilemma is afforded 
by the use of divided keys, which, as a 
matter of fact, were not infrequently used 


in organs of the i6th century. However, 
even this improvement was insufficient to 
satisfy the needs of the more fully devel- 
oped system of harmonies, modulations, 
and keys as it arose during the 17th cen- 
tury. The increased use of keys with 3 to 
6 sharps and flats necessarily led to the 
system of equal temperament. 

III. Equal Temperament. The prin- 
ciple of equal temperament is to divide 
the octave into twelve equal semitones. 
Since the frequency of the octave is 2, the 
frequency s of this semitone is given by 

the equation: s^^ = 2; s = ^2 = 1.05946. 
The successive powers of this figure give 
the frequencies for the tones of the chro- 
matic scale, e.g., c=i; clf= 1.05946; d = 
1.05946^ = 1. 1 225; d# -- eb = 1.05946® = 
1. 14973, etc. Usually a logarithmic meas- 
urement is used in which the whole oc- 
tave equals 1200 *cents, each semitone 
100 cents [see ^Intervals, Calculation of, 
IV, V]. 

In equal temperament no interval other 
than the octave is acoustically correct or 
pure. The deviation of the fifth (2 cents) 
is too small to be noticed at all. With the 
thirds, the difference is considerably 
greater, the well-tempered third (400 
cents) being 14 cents (one-eighth of a 
semitone) larger than the pure third 
(386 cents). However, our ear has be- 
come completely accustomed to this “er- 
ror,” and the advantages of the system 
far outweigh its flaws. The following 
table shows the actual frequencies of the 
Pythagorean system (P), of just intona- 
tion (J), and of the tempered tones (E). 

edefgab c 
P: 520 585 658 693 780 877 987 1040 

J: 520 585 650 693 780 867 975 1040 

E: 520 584 655 694 779 874 982 1040 

The accompanying drawing illustrates the 
difference between E and J in cents. 

Equal Temperament 



Just Intonation 

Equal temperament is usually said to 
have been invented by Andreas Werk- 
meister around 1700. This statement is 


1 735] 



TE\IPERATUR 


TEMPO MARKS 


not in accordance with the facts. The his- 
tory of equal temperament can be traced 
back to 1518, when H. Grammateus rec- 
ommended dividing the octave into 10 
equal semitones and two of somewhat 
smaller size. V. Galilei, in his Dialogo 
(1581), proposed to use a semitone of the 
frequency ^^7 (99.3 cents) which is a 
very good approximation of the well- 
tempered semitone. The principle of 
equal temperament was clearly expounded 
by the Chinese prince Tsai-yu in 1596, 
and by Mersenne in 1635. Contrary to 
common belief, Werkmeister never stated 
equal temperament correctly. The intro- 
duction of equal temperament into mu- 
sical practice was a very slow process. 
Whether Bach's famous collection of 
pieces in all the major and minor keys, 
the Well-tempered Clavier (1722), or its 
less complete predecessor, J. K. F. Fisch- 
er’s Ariadne Musica (c. 1710), referred to 
equal temperament or merely to a suffi- 
ciently close approximation, is not en- 
tirely clear. At any rate, the system was 
not universally adopted in Germany until 
r. 1800, in France and England until c. 
1850. Other systems of temperament, 
such as that of the mathematician Leon- 
ard Euler (1707-83) and of Kirnberger 
(1721-83), never attained practical sig- 
nificance. See also *Just intonation. 

Lit.: P. Garnault, Histoire et influence 
du temperament (1929); C. Dupont, Ge- 
schichte der musiXcdischen Temperatur 
(1935); J. M. Barbour, Equal Tempera- 
menty its History from Ramis ( 1482 ) to 
Rameau (ijsy) (unpubl. diss. Cornell 
University, 1932); H. J. Watt, in ML iv, 
no. 3; L. S. Lloyd, in ML xix, no. 4, xx, 
no. 4, xxi, no. 4; id., in MR v, no. 4 
(Mean-tone tuning); J. Handschin, in 
Schweizer fahrbuch fur Musi\wissen- 
schaft ii; K. Hasse, in ZMW xiii. 

Temperatur [G.]. ^Temperament. 
Gleich sch wehende, u ngleichsch we hen de 
T,, equal, unequal temperament. 

Tempo. The rate of speed of a compo- 
sition or a section thereof, ranging from 
the slowest to the quickest, as is indicated 
by tempo marks such as largo, adagio, 
andante, moderato, allegro, presto, pres- 


tissimo. More accurate are ^metronome 
indications, such as J = M.M. 100, i.e., the 
quarter-note lasts one one-hundredth of 
a minute. The practical limits for the 
duration of the beat are M.M. 50 and 
M.M. 120. M.M. 60-80 represents a “nor- 
mal” tempo which agrees with various 
natural paces, e.g., that of moderate walk- 
ing or of the human pulse. The question 
of the “right tempo” for a piece is, as is 
well known, one of the favorite topics 
among musicians, listeners, and critics. 
The discrepancy in tempo encountered 
in two performances of, e.g., the second 
movement of Beethoven’s Seventh Sym- 
phony is simply appalling, as is also the 
unyielding pertinacity with which each 
conductor and his disciples usually defend 
their position. Such discrepancies are 
frequently explained as being conditioned 
by external factors, e.g., the size and re- 
verberations of the concert hall, the so- 
nority of the instruments, the size of the 
orchestra. Such an explanation, however, 
would account only for minute modifica- 
tions, not for the startling differences 
found between a performance by, e.g., 
Toscanini and Stokowski. These are 
purely a matter of interpretation, and the 
differences encountered in the interpreta- 
tion of the tempo are not more consider- 
able — though perhaps more striking for 
the amateur listener — than those en- 
countered in matters of style, phrasing, 
and orchestral treatment. The observa- 
tions to be made with regard to *inter- 
pretation in general apply, equally, to the 
particular topic of tempo. See also *Tem- 
po marks. — For the tempo in early music, 
see under *Tactus. 

Lit.: E. O. Turner, “Tempo Variation” 
(ML xix, no. 3); R. Kolisch, “Tempo and 
Character in Beethoven’s Music” (MQ 
xxix); H. Gal, “The Right Tempo” 
{Monthly Musical Record Ixix, 174). See 
also under *Metronome. 

Tempo giusto [It.]. Normal, proper 
speed. 

Tempo marks. In order to indicate the 
tempo of a piece, a number of Italian 
terms are used the most important of 
which are given here, proceeding from 


[736] 



TEMPO MARKS 


TEMPOS 


the slowest to the quickest: largo (broad), 
lento (slow), adagio (slow; literally, at 
ease), andante (walking), moderato 
(moderate), allegretto^ allegro (quick; 
literally, cheerful), presto (very fast), 
prestissimo (as fast as possible). In addi- 
tion to these, there exist terms calling for 
gradual change of speed, mainly ritar- 
dando (slackening) and accelerando 
(quickening), while a deliberate unstead- 
iness of tempo is indicated by ^ruhato. 

By the use of the different tempo marks 
the duration of any given note value be- 
comes variable within large limits. In 
actual practice the range of variation is 
still considerably larger than one might 
assume, owing to the practice of writing 
quick pieces in the larger values (whole- 
to eighth-notes), and slow pieces in the 
smaller ones (quarter- to sixty-fourth- 
notes). Our two examples (i: Mozart, 
Piano Concerto, A major, last movement; 
2: Beethoven, Piano Sonata, op. 10, no. 3, 
slow movement) show that the duration 
of the half-note may vary from less than 
half a second to four seconds. It is not easy 



to find a satisfactory explanation for the 
above-mentioned practice which might be 
rooted in a general tendency of “over- 
stating the case.” How much it helps to 
emphasize the impression of “extremely 
quick” and “extremely slow” appears if 
the two examples are written according 
to the “natural” principle of using small 
values for quick notes, large values for 
long notes [see Ex. 3 and 4] . If this prin- 
ciple were accepted, tempo marks would 
become largely superfluous since the dura- 
tion of the sound could be expressed by 
choosing from a series of approximately 
unchangeable note-values. 

This consideration is not meant as a 
recommendation for reform of the pre- 
vailing practice, but rather to clarify its 
significance, particularly in contrast to 


the earlier practice which indeed was of 
the type just described. Prior to 1600, 
tempo marks were practically unknown, 
since the pace of a composition was ex- 
pressed in the notation itself, the note- 
values then used having absolute dura- 
tions which were variable only within 
small limits [see *Tactus]. An isolated 
early example of tempo indication occurs 
in the lute book El Maestro (1536) of 
Luis de Milan [see ^Editions XXV, 2] 
who points out that certain sections of his 
lute fantasias must be played “apriessa” 
(quick), others “espacio” (slow). One 
of the first composers to use the modern 
tempo marks was Adriano Banchieri {c. 
1567-1634) who, in his Organo suona- 
rino (1611, ’22), prescribes Adagioy Al- 
legrOy Velocey Presto, Piu presto, and 
Prestissimo [cf. ApMZ i]. It may be 
noticed that in the 17th and i8th centuries 
presto did not have the present-day mean- 
ing of “extremely quick,” but only meant 
“quick.” Thus, players of Bach’s E minor 
Prelude from WtJCL i commit a grave 
error if they try to play its final section 
in a speed comparable to that of a presto- 
etude by Chopin. It was not until the 
time of Mozart that presto was used in its 
present-day significance. 

Temps [F.]. temps jort {faible), 

strong (weak) beat. Temps premier, see 
^Chronos protos. 

Tempus [L., time]. In 13th-century 
theory the unit of musical time, compa- 
rable to the *tactus of the i6th century. 
Franco of Cologne describes it very ac- 
curately as “minimum in plenitudine 
vocis,” i.e., as the smallest time in which 
a “full sound” can be conveniently pro- 
duced (c*. M.M. 80). In the 13th century 
this duration was represented by the 
brevis while, with the beginning of the 
Ars nova, the semibrevis was used in- 
stead. However, the term tempus re- 
mained connected with the brevis in an- 
other sense, i.e., as the indication of 
its mensuration, signifying whether the 
brevis was equal to three or to two semi- 
breves (tempus perfectum, imperfectum). 
See *Mensural notation II. 


[737] 



TEN 

Ten. Short for tenuto. 


TERZETT 


Tenebrae [L., the dark, sc, hours]. 
The service of Matins and Lauds on the 
Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday (Good 
Friday) of Holy Week, preceding Easter, 
so called owing to the gradual extinction 
of the candles which accompanies the 
celebration in an impressive ceremony. 
At the first Nocturn the ^Lamentations 
of Jeremiah are sung {lJU 626, 669, 715), 
at other occasions the *Miserere (Psalm 
50) and the *Improperia. 

Tenendo [It.]. Sustaining. 

Teneramente [It.]. Tenderly. 

Tenete [It.]. Holdout. 

Tenor [from L. tenere^ to hold], (i) 
The highest natural voice of men [see 
•Voices, Range of]. — (2) In part music, 
the part above the lowest [see •Part (2)]. 
— (3) Instruments of about the same 
range as the vocal tenor are referred to as 
tenor trombone, •tenor horn, tenor sax- 
horn, •tenor violin, etc. — (4) In plain- 
song psalmody, same as •repercussion. — 
(5) In early polyphonic music {c. 1150- 
1500 and later) tenor denotes that part 
(of about the same range as the modern 
tenor) which served as the point of de- 
parture of the composition, the other 
voices being added above it as •duplum, 
triplum, etc. In sacred works (organa, 
motets, Masses) the tenor was practically 
always taken from plainsong, or, in the 
15th century, borrowed from secular mel- 
odies (•cantus firmus). It usually con- 
sists of a succession of long notes {*Pfund- 
noten) such as still occur in many chorale 
preludes of Bach, here usually in the bass. 
See *Tenor Mass. Cf. P. Aubry, Recher- 
ches sur les ** tenors” frangais {latins) dans 
les motets du Xllle siMe (1907). 

Tenorhorn [G.]. Baritone; see •Brass 
instruments III (c). 

Tenor Mass. A polyphonic Mass based 
upon a cantus firmus which is used as a 
tenor. Most Masses of the 15th and i6th 
centuries are of this type [see •Mass B, II 
(b) ] . See also •Discant Mass. 


Tenoroon. See •Oboe family II, C. 

Tenorschlussel [G.]. Tenor clef. Sec 
•Clefs. 

Tenor violin. See •Violin family (f). 

Tenso. A type of troubadour and trou- 
vere poetry, in the nature of a (real or 
feigned) dialogue or debate referring to 
political events or other “debatable’* mat- 
ter. A similar type was the jeu partly i.e., 
an actual dialogue, usually on a question 
of love [cf. ReMMAy 2i3f]. No special 
musical form attached to these types. They 
played an important part in the competi- 
tions of the troubadours and of the •Min- 
nesinger, the *puys and Sdnger\riege, 

Tenth. See •Intervals. 

Tento [Sp., Port.]. See under •Tiento. 

Tenue [F.], tenuto [It.]. Held, sus- 
tained. 

Tepido [It.]. “Lukewarm,” unimpas- 
sioned. 

Teponaztli. See •Mexico. 

Terce. See •Office hours. 

Teretism. Sec under •Anenaiki. 

Ternary form. See •Binary and ter- 
nary form. 

Ter Sanctus [L., Thrice Holy]. Used 
with reference to the “Sanctus, sanctus, 
sanctus” (“Holy, holy, holy”) of the 
•Trishaglon, of the Sanctus of the Mass, 
or of the •Te Deum. 

Tertian harmony. A harmonic system 
based on the third, i.e., on the triad; hence, 
our common system of harmony as op- 
posed to, e.g., •quartal harmony. See also 
under •Third. 

Terz [G.]. Third. Terzdezimey 2i 
i.e., upper sixth. TerzquartakJ{prdy sec 
under •Seventh-chord. T erzverwandt- 
schafty the relationship between keys a 
third apart, e.g., C and E, or C and Eb. 
Terzfldte {Terzfagott)y a flute (oboe) 
in E. 

Terzett [G.], terzetto [It.]. A vocal 
piece for three voices. See •Trio. 


[738] 



TERZINA 


TESTS 


Terzina [It.]. Triplet. 

Terzo suono. Tartini’s name for the 
^combination tones discovered by him. 

Tessitura [It., texture]. The general 
“lie” of a vocal part, whether high or low 
in its average pitch. It differs from *range 
in that it does not take into account a few 
isolated notes of extraordinarily high or 
low pitch. 

Testo [It., text], ’^Narrator (in oratorios, 
passions, etc.). 

Tests and measurements in music. 
Psychological tests in all fields had their 
inception at the time of World War I. 
Tests in music have been devised to meas- 
ure efficiency of teaching, general musical 
knowledge and achievement, musical 
taste or preference, and innate musical 
capacity. They may be divided into two 
groups: (a) tests and measurements of 
musical capacities, and (b) tests and meas- 
urements of musical abilities. The former 
are independent of training while the 
latter are dependent on capacity and train- 
ing. (Capacity means undeveloped, in- 
nate, native talent, receptive powers, i.e., 
potentiality for development; ability de- 
notes acquisition of knowledges, skills, 
and technics, i.e., development of a ca- 
pacity.) 

Tests and Measurements of Musical 
Capacities: Research in music tests began 
with experiments by C. E. Seashore in the 
Psychological Laboratory at the Univer- 
sity of Iowa at the beginning of the 20th 
century. In 1919 the original phonograph 
recordings known as the Seashore Meas- 
ures of Musical Talent were released for 
use. This set of six records purports to 
measure innate sense for the following 
musical factors: pitch, intensity, time, 
consonance, tonal memory, and rhythm. 
The 1939 revision consists of two series. 
Series A is suggested for group surveys to 
discover talent. Series B constitutes an 
individual measurement where greater 
reliability is desired and is suggested as a 
basic entrance requirement for admission 
to music schools, assignment to musical 
instruments, and diagnosis of special prob- 


lems. Both revised series measure the 
same factors: pitch, loudness, time, tim- 
bre, rhythm, and tonal memory. 

The Kwalwasser-Dykema Music Test 
developed by J. Kwalwasser and P. Dy- 
kema has been available since 1930. It 
consists of phonograph records measuring 
the following abilities and capacities: 
tonal memory, quality discrimination, in- 
tensity discrimination, feeling for tonal 
movement, time discrimination, rhythm 
discrimination, pitch discrimination, me- 
lodic tastes, and rhythm imagery. 

All the capacity tests are measures of 
auditory perception and may be given in 
groups or individually for the purpose of 
individual diagnosis and prognosis. They 
can be given to those musically trained or 
untrained, to adults and to children as 
young as nine years or in the fifth grade. 
Early researches substantiated by later 
investigations proved that records of mu- 
sical capacities do not vary with age, train- 
ing, and general intelligence. A high In- 
telligence Quotient is no assurance of keen 
pitch discrimination or superior talent in 
any other musical factor. Training is ef- 
fective in developing the power to use a 
fixed capacity. Variation with age may be 
attributed to maturation, and may there- 
fore mean that there is no improvement 
in the physiologic limit of pitch discrimi- 
nation itself. 

As would be expected, ratings as deter- 
mined by capacity measures have been 
high for successful musicians or students 
who have made satisfactory or outstand- 
ing progress in music. This and other 
reasons have been considered evidence of 
the validity of the measures of musical 
capacity and justify their use in vocational 
and avocational guidance in music. The 
reliability and the validity of all psycho- 
logical measures depend upon the train- 
ing and experience of the examiner. It is 
generally agreed that no one should as- 
sume responsibility for the administration, 
interpretation, and application of tests 
and results without knowledge of the 
nature of the psychology of music, prin- 
ciples of testing, principles of musical in- 
terpretation and guidance. 

Tests and Measurements of Musical 


[739] 



TESTUDO 

Abilities: Tests in this group may be clas- 
si|ied as (a) those measuring appreciation 
and information, and (b) those measur- 
injg performance. Tests of appreciation 
alid information based on knowledge ac- 
quired in elementary school, high school, 
and college measure general information, 
recognition, and comprehension of music 
froj^ notation, musical symbols, terms, 
muisjlcal instruments, composers, artists, 
nielodies, etc. These are largely paper 
and .pencil tests in the form of completion, 
mjultfple choice, true and false, or answer 
to a direct question. Tests measuring per- 
formance include tests of sight-singing 
ability, melodic and rhythmic dictation 
(writing in musical notation what one 
has heard played), and the analysis of 
musical performances direedy or from 
phonograph recordings by means of the 
recent developments in phonophotography 
[cf. The Vibrato by Seashore]. Many 
college music departments have devised 
placement tests in music which are given 
to applicants for the purpose of estimating 
the extent and quality of the student’s 
previous musical training. These tests 
often combine tests of appreciation and 
information and tests of performance. 

Lit.: C. E. Seashore, The Psychology of 
Musical Talent (1919); iW., Psychology of 
Music (1938); id.y The Vibrato (1935); 
H. M. Stanton, Measurement of Musical 
Talent (1935); J. L. Mursell, Psychology 
of Music (1937); C. W. Flemming and 
M. Flagg, Descriptive Bibliography of 
Prognostic and Achievement Tests in Mu- 
sic (1936); S. K. Gernet, Musical Dis- 
crimination at Various Ages and Grade 
Levels (1939); V. R. Ross, Relationship 
between Intelligence^ Scholastic Achieve- 
ment and Musical Talent (1937); H. 
Lowery, in PM A Ixvii; C. E. Seashore, 
in MQ i; J. C. Moos, “The Yardstick 
Applied to Musical Talent” {MQ xvi). 

; D.D. 

Testudo I^., turtle], (i) The ancient 
Greek *lyra which was frequently made 
from a tortc^se shell. — (i) A 16th-cen- 
tury humanfetic name foi^ the lute (e.g., 
L. FuhrmanI, Testudo Gallo-Germanica, 
1615). 


TEXT AND MUSIC 

Tetrachord. In ancient Greek music a 
succession of three descending whole- 
tones, followed by a descending semitone, 
e.g., e'-d'-c'-b, a-g-f-e. By joining sev- 
eral such tetrachords the entire diatonic 
scale from c' down to A was obtained [see 
•Greek music] . It should be noted that, 
in Greek theory, a tetrachord always has 
the above structure; groups of four tones 
with a semitone at another place (e.g., 
d'-c'—b-a, c'~b-a-g, etc., sometimes des- 
ignated in modern writings as Phrygian, 
Lydian, etc., tetrachord) did not exist in 
the Greek system. There existed, how- 
ever, chromatic modifications of the tetra- 
chord,the chromatic tetrachord e'-c'#-c'-b 
and the enharmonic tetrachord e'-c'-x-b 
(x designating the quarter-tone between 
c' and b). 

Tetrardus. See •Church modes II. 

Text and music. In vocal music, par- 
ticularly in songs, the consideration of the 
text is one of the prime concerns of the 
modern composer. Correct accentuation, 
clarity of pronunciation, emphasis of im- 
portant words, etc., are the basic require- 
ments of good vocal style, but only the 
indispensable premises to the main ob- 
jective, i.e., to convey in musical language 
the general character of the text as well as 
its fluctuating shades or contrasts. Any 
song, from Schubert to the present day, 
will readily show the attention given by 
composers to this matter. In fact, from 
1880 on, one finds a tendency to empha- 
size the text at the expense of the musical 
melody which is frequently reduced to a 
mere “recitation” (Hugo Wolf, Debussy, 
Schonberg). It may also be noted that 
modern composers have been very careful 
in the selection of poetic texts for their 
songs, choosing only poems of outstand- 
ing literary value, and that, on the other 
hand, the 19th-century development of 
poetry in which one encounters such out- 
standing figures as Goethe, Mdrike, Bau- 
delaire, Mallarme, has given a great im- 
petus to the rise and development of the 
song. On the other hand, it cannot be 
denied that occasionally matters have 
been carried to the extreme, and it is well 
to remember that Bach has written some 


[ 740] 



TEXT AND MUSIC 


of his greatest arias to notoriously inferior 
texts. 

The above-mentioned principles of tex- 
tual treatment developed gradually in the 
1 6th century, and were fully recognized 
first by English composers [sec *Just note 
and accent]. Throughout the early his- 
tory of music, however, examples abound 
showing that composers were less strongly 
interested in these matters and frequently 
considered them as of secondary impor- 
tance. Two such examples may be men- 
tioned: an Ave regina by Dufay in which 

w f 

the following declamation occurs: ra-dix, 

w ^ w ^ ^ w ^ 

an-ge-lo-rum, re-gi-na: and a motet from 
the Roman de Fauvel (c, 1300) in which 
an almost deliberately absurd declamation 
is used with the Ovidian hexameter: In 
nova fert animus [cf. ApNPM^ 118, 336]. 
It was not until the *musica reservata of 
the 1 6th century (Josquin) that a differ- 
ent attitude towards accentuation was 
adopted. Naturally, the introduction of 
the vernacular into polyphonic music 
(c. 1550) contributed considerably to the 
abandoning of the earlier indifference in 
this matter. Byrd’s anthems contain many 
examples of a most careful interpretation 
of the text, and the declamation in Pur- 
cell’s dramatic works is generally admired 
as a model. German composers, however, 
were less quick to adopt the new point of 
view. A striking example of mis-declama- 
tion — not lacking, however, a certain 
forcefulness of expression — occurs at the 
end of Schiitz’s Christmas Oratorio ( 1 664) 

/ V / 

where the accentuation “mit Schallc” is 
consistently used instead of the correct 

w ^ w 

“mit Schalle.” Such deviation should not 
be considered as mere negligence or faulti- 
ness, but rather as a deliberate means to 
avoid the weakness of feminine endings. 
The same procedure can be observed in 
Bach, c.g., in the tenor aria, ‘‘Geduld, Ge- 
duld” of the St. Matthew Passion, where 

w / ^ 

the accentuation “rachen” is used instead 

of “rachen. There are, however, other 
cases in Bach in which incorrect declama- 
tion can be explained only as the result 

[; 


TEXT AND 

of his preoccupation with purely musical 
(melodic) considerations, e.g,, in his 

' ' W - 

cantata no. 105: “Herr gehe nicht ins 

w / ^ w w ^ 

Gericht,” instead of Herr, gehe niVht ins 
Gericht.” 

Two additional problems of textual 
treatment may be briefly considered, viz., 
word painting and text repetition. The 
expression in music of characteristic 
words such as “heaven,” “laughter,” 
“to run,” etc., occurs as early as in 
Obrecht (c. 1430-1505) and Josqui9i'(^. 
1450-1521 ), and became a well-established 
method of composition in the 17th century 
[see *Word painting; *Affectenlehre]. 
Repetition of words or short phrases also 
started with the Flemish masters (Obrccht 
and others; cf. HAMy no. 76), particularly 
in their motets [see, however, below re- 
garding textual repetition in Masses]. 
Towards the end of the i6th century it 
was also adopted for secular pieces in the 
vernacular (Italian and English madri- 
gals; German polyphonic songs) and in 
the vocal compositions of the Baroque 
one finds numerous examples of a phrase 
being repeated ten or more times, cither 
in order to provide a basis for the display 
of vocal virtuosity (Italian operatic arias) 
or as an expressive means of emphasis de- 
signed to bring out to the fullest the sig- 
nificance of the words (Schiitz, Handel, 
Bach). The former method persisted in 
the “grand opira” of the 19th century 
(Meyerbeer, Verdi), but Schubert’s lied 
and the operatic reform of Wagner led to 
the abandonment of such external rou- 
tine methods. 

For the numerous problems arising in 
connection. with the text (more properljr, 
with the absence or scarcity of text) in the 
Masses of the 15th century, reference must 
be made to special studies. Here it must 
suffice to say that the modern editorial 
practice of repeating words for passages 
lacking a text in the original f( c.g., “Kyrie 
eleison” ten times, instead of once or, per- 
haps, thrice) j(s of very doijbtful authen- 
ticity. Long ;^vocalization^ (on the syl- 
lable c of Kyrie) are much tnore probable 
from the musicsil as well as from the litur- 

.1] 



TEXTURE 


TEXTURE 


gical point of view. See also *Odhecaton. 

Lit.: H. E. Wooldridge, ‘*The Treat- 
ment of Words in Polyphonic Music” 
(MA i); H. Monro, “Words to Music” 
(ML i, no. i); G. Adler, “Cber Textun- 
terlegung in den Trienter Codices” (Rie- 
mann Festschrift); K. Jeppesen, “Text- 
legung in der Chansonmusik des spateren 
15. Jahrhunderts” (KIM^ Vienna, 1927); 
for extended bibl. cf. BeMMR^ 319. 

Texture. This term, which generally 
denotes “characteristic disposition of in- 
terwoven threads, filaments, etc.” (Web- 
ster), is very useful in referring to a num- 
ber of phenomena resulting from the fact 
that music is two-dimensional in char- 
acter, consisting of horizontal as well as 
vertical elements. The former are repre- 
sented by the successive sounds forming 
melodies, the latter by the simultaneous 
sounds forming harmonies [see also 
^Counterpoint I]. The analogy between 
music and the warp and woof of a fabric 
is particularly obvious in the case of part- 
music, i.e., music written in a given num- 
ber of parts. Here each part represents a 
horizontal line of individual design, but 
connected with the other lines by the 
(vertical) relationship of consonance or 
of harmony. Such music is said to be of 
contrapuntal or polyphonic texture. A 
different situation exists in that type of 
music commonly referred to as “accom- 
panied melody.” Here the texture is 
primarily vertical, being based on a suc- 
cession of chordal blocks which are hori- 
zontally connected by a top melody. Such 
texture is called chordal or homophonic. 
Ex. I, (a) and (b), illustrates the two 

'rrr'rT'rrf fu" 



methods, applied to the same melody. In 
chordal style the accompanying chords 
arc frequendy spread out in the form of 


broken chords, a modification which of 
course does not alter the basic character 
of the texture. 

Between the anti-poles of strictly poly- 
phonic and strictly homophonic music 
there exists, of course, a large variety of 
intermediate types of textures. Ex. 2 



[Beethoven, Piano Sonata op. 106] illus- 
trates a mixture of horizontal and vertical 
elements which is particularly frequent in 
19th-century piano music of high stand- 
ing (Beethoven, Brahms). As early as the 
17th century the strictly contrapuntal 
texture of the polyphonic era was miti- 
gated into a pseudo-contrapuntal texture 
known as *freistimmig. In contrapuntal 
music a distinctive feature of prime im- 
portance is the rhythmic relationship be- 
tween the parts. There exist two opposite 
types of polyphonic texture, one in which 
the four parts move in identical rhythm 
(as in a church hymn), the other in which 
they show complete rhythmic independ- 
ence (as frequently in Palestrina or Bach). 
Only the latter texture, known as *poly- 
rhythmic, is contrapuntal in the true sense 
of the word while the former, known as 
^familiar style, borders on chordal tex- 
ture and is, indeed, frequently referred to 
as strict chordal style (in contradistinc- 
tion to free chordal style in which there 
is no restriction to a given number of 
parts and usually no horizontal movement 
except for the top melody). 

Another interesting aspect is the dis- 
tinction between “light” and “heavy” 
textures. To the latter category belong, 
e.g., Gabrieli’s *polychoral compositions 
and Sibelius’ symphonies; to the former 
the chansons by Dufay [see ^Burgundian 
School] and Stravinsky’s L’Histoire du 
soldat, A preference for light texture is a 
significant characteristic of *New music. 

Occasionally the two-dimensional tex- 
ture of music is reinforced by diagonal 
threads. The most important phenome- 


[742] 



THEME 

non of this type is the *canon in which 
there is a consistent diagonal relationship 
between the two parts, owing to the imi- 
tation of every motive at a fixed distance. 
It is the co-existence of horizontal, verti- 
cal, and diagonal relationships which 
creates the impression of special intensity 
in canonic writing as well as in fugal 
styles in general. Melodic ^anticipation 
might also be considered as a diagonal 
formation, e.g., those bold and persistent 
anticipations which are characteristic of 
’•‘‘Japanese music. See A. Dyson, “The 
Texture of Modern Music” (ML iv, 
no. 3), 

Theme [F. theme; G. Thema; It. tema \ . 
In sonatas and fugues, same as subject. 
For theme with variations, see * Varia- 
tions. 

Themenaufstellung [G.]. Exposition. 

Theorboe [G,Theorbe], See*LuteIII. 
Cf. H. Quittard, “L’accompagnement au 
theorbc” (BSIM, 1910). 

Theory, Musical. I. General. The 
theory of music as commonly taught to- 
day includes elementary studies usually 
classified as ’••'solfege, and advanced stud- 
ies in harmony [sec ^Harmonic analysis], 
’•“counterpoint, *form, and ^orchestration. 
In this curriculum at least one important 
study is missing, that of ^melody. Other 
aspects of musical theory, closely bound 
up with that of melody, are ^rhythm and 
^phrasing. More on the scientific side is 
the study of ^acoustics, ’••‘intervals (calcu- 
lation of), ^scales, etc., while the philo- 
sophical and speculative aspect falls under 
the province of musical ’••‘aesthetics. See 
also ^Musicology. 

II. History. The fourteen centuries of 
European musical theory (c. 500-1900) 
may be briefly indicated by the following 
names: 

A (Until 1200). Boethius, c. 480-524 
[see * Aesthetics II; ^Letter notation]. — 
Hucbald, c. 840-930 [see *Musica en- 
chiriadis; *Dasia notation]. — Oddo of 
Cluny, d. 942 [see ’•“Letter notation]. — 
Guido d’ Arezzo, c. 995-1050 [see *StafI; 
♦Micrologus; *Organum II; ♦Letter nota- 

[: 


THEORY, MUSICAL 

tion] . — John Cotton, fl, c. 1100 [sec *Or- 
ganum II]. The treatises of this group 
are reprinted in GS i, ii. 

B (1200-1500). Discantus positio vuU 
garisy c. 1225. — Johannes de Garlandia, 
c. 1190— after 1245 [see *Discant]. — 
Franco of Cologne, fl. c. 1250 [see ♦Nota- 
tion III; ♦Tempus] . — Anonymous IV of 
Coussemaker’s *Scriptores i, fl. c. 1280 
[see ♦Ars antiqua]. — Walter Odington, 
fl. c. 1300 [see ♦Modes, Rhythmic; ♦Con- 
sonance and dissonance II; ♦Third].— 
Johannes de Grocheo, c. 1300 [Theoria, 
repr. by J. Wolf in SIM i; see ♦Estampie] . 

— Philippe de Vitry, c. 1290—1361 [see 
♦Ars nova; ♦Notation III]. — Unknown 
author (Jacobus of Liege?) of Speculum 
musicaey c. 1330 [see ♦Ars nova I]. — 
Johannes de Muris, d. after 1350. — Mar- 
chettus de Padua, fl. after 1300 [see ♦Ars 
nova I; ♦Italian music I].— ^ Simon Tun- 
stede, fl. after 1350 [see ♦Discantus supra 
librum]. — Guilelmus Monachus, c. 1480 
[see ♦Fauxbourdon (2)]. — Ramis de 
Pareia, 1 440-1 521 [Musica practica, c. 
1490, new ed. by J. Wolf; see ♦Spanish 
music I]. — Johannes Tinctoris, c. 1446- 
1511. Most of the treatises in this group 
are reprinted in CS i— iv. 

C (1500-1700). Franchinus Gafurius, 
1451-1522 [Practica musicaCy 1496, cf. E. 
Praetorius, Die Mensurdtheorie des Fran- 
chinus Gafurius . • . (1906)]. — Martin 
Agricola, c. 1500-56 [Musica instrumen- 
talis deudschy 1529; new ed. 1896]. — 
Henricus Glareanus, 1488-1563 [see ♦Do- 
dekachordon; ♦Swiss music]. — Adria- 
nus Coclicus, c. 1500—63 [see ♦Musica 
reservata]. — Niccolo Vicentino, 15 11-72 
[see ♦Arcicembalo]. — Diego Ortiz, fl. 
1547-65 [Tratado de glosas^ i553> 
by M. Schneider, 1913; see ♦Spanish mu- 
sic II; ♦Ricercar II (c)]. — Gioseffo Zar- 
lino, 1517-90 [Istituzioniy 1558, cf. GD v, 
776!!; see ♦Dualism; ♦Ornamentation I]. 

— Vincenzo Galilei, 1533-after 1589 
[DialogOy 1581; see ♦Nuove musiche]. — 
Lodovico Zacconi, 1555-1627 [Prattica di 
musicuy 1592-1619, cf. GD v, 772f]. — 
Thomas Morley, 1557—1603 [Plaine and 
Basie Introduction to Practicall Musid^Cy 
1597, repr. 1937]. — Girolamo Diruta, c. 
1560-? [// TransilvanOy 1597 and later, 

13 ] 



THEREMIN 


THIRD 


cf, GD ii, 69; repr. by C. Krebs, in VMW 
viii], — Michael Praetorius, 1571-1621 
[Syntagma musicum^ 3 vols., 1615-19, cf. 
GD iv, 243f; vol. ii, Organographia repr. 
in ^Editions XXVI, 13 and by W. Gurlitt 
(facs.)]. — Marin Mersenne, 1588-1648 
[Harmonic universellcy 1636; sec *Tem- 
perament III]. 

D (1700-present). Jean-Philippe Ra- 
meau, 1683-1764 [Nouveau systime de 
musique theoriqucy 1726; see ♦Funda- 
mental bass; ♦Dualism]. — Johann Mat- 
theson, 1681-1764 [cf. GD iii, 352]. — 
Friedrich W. Marpurg, 1718-95 [cf. GD 
iii, 327f]. — Among the modern contri- 
butions to musical theory the writings by 
Hugo Riemann (1849-1919; sec ♦Phras- 
ing; ♦Vierhebigkeit) and by Heinrich 
Schenker, 1868-1935 [see ♦Urlinie] arc 
outstanding. 

Lit.: H. Riemann, Geschichte dcr Mu- 
siXtheorie im 9. bis ig. jahrhundert 
(1898); G. Pictzsch, Studien zur Ge- 
schichte der MusiX’T heorie im Mittelalter 
(Diss. Freiburg 1928); A. Hughes, in OH 
1928, Introductory Volume; AdHM ii, 
124411 (bibl,); LavE i.i, 556ff; ReMMA, 
lyk (Greek) and 1251! (medieval); 
ApNPM, 20ifl; J. Wolf, “Early English 
Musical Theorists*’ (MQ xxv); id,, “Die 
Musikthcoric des Mittclalters” (AM iii; 
bibl.) ; U. Kornmiiller, “Die alten Musik- 
thcorctikcr” (Kf, 1891, ’99, 1903); D. von 
Bartha, “Studien zum Musikalischcn 
Schrifttum des 15. Jahrhunderts’’( / 4 MF i). 

Theremin. Sec ♦Electronic musical in- 
struments VI. 

Thesis. See ♦Arsis and thesis. 

Third [F. tierce; G. Terz; It. terza^ . The 
third degree of a scale, and the interval 
thus formed [sec ♦Intervals]. The third 
is the most characteristic interval of our 
harmonic system which, indeed, might be 
called the system of ♦tertian harmony 
(c, 1400-1900), as distinguished from an 
earlier period (pre-tertian harmony, c, 
900-1400) in which the third was not 
fully admitted, and from a recent one 
(post-tertian harmony, c, 1900-) in which 
it has lost its former dominant position 
[sec ♦Harmony II]. 


Passages in parallel thirds occur occa- 
sionally in the 13th-century organa [cf. 
J. Handschin, in Festschrift fiir Guido 
Adler, p. 57] and form the basis of the 
English ♦gymel. As an integral clement 
of harmony the third appeared in the 
sixth-chord style [see ♦f auxbourdon ] of 
the 14th century; of melody, in the works 
of Dunstable, c, 1400 [cf., e.g., SchGMB, 
nos. 34, 35; see also ♦Burgundian School] . 
An interesting early example of a tertian 
and, at the same time, pentatonic melody 
is Neithart von Reucnthal’s Minnesinger 
melody “Der May hat” (c. 1225; cf. DTOe 
37.i, p. 33). Regarding the emergence of 


J _t j . - 


■■ 




— hJ 

0 l>cr b«t me-n^ 1 

cr-i 

« h^hei^s 





the third as a consonant interval, see ♦Con- 
sonance and dissonance III. It may be 
noticed that, prior to 1500, the third was 
not admitted in the final chord [see ♦Pi- 
cardy third]. 

The third is also interesting from the 
point of view of theoretical acoustics. In 
the Pythagorean system the major third 
is obtained as the fourth consecutive fifth 

(c-g-d'-a'-e"), with the frequency 

the minor third as the third consecutive 
fourth (c-f-bb'-eb') with the frequency 

— . Owing to the complex formation of 

these fractions, both thirds were regarded 
as dissonances. This interpretation per- 
sisted throughout the Middle Ages, al- 

though the consonant (pure) third -, i.e., 

the third of ♦just intonation, was already 
known to Aristoxenos (c, 354—300 B.C.). 
The first medieval writer to consider the 
third as a consonance was the Englishman 
W. Odington (c, 1300) [see ♦Consonance 
and dissonance III]. This fact is interest- 
ing, since singing in parallel thirds (♦gy- 
mel) was actually practiced in England 
much earlier than anywhere else. The 
difference (in *cents) between the thirds 


[744] 




THIRTEENTH, CHORD OF THE 

of the various systems appears from the 
following table. 

Minor Third Major Third 


Pythagorean 294 408 

Just Intonation 315 386 

Mean-tone system 315 386 

Equal temperament 300 400 


The difference between the tempered 
and the pure major third can easily be 
demonstrated on an organ by playing on 
one manual the tone c" with a normal 
8 '-registcr (principal), and on the second 

manual the tone c with a tertia-stop (5-^ )> 

which produces the fifth harmonic e" in 
just intonation. 

Thirteenth, Chord of the. See under 
^Seventh chord. 

Thirty-second note. See ♦Notes. 

Thirty-two foot stop. Sec *Foot (2). 

Thorough-bass, figured bass [F. 
Basse chiffrS\ G. Generalbass^ bezifferter 
Bass; It. basso continue. Thorough (old 
spelling for “through”) is the translation 
of continue, i.e., continuing throughout 
the piece]. 

I. A method of indicating an accom- 
panying part by the bass notes only, to- 
gether with figures designating the chief 
intervals and chords to be played above 
the bass notes. This stenographic system 
was universally used in the ♦Baroque pe- 
riod (1600-1750) for which it is so sig- 
nificant that the name “Thorough-bass 
period” is frequently used for that era. 
The chief principles for the developed sys- 
tem (c, 1700) are as follows: 

1. A figure given with a bass note calls 
for the corresponding interval above this 
note in the key indicated by the signature. 
For instance, in Ab major, a 6 written 
underneath (or above) g indicates Eb, and 
the figures ® indicate Db and Eb. 

2. The intervals of the third, fifth, oc- 
tave, are frequently not indicated by fig- 
ures (3, 5, 8), the understanding being 
that these are to be added where suitable. 

3. Chromatic alterations are indicated 
by a sharp or flat placed in front of (or, 
occasionally, behind) the figure. A sharp 


THOROUGH-BASS 

or flat without figure calls respectively for 
the major or minor third. The natural 
sign is used in a similar way. Sharping is 
frequently indicated by a diagonal stroke 
through the figure, or by an apostrophe. 

4. A horizontal dash following a fig-^ 
urc or a vertical group of figures indicates 
that the notes of the right hand arc to be 
held, although the bass proceeds to other 
tones. 

5. A small diagonal dash indicates 
repetition of the same figures above a 
changed bass note, i.e., sequential trans- 
position of the chord. 

6. The figure o indicates tasto solo, 
i.e., no accompaniment other than the 
bass note. 

7. Frequently, two or more successive 
figures do not indicate chords proper, but 
only voice leading, appoggiaturas, or pass- 
ing tones, e.g., 4 3, or 9 8, or 5 4 3. 

The accompanying examples illustrate 




II. It goes without saying that the above 
principles constitute only the rudiments 
of an art the full mastery of which is not 
easily acquired. A good thorough-bass 
accompaniment is considerably more than 
a mere translation of the figures into mu- 
sical notes. At the proper places, the mu- 
sical material used in the solo parts (voice, 
violin) should be incorporated into the 


[745] 




THOROUGH-BASS 

accompaniment, in free imitation, or in 
doubling thirds, or in contrapuntal con- 
trast. How far to go in this direction is 
the most difficult and the most controver- 
sial issue of the whole matter. Obviously, 
this question cannot be answered cate- 
gorically, as different situations arc pre- 
sented by different compositions and by 
works from different periods. Within 
the course of time from 1600 to 1750 
the style of improvised accompaniment 
changed from simple homophony to real 
counterpoint. Such elaborately contra- 
puntal realizations as have been given by 
H. Ricmann for arias of the mid- 17th 
century [cf. his Kantatenfruhling] are 
entirely out of place. They are the result 
of editorial ostentatiousness, rather than 
of scholarly conscientiousness. On the 
other hand, realizations such as appear in 
some recent editions (Barenreiter Verlag, 
Nagel) are decidedly too poor and un- 
interesting. 

It is important to note that Bach him- 
self has left two records of his own prac- 
tice of thorough-bass improvisation, one 
in the second aria of the solo-cantata 
A more traditore^ the other in the second 
movement of his sonata in B minor for 
flute and harpsichord. Although both 
parts are designated as Cembalo obbligato, 
their style differs markedly from that of 
other written-out parts and may be re- 
garded as an indication of his style of 
thorough-bass improvisation [cf. M. 
Schneider, in JMP xxi/xxii]. Another 
informative example of written-out thor- 
ough-bass accompaniment exists in a so- 
nata by Handel for viola da gamba and 
harpsichord [B.-H. edition, vol. 48, p. 
115J. 

The realization of a thorough-bass part, 
in addition to the accompanying harpsi- 
chordist, calls for a violoncello or a viola 
da gamba which reinforces the bass line. 
It would be entirely in keeping with the 
•Auffiihrungspraxis of the Baroque if the 
players of such instruments would some- 
what simplify the written |)art whenever 
this includes rapid figures, underlining 
intelligently the contours, rather than 
disturbing the equilibrium by a forced 
display of virtuosity. 


THROUGH-COMPOSED 

III. The thorough-bass practice of the 
Baroque grew out of the improvisation 
methods of the i6th century. Towards 
the end of this century motets were occa- 
sionally accompanied on the organ by 
means of a hassus pro organo^ i.e., a sepa- 
rate bass part from which the organist 
played the harmonies. The earliest known 
instance of this method is in a motet by 
A. Striggio of 1587 [cf. M. Schneider, p. 
67] . A similar bass part, printed for Gio- 
vanni Croce’s Motetti of 1594, has t and b 
above the notes in order to indicate major 
or minor triads (thirds). The earliest 
examples of a basso continue with figures 
are Cavalieri’s Rappresentazione and 
(less completely) Peri’s and Caccini’s op- 
eras Euridice, all from 1600. Here, as well 
as in numerous later works, different fig- 
ures are used for the different octaves, e.g., 
10 for the tenth (upper third), 15 for the 
double octave [cf., e.g., WoHN ii, 315]. 
See also *Partimento. 

Lit.: F. T. Arnold, The Art of Accom- 
paniment from a Thorough-Bass (1931); 
H. Keller, Schule des Generalbass-spiels 
(1931); E. Ulrich, Studien zur deutschen 
Generalbass-Praxis des 18. Jahrhunderts 
(1932); M. Schneider, Die Anfdnge des 
Basso continuo und seiner Bezifferung 
( 1918) ; L. Landshoff, in Sandberger Fest- 
schrift (1918); RiHM ii.2, 72ff; E. Stilz, 
in ZMW xiii; L. Torchi, in RMl i, ii; A. 
Toni, in RMl xxvi; GD v, article “Thor- 
ough-bass”; WoHN ii, 3140. 

Through-composed. This term, which 
is widely accepted as a translation of G. 
durchkpmponierty denotes songs in which 
new music is provided for, each stanza. 
Its opposite is “strophic song,” i.e., a 
song every stanza of which is sung to the 
same melody. The latter method is fre- 
quently used for simple lyrics, while -the 
former is preferred for texts of a dramatic 
or narrative character in which the situ- 
ation changes with every stanza as, e.g., 
in Schubert’s “Erlkdnig.” Early examples 
of through-composed songs are the *vers 
of the troubadours and the '•^aria of the 
Baroque period. In the 19th century F. 
Schubert and Carl Lowe [see ^Ballade 
(G.)] were among the first to employ the 



THUNDER MACHINE 

through-composed style. This has been 
universally accepted by recent composers 
(Debussy) for their lyrical songs. 

Thunder machine. A device called 
for in R. Strauss’s Alpine Symphony and 
elsewhere, which usually consists of a big 
drum with hard balls inside. The drum 
can be rotated and the balls then strike 
against the parchment. 

Thus Spake Zoroaster. See ♦Sym- 
phonic poem III. 

Tibetan music. Some information is 
found in: LavE i.5, 3084!! (examples 
doubtful); C. G. Bruce, The Assault on 
Mount Everest, ch. XIV; Jacques Bacot, 
Le Tibet revolte (1912), pp. 44!!; L. A. 
Waddell, Lamaism (1939), p. 433; T. H. 
Somervell, in Musical Times, 1923, p, 107. 
Particularly interesting is the Tibetan 
musical notation, consisting of elaborate 
scrolls of a highly ornamental design. 

Tibia. Latin name for the Greek ♦aulos; 
see ♦Oboe family III. Tibicen, flute 
player. 

Tie or Bind. A curved line, identical 
in appearance with the ♦slur, which con- 
nects two successive notes of the same 
pitch, and which has the function of unit- 
ing them into a single sound equal to the 
combined durations. The tie is used (i) 
to connect two notes separated by a bar- 
line, (2) to produce values which cannot 
be indicated by a single note, e.g., the 
value of seven eighth-notes: J J, (7 = 

4 + 3)- T" . . 

The tie has a remarkable historic sig- 
nificance since it represents, together 
with the bar-line, the most conspicuous 
achievement of modern notation over the 
earlier system of ♦mensural notation in 
which it does not exist (the earliest known 
instance occurs in a keyboard score of 
1523, Marcantonio da Bologna’s Ricercari 
motetti canzonv, cf. ApNPM, 5). It is in- 
teresting to observe that, owing to the 
non-existence of the tie in mensural nota- 
tion, a note equaling five units has never 
been used in duple meter (tempus im- 
perfectum) in any vocal composition prior 
to c, 1600; only in triple meter {tempus 


TIMBRE 

perfectum) could such a value be ob- 
tained, by subtracting one from six (im- 
perfection). 

In GD V, article “Tic,” examples of 
piano music (Beethoven, Chopin) are 
cited in which the tie would seem to call 
not for complete tying-over, but for a 
subtle repetition of the note, a manner 
of playing erroneously referred to as 
♦Bebung. 

Tiento [Sp.]. Spanish 16th-century 
name for organ compositions in strict 
imitative counterpoint, practically synon- 
ymous with the ♦riccrcar (not with the 
toccata, as has been wrongly stated). The 
main source Is A. de Cabezon’s Ohras de 
musica, 1578 [see ♦Editions XIII, 3/4 and 
7/8]. Tento is the Portuguese version of 
the term, used, e.g., by Manuel de Coelho, 
Flores de musica, 1620 [new ed. of 5 
Tentos by S. Kastner, 1936] . 

Tiepido [It.]. See ♦Tepido. 

Tierce [F.]. Third. Tierce de Picar die. 
see ♦Picardy third. 

Till Eulenspiegel. See ♦Symphonic 
poem III. 

Timbale [F.], timballo [It.]. Kettle- 
drum. 

Timbre [G. Klangfarbe], (i) The 
quality or “color” of a tone, i.e., the dif- 
ference between tones of the same pitch 
if produced on various instruments, e.g., 
a violin and a flute. As has been shown 
by Helmholtz and others, the timbre of a 
given tone is determined by its harmonics, 
i.e., by the greater or lesser prominence 
of some of these harmonics over the 
others. The accompanying diagram 
shows that, although the c of the violin 
and the c of the horn have the same series 
of harmonics (c', g', c", e", g" . . •)» 
their quotas in the total intensity differ 
widely. 

The sound of a tuning fork and of the 
stopped diapdson of the organ are prac- 
tically without harmonics; the “pure 
sound” of the flute is the result of its 
lacking practically all the harmonics ex- 
cept for the first (octave); the rich and 



TIMBRE 

mellow timbre of the clarinet is the result 
of the fact that the even-numbered har- 


CLiriftj . I s . I I I I 1 

OboA . 

.III . . . . . 

,Hfim 1 

f r T- , - - 


’ . I 

r 


r T 1 1 ^ ^ 

** 1 


FUteJ 

I . ^ 

1234567 89 ao 11 12 


monics (c', c") are absent but that the 
odd-numbered harmonics (g', e" . . .) 
are quite prominent. The pungent and 
nasal sound of the oboe is due to the pres- 
ence of practically all the harmonics which 
also appear, in different degrees, in the 
tones of the violin. 

The classical theory of timbre, as out- 
lined above, has been modified to some 
extent by the recent theory of the formant. 
According to the older theory, the char- 
acteristic constituents of, e.g., a tone 
sounded on a violin are in a fixed relation 
to the fundamental tone and, therefore, 
are shifted up or down if the fundamen- 
tal changes. E.g., if for the violin-tone g 
the characteristic partials arc g" and b , 
the violin-tone d' would have the (much 
higher) characteristic partials d'" and 
f . According to more recent investiga- 
tions, however, the characteristic partials 
of a violin-tone lie within an absolutely 
fixed range of rather narrow limits, re- 
gardless of the higher or lower pitch of 
the fundamental. This characteristic “ab- 
solute range of partials” is called formant. 
In most violins the formant lies between 
3000 and 6000 frequencies. The formant 
theory also plays an important part in the 
explanation of the different “timbre” of 
the vowels in singing. For each vowel, 
the human voice represents a different 
“instrument” with the formant in a dif- 
ferent region. Cf. the modern books on 
♦acoustics; SaHMU 354 ; W. T. Bartholo- 
mew, “Voice Research” (BAMS vi). 

(2) French term for pre-existing melo- 
dics used for new texts, or for standard 


TIME SIGNATURES 

motives used variously as building mate- 
rial for a longer melody or for a compo- 
sition. See *Melody types. 

(3) The term is also used as an equiva- 
lent for the German term Klangideal 
[see ♦Sound ideal]. 

Time. The term is used loosely to indi- 
cate ♦meter, tempo, or the duration of a 
given note. 

Time signatures. The time (meter) 
is indicated at the beginning of a piece 
in the form of a fraction the denominator 
of which indicates the chosen unit of 
measurement (half-note, quarter-note, 
etc.), while the numerator indicates the 
number of such units comprised in a 
measure. See ♦Meter. 

The early time signatures and their 
proportional modifications arc explained 
under *mensural notation II and ♦propor- 
tions. Two of these survive to the present 
day, namely the sign C for and the 
sign (f for % (♦alia breve). In the sources 
of the 17th century more complicated 
signs such as C3, are still frequent and 

puzzling to the modern reader to whom 
a combination oi C (%) and %, %, 
% (sic), seems contradictory and sense- 
less. The explanation is found in the fact 
that such signs combine two meanings, the 
older proportional meaning with the 
more recent, metrical. E.g., the sign 

(cf. Froberger, Suite no. 4) means (a) 
that each measure contains six quarter- 
notes, and (b) that these six notes are 
equal in duration to the four notes of the 
preceding section. It appears that these 
signs have a strictly metronomic signifi- 
cance (relative to the normal tempo of 
the piece), a fact which is usually over- 
looked by modern readers. Particularly 
noteworthy is the signature C3 (3, p 
which is very frequently used for sections 
containing three whole-notes to the meas- 
ure. Although this manner of writing 
suggests to the modern student a very 
slow tempo, the correct speed of such 
)pieccs is moderately quick, since these 
three whole-notes will have to be played 
in the time normally consumed by one 
whole-note: 


[748] 



TIMOROSO 


TOCCATA 


C.IJJIIJJJIJ.JJ1 

8 8 

If, however (as usually in 16th-century 
vocal music; Palestrina), the composition 
is notated in alia breve, then the relation- 
ship is, not 3:1, but 3:2 [cf. ApNPMy 

i 93 fl]. 

Around 1700 the symbol CO was used 
to indicate measures of double length, 
i.e., % instead of % (cf. Bach, Partita no. 
VI, gigue), a method of designation which 
still survived in the ( = %) of Schu- 
bert’s Impromptu op. 90, no. 3. 

Timoroso [It.]. Timid, fearful. 

Timpan. Old E. for tympanon, i.e., 
^dulcimer or, perhaps, ^psaltery. Also 
for drum [cf. timpani]. 

Timpani [It.]. ^Kettledrums. Tim- 
pani coperti or sordid muffled kettledrums. 

Tintant [F.], tintinnando [It.]. 
Tinkling. 

Tintinnabulum [L.]. Medieval term 
for bell. 

Tiorba [It.]. *Thcorboc. 

Tiple [Sp.]. Soprano, upper voice. 
Also a small guitar. The meaning of 
titles such as “Tiple a tre” (Falconiero, 
c, 1620; cf. Torchi, UArte musicale in 
Italia vii, 128) is not clear. 

Tipping. See ^Tonguing. 

Tirade [F.], tirata [It.]. A Baroque 
ornament consisting of a scale passage of 
more than three notes that serves as a 
transition between two principal melody 
notes. It was written out or indicated by 

.1 ' 

the sign illustrated in Ex. i, but fre- 
quently improvised to fill in large inter-, 
vals. Tirades arc a typical feature of the 
French overture style [sec Ex. 2, from 
Bach’s Goldberg Variations]. A late ex- 


ample occurs in the fourth measure of 
Beethoven’s Piano Concerto in G. P. A. 

Tirana. A special type of Andalusian 
dance-song. Bias de Laserna (1751- 
1816; see *Tonadilla) wrote a “Tirana 
del Tripili” which was famous all over 
Europe throughout the 19th century. 

Tirare [It.]. To draw. Tira tutti 
(draw all), full organ. Tirarsi (to be 
drawn) designates the sliding mecha- 
nism of the ^trombone. Tirando means 
slowing of tempo. 

Tirasse [F.]. Originally, the pedals of 
a small organ which had no separate 
pipes, but were mechanically connected 
with manual keys. Hence, a pedal cou- 
pler of the organ, e.g., Tirasse du Positif 
(Tir, P.), coupler “Choir to Pedal.” 

Tirer, tirez, tire [F.]. Indicates the 
down-stroke of the bow [sec ^Bowing], 
the drawing of organ stops, or a slowing 
down of tempo. 

Toccata [from It. toccare^ to touch, with 
reference to the “touching” of the keys, 
as contrasted with the “sounding” of 
strings in the sonata, and the “singing” 
of voices in the cantata] . (i) A keyboard 
(organ, harpsichord) composition in free, 
idiomatic keyboard style, employing full 
chords and running passages, with or 
without the inclusion of sections in imi- 
tative style (fugues). The earliest toc- 
catas, by A. Gabrieli [^Editions II, 3], 
consist of full chords and interlacing scale 
passages only. To consider them as mere 
virtuoso pieces (as is frequently done) is 
scarcely appropriate, since the passages 
have a decidedly expressive significance, 
particularly if played in the free tempo 
which is typical of the toccata [see refer- 
ence to Frescobaldi under *rubato]. 
With Claudio Merulo (1533-1604) the 
toccata became organized into an alterna- 
tion of free (toccata-like) and of fugal 
sections, usually in the arrangement T F 
TFT. Froscobaldi’s (1583-1643) toc- 
catas, if compared with those of Merulo, 
clearly illustrate the difference between 
the grandiose pomp of the late Renais- 
sance and the sensitive disintegration of 


[749] 



TOCCATA 

the early Baroque period. They are writ- 
ten in a succession of quickly changing 
“scenes,” an interesting exhibition of 
overflowing imagination without any re- 
straining and binding principle of form. 
A special type (already to be found with 
his predecessors Trabaci and Mayone; cf. 
W. Apel in MQ xx) is the short liturgical 
toccata (c.g., “Toccata avanti Tele- 
vazione,” i.e., to be played before the 
elevation of the host; see ♦Offertorium), 
which is a short prelude in dignified 
style. With Bernardo Pasquini (1637— 
1710) and Alessandro Scarlatti (1659- 
1725) the Italian toccata became the arena 
for empty pianistic virtuosity and soon 
declined into a *perpetuum mobile type 
which is very close to the etudes of the 
19th century (Clemcnti). 

The development of the toccata in Ger- 
many falls into two branches. The South- 
German composers (Froberger, Kerll, 
Muflat) followed the Italian model 
(Frescobaldi), not without enriching its 
stylistic resources and enlivening its con- 
tents. More important is the North- 
German development which led to an 
entirely novel type of toccata of a free and 
rhapsodic character, a type which, owing 
to its unbounded irrationalism and trans- 
cendental greatness, has not inappropri- 
ately been termed “’“'Gothic.” This new 
style appeared first in the toccatas of 
Matthias Weekmann (1621-74), and de- 
veloped to great artistic height in those 
of Dietrich Buxtehude (1637-1707), 
Nicolaus Bruhns (c. 1665-97), and J. S. 
Bach (1685-1750). Most of these toc- 
catas, particularly those of Bach, retain 
the Merulo-scheme of five sections, alter- 
nating between free and contrapuntal 
style. Bach’s great organ toccata in F 
major, however, combines the huge di- 
mensions of the North-German type with 
the rhythmic precision of the late Italian 
toccata (Pasquini). The toccata style istf> 
also frequently used for the preludes of 
fugues, as, e.g., for Bach’s organ fugue 
in A minor.. 

Both the North-German and the Italian 
type of the toccata were also cultivated in 
modern music. Examples of the per- 
petuum mobile type are the toccatas by 


TOMBEAU 

Schumann, Debussy (in Pour le Pianoy 
1911), Honegger, Prokofiev, and Casella, 
while the free, rhapsodic style is used in 
the toccatas of Busoni (1921) and Petyrek 

(1934)- 

(2) Around 1600, the name toccata 
was also used for brass music in the char- 
acter of a festive fanfare, e.g., in the intro- 
duction of Monteverdi’s Orfeo (1607). 
Why the same name was applied to pieces 
so different in character is not clear. Pos- 
sibly the latter connotation is bound up 
with the use of kettledrums for the bass 
part of such pieces [see ’'^Toccato; *Toc- 
catina; *Tucket; “^Touche (4); ’“'Tusch]. 

Lit.: E. Valentin, Die Entwic\lung der 
ToWate im iy-i 8 . Jahrhundert (1930); 
L. Schrade, “Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte 
dcr Toccata” (ZMW viii); O. Gombosi, 
“Zur Vorgeschichte der Tokkate” (AM 
vi, no. 2); L. Torchi, '\LArte musicale in 
Italia iii; F. Boghen, '\Toccate italiani\ 
E. Kaller, \Liher organi v. 

Toccatina. A small toccata, serving as 
a prelude to a suite. Examples occurring 
in Fischer, Murschhauser, show a style 
which is closer to that of the orchestral 
toccata (2) than to the free style of the 
keyboard toccata (i). 

Toccato. In the 17th-century literature 
for trumpets, the bass part of a trumpet 
piece, so called probably because it was 
originally played on, or together with, 
kettledrums. See the literature under 
*Clarin trumpet. See also ^Toccata (2). 

Tod und Verklarung, See ’“‘Sym- 
phonic poem III. 

Tokkate [G.]. See ^Toccata. 

Tombeau [F., tombstone]. Composi- 
tions written in memory of one deceased. 
A great number of very beautiful exam- 
ples exist in the French literature of the 
17th century, e.g., one by Denis Gaultier 
for the Seigneur de Lenclos [cf. ApMZ 
ii], by Raquette for Gaultier, by L. Cou- 
perin and by d’Anglebert for their teacher 
Chambonnieres, two (in the form of a 
cantata, called Apotheosc) by F. Couperin 
for Lully and for Corelli. ’^Lamentos and 
plaintes (Froberger; cf. TaAM vi, 142) 



TOM-TOM 

complete the list of a repertory in which 
the Romanticism of the 17th century has 
expressed itself most beautifully [see 
under ^Classicism]. Cf. M. Brenet, in 
RMC iii. 

Tom-tom. American-Indian or Orien- 
tal drums of indefinite pitch, imitations 
of which arc occasionally used in dance 
bands. 

Ton [F.]. (i) Pitch {donner le ton^ to 
give the pitch). — (2) Key or mode {ton 
d'uty key of C; ton majeur^ major key; 
ton d'Sglise, church mode). — (3) Whole- 
tone, as distinct from demiton^ semitone. 
— (4) Sound {ton douxy sweet sound). — 
(5) Crook {ton du cor, ton de rechange, 
crook of the horn). — (6) Ton bouche, 
stopped tone (of a horn); ton ouvert, 
open (natural) tone of a wind instrument. 

Ton [G.]. ♦Tone, chiefly in the mean- 
ings (i) and (3). 

Tonabstand [G.]. Interval. 

Tonada. Spanish term for song in gen- 
eral; also used in the Latin American 
countries. 

Tonadilla [Sp.]. A short Spanish 
comic opera of popular type, for one to 
four characters, consisting of solo song 
and, occasionally, choruses. Its origins 
were short scenic interludes performed 
between the acts of a play or serious 
opera but (like the Italian ♦opera buffa) 
it later became an independent piece, and 
flourished from about the middle of the 
1 8th to the early 19th century. One of 
the first tonadillas is a comic musical dia- 
logue between a woman innkeeper and 
an itinerant Bohemian written by Luis 
Mis6n in 1757. Chief composers are 
Mison, Pablo Esteve, and Bias de Laserna 
(1751-1816). The tonadilla superseded 
the ♦zarzuela which was an elaborately 
staged serious opera, mosdy based on 
mythological subjects. 

Lit.: LavE i.4, pp. 2227-57; J. Subira, 
La Tonadilla escinica (2 vols., 1928); F. 
Pedrell, Teatro lirico espanol ... (5 
vols., 1897-98); M. Hamilton, Music in 
Eighteenth-Century Spain (1937); J. Su- 
bira, in ♦Editions XXIV, B, 3/4. D. G. 


TONAL AND REAL 

Tonal and real. In a fugue, an ♦an- 
swer is called real if it is an exact (dia- 
tonic) transposition of the subject. It is 
called tonal if certain steps arc modified. 
Such modifications frequently take place 
if the subject contains the interval of the 
fifth (d-a), this being answered not by 
the transposed fifth (a-e'), but by the 
fourth (a-d'), as is illustrated by the ac- 
companying example from Bach’s The 



Art of Fugue. The reason for this method 
is the desire to avoid sudden oscillations 
between the keys of the tonic and of the 
dominant. In fact, with the theme in 
question the “real answer” a-e'-c' . . . 
would bring about a somewhat irritating 
clash between the low d in the subject 
and the high e in the answer. It is diffi- 
cult to summarize rules as to when tonal 
and real answer is properly used. In gen- 
eral it may be noticed that the fugal 
themes called ♦soggetto lend themselves 
more easily to tonal treatment, while the 
more recent types of subjects called ♦an- 
damento are frequently too “individual” 
and well-defined to admit any modifica- 
tion. 

The dichotomy tonal-real has also been 
applied to entire fugues, a fugue being 
called tonal if the answer is tonal; real, if 
it is real. This distinction is, however, 
rather absurd. Obviously, it implies that 
in a fugue one or the other type of answer 
is strictly maintained. Although there 
exist examples of “real fugue” (chiefly 
those based on an andamento-subjcct, c.g., 
Wt. Cl. i, G major, or the organ fugue in 
A minor), there hardly exists an example 
of “tonal fugue,” since, in the further 
context of the fugue — unless it is of the 
student’s type — the answers are likely 
to waver between tonal and real. 

The terms tonal and real are also used 
in connection with imitation at intervals 
other than the fifth, particularly with the 
imitation at the higher or lower second 
which occurs in sequential passages [see 
♦Sequence (i)]. This is called real if 
the intervals are imitated exaedy, thus 


[751 ] 



TONALE 


TONALITY 


involving modulation; tonal if it stays 
within the key. 

Tonale [L.]. Same as *tonarium. 

Tonalitat [G.]. ♦Tonality in the sense 
of “loyalty to a key,” but admitting mod- 
ulations into another key which are not 
necessarily included in the German term 
“Tonart.” Thus, the beginning of Bee- 
thoven’s Waldstein Sonata shows the 
“Tonarten” of C, G, B-flat, F, and C in 
quick succession but has only one “To- 
nalitat,” C major. 

Tonality. While the general meaning 
of this term is rather obvious, its exact 
ramifications are difficult of definition. 
Numerous attempts have been made to 
clarify its significance, some of which 
show the tendency to preserve a certain 
vagueness of meaning. This tendency 
appears particularly in the efforts to make 
a distinction between key and tonality, 
somewhat in the manner of the distinc- 
tion between “clear facts” and “general 
feeling.” It is probably some such distinc- 
tion which the following words (quoted 
from GDy Suppl. VoL, article “Key,” 
p. 313) are meant to express: “The qual- 
ity called tonality might indeed be use- 
fully nicknamed ‘Keyishness,’ to distin- 
guish it from all the musical joys of Key 
itself, just as a bather might distinguish 
the elemental joy of wetness from the act 
of swimming.” Other authorities, how- 
ever, take a simpler point of view, de- 
clining to make a distinction between 
tonality and key. Even so, there remain 
difficulties, and these would seem to be 
caused mainly by the fact that, within the 
last half-century, the “tonality” of music 
has undergone so radical changes that a 
definition put forward 30 years ago is, by 
necessity, outdated at the present time. 
From the present-day point of view it 
seems best to interpret tonality as “loy- 
alty to a tonic” in the broadest sense of 
the word, or, as Vincent d’Indy puts it, 
as “the ensemble of musical phenomena 
which human understanding is able to 
appreciate by direct comparison with a 
constant clement — the tonic.” This defi- 
nition expresses what might well be 


called one of the most striking phenom- 
ena of music, viz., the fact that through- 
out its evolution, in primitive and Ori- 
ental cultures as well as in Gregorian 
chant and in harmonized music, practi- 
cally every single piece gives preference 
to one tone (the tonic), making this the 
tonal center to which all other tones are 
related — the only exception being the 
“atonal” music of the 20th century in 
which such preference is studiously 
avoided. 

Although (with the just-mentioned ex- 
ception) all music is tonal, the means of 
achieving tonality have, of course, greatly 
changed during the various phases of mu- 
sical history. While in Gregorian chant 
and similar bodies of monophonic music 
the relationships are of a purely melodic 
character, a much more coniplex situation 
is encountered in the field of harmonized 
music. Passing over the earlier phases of 
this development it will suffice to men- 
tion that, around 1700, a system of tonal 
functions became generally accepted 
which was based on the establishment of 
three main chords, the tonic, the domi- 
nant, and the sub-dominant triads as the 
carriers of the harmonic as well as of the 
melodic movements. Broadened by the 
ample use of chromatic alterations and of 
modulation into other keys, it prevailed 
throughout the i8th and 19th centuries, 
and, after a short eclipse caused by the 
radicalism of atonality, made its come- 
back in that modification frequently re- 
ferred to under the name of “tonal cen- 
ter.” In this modern type of tonality the 
constituent triads of the older system have 
lost their former prerogatives, and the re- 
lationships to the tonic are made through 
dissonant (though not atonal) chords 
which frequently result from an empha- 
sis on linear (polyphonic) texture. 

A short explanation is necessary in 
order to clarify the relationship between 
the terms tonality and modality. In cur- 
rent usage these are mutually exclusive 
terms, the former referring to music 
written in a “key” (major or minor 
mode), the latter to pieces written in, or 
showing the influence of, the church 
modes fscc *Modality]. It goes without 


[752] 



TONARIUM 

saying that this usage is not compatible 
with the above broad definition of tonal- 
ity which includes all tonal relationships, 
whether “tonal'* or “modal.” If the ex- 
planation of mode as the constituent scale 
is accepted [see *Mode (i)], then tonal- 
ity exists in different “modal” varieties, 
based, c.g., on the church modes, the 
major and minor modes, the pentatonic 
mode, the whole-tone mode, the diatonic 
mode [see *Pandiatonicism] or, as in 
some modern music, the chromatic mode. 
Tonality also exists in the quarter-tone 
mode (e.g., in the Greek enharmonic 
genus), although modern quarter-tone 
music tends towards atonality. 

The above explanations are made with 
a view towards clarification of some 
fundamental facts rather than to estab- 
lish a new terminology which, at any 
event, has little expectation of being ac- 
cepted. Other usages of the term tonality, 
c.g., in the sense of “tonal system” (al- 
most synonymous with what has been 
termed above modality), or in the sense 
of major-and-minor tonality (as opposed 
to modality in the accepted meaning of 
the term), have became firmly entrenched 
in current usage, as a perusal of the litera- 
ture on this topic clearly shows. 

Lit.: J. Yasser, A Theory of Evolving 
Tonality (1932); I. S. Tovey, “Tonality” 
{ML ix, no. 4); J. Yasser, “The Future 
of Tonality” {MM viii); H. Rcichenbach, 
“The Tonality of English and Gaelic 
Folksong” {ML xix, no. 3); W. H. Frere, 
“Key-Relationships in Early Mediaeval 
Music” {SIM xiii; also in KlMy 1911, p. 
1 14); M. Touze, “La Tonality chroma- 
tique” {RM iii). 

Tonarium, Tonale. Medieval books 
of Gregorian chant in which the melodies 
(chiefly the Antiphons of the Office) arc 
arranged according to their modes, a prac- 
tice which, no doubt, originated in the 
desire to facilitate the memorizing of 
music notated only in neumes. An ex- 
ample is the Antiphonary of Montpellier 
which has been published in vols. vii, viii 
of the PalSo graphic musicale [see ♦Edi- 
tions XXIII]. Theoretical writings of a 
similar character arc the Tonarius Ber- 


TONGUING 

nonis {GS ii, 79), and the Commemo- 
ratio brevis de tonis et psalmis modulandis 
{GS i, 213), both of the loth century. 
Cf. F. X. Mathias, Die Tonarien (1903)^ 
M. Rungc, in MfM xxxv. 

Tonart [G.]. Key [see under *Tonali- 
tat]. 

Tonbuchstaben [G.]. Tone letters 
[see *Letter notation]. 

Tondichtung [G.]. Tone poem; also 
any composition of a poetic character. 

Tone [F. ton; G. Ton; It. tono]. (i) A 
sound of definite pitch and duration, as 
distinct from noise and from less definite 
phenomena, such as the violin ♦porta- 
mento. Tone, therefore, is the building 
material of music. — (2) The interval of 
a major second, i.e., a whole-tone, as dis- 
tinct from a semitone (minor second). 
This is the usual meaning of the term in 
English parlance in which the word 
“note” is used for the meaning (i). — 
(3) In the connections Gregorian tone, 
Psalm tone, it means standard recitation 
formulae used for the singing of the 
psalms or other liturgical texts [see 
♦Tonus (3); ♦Psalm tones]. 

Tone color. See ♦Timbre. 

Tone poem. Sec ♦Symphonic poem. 

Tone row [G. Tonreihe ] . Sec ♦Twelve- 
tone technique. 

Tonfarbe [G.]. Timbre. 

Tongeschlecht [G.]. Distinction of 
a chord or key, whether major or minor. 

Tonguing. In playing wind instru- 
ments, the use of the tongue for greater 
speed and accurateness of intonation. It 
consists of a momentary interruption of 
the wind-stream by an action of the 
tongue as if pronouncing the letter t or 
k. Three types of tonguing arc distin- 
guished: single tonguing (t~t . . .), 
double tonguing (t-k t-k . . .), and 
triple tonguing t-k-t t-k-t . . .). The 
first is employed in slower passages, the 
last two in rapid passages in groups of 
two or three notes. Tonguing is used on 


[753] 



TONHOHE 

practically all the wind instruments, but 
is particularly important and indispen- 
sable for the flute player. A special type 
of tonguing, called Flatterzunge or flut- 
ter-tonguing, has been introduced by R. 
Strauss. It calls for a rolling movement 
of the tongue, as if pronouncing d-r-r-r. 
Double-tonguing is also called tippling. 

Tonhohe [G.]. ♦Pitch. 

Tonic. The first and main note of a key, 
hence, key-note. See ♦Scale degrees; ♦Key; 
♦Tonality. 

Tonic accent. An ♦accent consisting 
in a change (raising) of pitch, rather 

dec c c c 

than in a stress, e.g., Domine^ not Dominey 
the latter method being called dynamic 
accent. Tonic accentuation was used in 
ancient Greek poetry (Homer) in which 
it was occasionally indicated by the ♦ac- 
cents known as acute (high), grave (low), 
and circumflex (high followed by low). 
The term is also used in connection 
with a melody in order to indicate that 
a strong syllable of the text receives a 
note of higher pitch than the surround- 
ing weak syllables. The tonic accent 
plays an important role in the discussion 
of Gregorian and other chants [cf. 
ReMMAy passim ] . 

Tonic Sol-fa. An English method of 
solmization designed primarily to facili- 
tate sight-singing. It was developed from 
earlier methods (Lancashire system) by 
Miss S. A. Glover and perfected about 
1840 by John Curwen (1816-80). It is 
widely used for teaching purposes in 
England, and has also become known in 
some other countries, e.g., in Germany 
(under the name Tonika-Do). 

Tonic Sol-fa is a system of “movable 
Do,” i.e., the tone-syllables doh, ray^ me^ 
jah^ soh, lah, te are used with reference to 
the key of the piece or any section thereof 
where there is a change of key. The syl- 
lables or, more properly, their initial con- 
sonants d r m f s 1 1 are also used for the 
notation of the music in a manner remi- 
niscent of the German keyboard *tabla- 
tures of the i6th century. Octave repeti- 


TONMALEREI 

tions are indicated for the higher octave 
thus: d r m or d' / m', for the lower oc- 
tave thus: m or d, r, m,. For the mi- 

nor scale the third degree becomes dohy 
owing to the changed intervals of this 
scale: ltdrmfsL Actually this succes- 
sion represents the Aeolian scale (white 
keys from A, or any transposition). In 
order to arrive at the minor scale, the 
sixth and seventh degrees must be sharp- 
ened. Sharpened tones are indicated by 
changing the vowel to e (de, re, fe, se, le), 
flattened tones by changing it to a [ra, 
ma, la, ta). For the sixth degree of the 
ascending minor scale a separate syllable 
ba is introduced, since the use of je would 
suggest a half step to the next note, while 
actually a whole step follows (to se). 
Therefore we have the following designa- 
tion of the melodic minor scale (up and 
down) \ 1 1 d r m ha se l\ I s j m r d t L 
The tones and their relation to each 
other are shown in a chart called Modu- 
lator. 

If the piece modulates into another key 
this key is indicated (in different ways), 
and the tone syllables are now to be reck- 
oned in the new key. For the indication 
of meter and rhythm additional signs 
(horizontal strokes, single dots, colons, 
commas, etc.) are used. 

Lit.: J. Curwen, The New Standard 
Course of Lessons and Exercises on the 
Tonka Sol-fa Method (1900 and later); 
W. R. Phillips, Dictionary of the Tonic 
Sol-fa System (1909); W. G. Whittaker, 
in ML, no. 4, and in MQ viii; J. Taylor, 
J. C. Ward, in PM A xxiii; C. A. Harris, in 
MQ iv; J. A. Fuller^aitland, in MQ vii. 

Tonika [G.]. Tonic. Toni\a-Do, Ger- 
man modification of ♦Tonic Sol-fa. Cf. 
A. Hundoegger, Leitfaden der Toni\a- 
Do’Lehre (1929). 

Tonkunst [G.]. Music; Ton\unstler, 
composer. 

Tonleiter [G.]. Scale. 

Tonlos [G.]. Toneless. 

Tonmalerei [G.]. Word painting or 
descriptive music. 


[754I 



TONO 

Tono [It.]. Tone; whole-tone; key; 
mode. Primo {secondoy etc.) tono^ first 
(second, etc.) church mode. 

Tones, pi. tonoi [Gr.]. See ♦Greek 
music II (d). 

Tonsatz [G.]. Composition. Tonsetzefy 
composer. 

Tonschlussel [G.]. Clef. 

Tonschrift [G.]. Notation. 

Tonsystem [G.]. System of tones, i.e., 
♦tonality, used mainly in combinations 
such as “Europaisches Tonsystem,** 
vanisches Tonsystem,** “Pythagoraisches 
Tonsystem.** Cf. A. v. Hornbostel, “Mu- 
sikalische Tonsysteme** (in H. Geiger, 
Handbuch der Physi\y 1928). 

Tonus [L.]. (i) Whole-tone. — (2) 
Church mode, e.g., primus tonuSy first 
mode; tonus authenticus {plagaUs)y au- 
thentic (plagal) mode. — (3) Psalm tone 
or other recitations {tonus lectionisy etc.). 

Tonus in directum (indirectum), or 
directaneus. See ♦Psalmody I. 

Tonus mixtus. See ♦Church modes III. 

Tonus peregrinus [L., the foreign 
mode]. See ♦Psalm tones. 

Tonverschmelzung [G.]. See ♦Con- 
sonance and Dissonance I (d). 

Ton wort [G.]. A method of solmiza- 
tion invented, in 1892, by C. Eitz, and 
designed with particular reference to 
chromatic progressions and enharmonic 
changes. Cf. MoML, 199; A. Einstein, 
Das neue Musi\lexi\on (1926), 647. 

Torculus. See ♦Neumes I. 

Tordion. See under ♦Basse dance. 

Tornada [Sp.]. Refrain of a song. 

Tosto [It.]. Rapid; or immediately. 
TostissimOy very rapid. 

Tost Quartets. Twelve quartets by 
Haydn, written 1789-^0 and dedicated 
to Johann Tost, Viennese merchant and 
violin player. They comprise op. 54, nos. 
1-3; op. 55, nos. 1-3; op. 64, nos. 1-6. 


TRACT 

Touch {G, Anschlag\, Sec ♦Pianoforte 
playing (particularly IV and V). 

Touche [F.]. (i) Key of the pianoforte. 
— (2) Finger board of the violin [see 
♦Bowing ( 1 )]. — (3) 16th-century term 
for fret (of a lute, guitar). — (4) 17th- 
century term (also used in English 
sources) for the “orchestral’* toccata [see 
♦Toccata (2)]. 

Tour de force [F.]. A strikingly dif- 
ficult passage. 

Tour de gosier [F., turn of the throat] . 
A vocal ornament of the 17th and i8th 
centuries, consisting of a turn composed 
of five notes. The term is also applied to 
the closing notes of the trill. P. A. 

Tourdion [F.] . Sec under ♦Basse danse. 

Tourte bow. The violin bows made by 
F. Tourte (1747—1835), the most famous 
bow-maker. See ♦Bow. Cf. GD v, 366. 

Toye. Title of short and light composi- 
tions of the virginalistic period. 

Tp. Abbr. of timpani. 

Tr. Abbr. of trumpet or trill. 

Tracker. See ♦Organ II. 

Tract tractus]. In Gregorian chant 
an item of the Proper of the ♦Mass, used 
instead of the alleluia mainly for feasts of 
a somber character, during Lent, Ember 
days, and at Requiem Mass. It consists of 
a number, usually three or four, of psalm 
verses, without the addition of an anti- 
phon or response, and thus represents one 
of the few remaining examples of “direct 
psalmody [see ♦Ps^mody I]. All the 
tracts are in either the 2d or the 8th mode, 
a restriction not elsewhere encountered in 
Gregorian chant. Actually, the restriction 
goes much farther since most of the tracts 
are sung to a limited number of standard 
melodies (or, more properly, standard 
phrases) which are used, with minor 
modifications, for a great number of texts. 
The principle may be illustrated by the 
two subsequent schemes, the first for the 
tract Attendite caelumy the second for 
Sicut cervus (I, II, etc., indicate the dif- 


[755] 



TRADOLCE 

ferent verses; a, b, etc., various musical 
phrases; c and c' the same phrase with 
different ending) : 

(a) I II III IV V 

ab cc'b c'b cc'b cd 

(b) I II III 

ab cc'bd cc'bd 

This method is reminiscent of the use 
of *melody types in many branches of 
Oriental music, and may well be consid- 
ered as indicative of a very early stage in 
the development of the chant. In fact, the 
tracts are believed to be an early type of 
plainsong which was later replaced by the 
alleluia, except for those occasions for 
which the joyful character of the latter 
was not proper. The tract Qui habitat in 
adjutorio is the only remaining instance 
of an entire psalm (Ps. 90) in the Mass. 
Cf. H. Riemann, in SIM ix. 

Tradolce [It.]. Very sweet. 

Traduction [F.j, traduzione [It.], 
(i) Arrangement. — (2) Transposition. 
— (3) Translation, TraduisS, tradottOy 
arranged. 

Traumerisch [G.]. Dreamy. 

Traine [F.], Dragged, held back. 

Trait [F.]. *Tract. 

Trakt [G.]. *Tract, 

Traktur [G.]. ^Trackers. 

Transcription. Sec * Arrangement. 

Transformation of themes. Sec 
•Metamorphosis. 

Transient modulation. Same as pass- 
ing •modulation. 

Transition. The term is used in differ- 
ent meanings: (i) as synonymous with 
passing modulation; (2) for a lasting 
change of key effected with abruptness 
rather than by regular modulation; (3) 
for a passage (bridge) which leads from 
one main section to another, e.g., from the 
first to the second theme of a movement. 

Transposing instruments. Instru- 
ments for which the music is written in 


TRANSPOSING INSTRUMENTS 

another key or in another octave than 
that of their actual sound. This method 
is widely used for wind instruments, such 
as the clarinet in Bb, the natural tones of 
which are the harmonics of Bb. Since the 
player of such an instrument naturally 
considers Bb his simplest key, it has be- 
come customary to present this key to him 
in the simplest notation, i.e., as C major. 
The transposition to be made from the 
written part to the actual sound is indi- 
cated by the interval from C to the pitch 
note of the instrument, e.g., to Bb in the 
case of the Bb-clarinet, or to A in that of 
the A-clarinet [see Ex.: Bruckner, Sev- 
enth Symphony]. With certain instru- 
ments the transposition includes a change 
to the lower octave, e.g., for the horn in Eb. 



I. A-clarinct a.« written. 2. As it sounds. 


The use of transposing instruments or, 
more accurately, of transposing notation, 
dates back to the period (i8th century) 
when only the natural tones were avail- 
able. With the introduction of valves and 
keys the difference of facility in playing 
in the various keys was greatly dimin- 
ished, and eventually almost completely 
eliminated. Therefore, from the present 
point of view, the transposed notation 
must be considered as inappropriate and 
antiquated. Its abolishment is particularly 
desirable from the standpoint of the or- 
chestral conductor and, still more so, from 
that of the layman for whom the presence 
of six or seven different types of transposed 
notations offers the chief obstacle to the 
study of orchestral scores. Yet, contrary 
to the general progressiveness of our time, 
the transposed notation has successfully 
maintained its traditional place. 

Nearly all the wind instruments, not 
pitched in C, are transposing instruments, 
with the exception of the trombones 
which, although pitched to Eb, Bb, etc., 
are written as they sound. The term is 


[756] 



TRANSPOSITION 


also applied to instruments such as the 
piccolo flute which is, quite sensibly, no- 
tated an octave lower than it sounds, 
merely to avoid ledger lines. Here, only a 

special clef such as | (see ♦Clefs) would 
be necessary in order to exclude such in- 
struments from the category of transpos- 
ing instruments proper. 

Transposition, The rewriting or the 
ex tempore performance of a composition 
at another pitch, i.e., in another key, e.g., 
in E-flat instead of the original D, etc. 
This practice is particularly frequent in 
songs, in order to accommodate the range 
of the different voices. A good accompa- 
nist should be able to extemporize trans- 
position. The easiest transposition is that 
of a semitone, e.g., from F to F-sharp, or 
from E to E-flat, since here most of the 
written notes remain unaltered, and only 
a different signature has to be imagined. 
Transposition of a third, fourth, calls for 
a full acquaintance with harmonies, in- 
tervals, etc., and becomes, of course, in- 
creasingly difficult in the case of music 
involving many modulations, chromatic 
alterations, etc. 

Transverse flute [F. flute traversihre^ 
G. Querflote; It. fiauto traverso]. The 
modern ♦flute, in contradistinction to the 
♦recorder. 

Traps. In jazz parlance the various noise- 
producing devices attached to the drum 
(trap drum) and played by the trap drum- 
mer. See ♦Jazz III. 

Traquenard. A dance type not infre- 
quent in German orchestral suites [see 
♦Suite V] of the late 17th century, e.g., 
by Muffat [cf. DTOe 2.ii, p. 188], J. K. F. 
Fischer [cf. DdT 10, p. 54], Erlebach, 
Krieger, and others. The term denotes 
properly a defective ambling of a horse, 
and the dotted rhythm of the music, usu- 
ally in alia breve, evidently imitates tliis 
movement. Cf. P. Nettl, in StM viii, 93. 

Trascinando [It.]. Dragging, holding 
back. 


TRE 

Trauermusik [G.]. Funeral music. 
Trauermarschf funeral march. 

Traurig [G.]. Sad. 

Trautonium. See ♦Electronic musical 
instruments VI. 

Traversa [It.],traversi6re [F.],Tra- 
versflote [G.]. Same as ♦transverse 
flute. 

Traviata, La (“The Erring One”). Op- 
era in three acts by Giuseppe Verdi, text 
by Piave after Dumas* La Dame aux 
camiliaSy produced 1853. The scene is 
contemporary Paris with the courtesan 
Violetta (Soprano) as the central figure. 
Falling in love with Alfred Germont 
(Tenor), she gives up her life of pleasure 
and marries him (Act II) but, implored 
by Alfred’s father, Old Germont (Bari- 
tone), leaves his home and resumes her 
former life (costume ball. Act II). Alfred, 
not knowing that her change of mind is 
only a pretext, insults her at the ball, but 
in Act III he and the dying Violetta arc 
united in love. 

Traviata is one of the earliest instances 
of the use of a contemporary plot in op- 
era, a practice which became established, 
around 1890, by the ♦verismo movement. 
Musically it follows the tradition of the 
“grand opera,** a mixture of lyrical and 
pathetic elements, with popular type mel- 
odies and concentration on effective vocal 
numbers. *Rigoletto and II *Trovatore 
belong to the same musical category. 

Traynour. According to the 14th-cen- 
tury theorist Philippus de Caserta, the use 
of conflicting rhythmic groupings in dif- 
ferent voice-parts, e.g., nine or three notes 
against two, four notes against three, etc. 
[cf. CS iii, 123]. This was a common 
practice towards the end of the 14th cen- 
tury [cf., e.g., ApNPMy 403!!]. H. Rie- 
mann’s interpretation of 17th-century ex- 
amples of ♦hemiola as traynour [cf. 
RiHM ii.2. Index] and his explanation of 
traynour as syncopation [RiMLy 1875] 
are misleading. 


Trattenuto [It.]. Held back or sus- Tre [It.]. Three. A tre vociy in three 
tained. parts. Tre corde^ sec ♦Una corde. 

[757 1 



TREBLE 


TREMOLO 


Treble [from L. *triplum\. The high- 
est part of a choral composition, hence 
synonymous with soprano. However, 
treble clef is not the same as soprano clef 
[see *Clefs]. For treble viol, recorder, 
see under ^Descant. 

The old English terms treble, quatreble 
(quadrible), and quinible, derived from 
L. triplum, quadruplum, quintuplum, 
would seem to have originated about 1400 
in connection with a then current method 
of improvised five-voice *fauxbourdon 
(properly, English discant), in which the 
two upper parts of the normal (three- 
voice) fauxl^urdon were doubled at the 
higher octave, similar to the octave-dou- 
bling used in the 9th century parallel 
organum. The two lowest parts were 
called tenor and *meane (replacing the L. 
duplum). Thus, if the tenor with its 
plainsong melody would start on d, the 
meane, treble, quatreble, and quinible 
would start on a, d', a', d" respectively 
[cf. the articles “Quatreble” and “Quin- 
ible” in J. A. H. Murray, New English 
Dictionary ( i888fl) ] , After this the voices 
would continue according to the prin- 
ciples of fauxbourdon, in doubled sixth- 
chords. The explanation (given in a re- 
cent reference book) of quadrible and 
quinible as “singing in parallel fourths 
and fifths” is without foundation. Actu- 
ally, the starting interval of the quatreble 
is a twelfth (higher fifth), that of the 
quinible a double octave, and in the fur- 
ther course these intervals change into 
(higher) thirds and sixths. Cf. M. Bu- 
kofzer, Geschichte des englischen Dis- 
\ants und des Fauxbourdons . . . (1936), 
passim. Also RiHM i.2, i65f. 

Tredecime [G.]. The interval of the 
thirteenth, i.e., the compound sixth. 

Treibend [G.]. “Driving,” hurrying, 

Tremando, tremante [It.]. With 
tremolo. 

Tremblement. The most important of 
the French agrements of the 17th and i8th 
centuries, more commonly known as 
•trill. P. A. 

Tremendo [It.]. Tremendous. 


Tremolo [It., trembling], (i) On 
stringed instruments the quick reiteration 
of the same tone, produced by a rapid 
up-and-down movement of the bow, in- 
dicated as in (a) [sec *Bowing (j)]. The 
string tremolo is an important orchestral 
effect which is widely used for passages 
of dramatic expression or for the purpose 
of orchestral coloring. It appeared in 
some of the earliest compositions for 
the violin (Biagio Marini, Affetti musicali, 
1617; cf. RiHM ii.2, loi). Monteverdi, 
in his Combattimento di Tancredi e Clo- 
rinda (1624), used it as a pictorial means 
to express excitement and danger, as 
which it has been used innumerable times, 
e.g., in Bach’s St. Matthew Passion (“Und 
der Vorhang zerriss”), in the oracle scene 
of Gluck’s Alceste, etc. The term is also 
used for the rapid alternation between 
two notes of a chord, usually in the dis- 
tance of a third, as in (b), this being called 
a fingered tremolo. Eighteenth-century 
names for the string tremolo are bombo 
[It.] zndSchwdrmer [G.]. 



In violin music of the i8th century 
(Stamitz, Gluck, Haydn) a special type 
of tremolo, known as “undulating trem- 
olo” \\x..ondeggiando\F .ondule\ is much 
used [see ^Bowing (o)]. It produces a 
series of dynamic pulses in moderate 
speed, usually four to a note. It was indi- 
cated by a wavy line extending over re- 
peated eighth- or quarter-notes [see •Or- 
namentation, table p. 545], a sign which 
has been misinterpreted in recent refer- 
ence books as indicating a vibrato. It may 
be noticed that the undulating tremolo of 
the strings has also been imitated on key- 
board instruments. Probably the earliest 
example is the “imitatio violistica” in S. 
Scheidt’s Tabulatura nova (1624), while 
the latest examples occur in certain pas- 
sages of Beethoven and Chopin which 
have been erroneously referred to as •Bc- 
bung. Bebung is a fluctuation of pitch 
(not of intensity), hence, a •vibrato. It 
cannot be produced on any keyboard in- 
strument except the clavichord. 


[758] 



TREMULANT 


TRENT CODICES 


(2) On the pianoforte the string trem- 
olo is imitated by the rapid alternation of 
a tone and its octave or w^ith another har- 
monic interval (third, fifth). It occurs 
frcqucndy in piano arrangements of or- 
chestral music, but is rarely used in origi- 
nal compositions, 

(3) In singing the term tremolo is un- 
fortunately used in a different meaning, 
to denote a slight fluctuation of pitch 
W’hich is comparable to what the string 
players correctly call vibrato [sec * Vibrato 
(2)]. The true vocal tremolo, i.c., the 
quick reiteration of the same pitch, is an 
effect which is practically never used to- 
day. In early music, however, it was one 
of the most important ornamentations. 
Terms such as notae vinnulac (“neighing 
notes”) or notae tremulae, mentioned by 
early writers on Gregorian chant, indicate 
rather clearly vocal tremolos. Whether 
neumatic signs such as the bistropha and 
tristropha [sec *Neumcs I] were per- 
formed as a tremolo or a vibrato is not 
entirely clear [cf. AdHM i, 94], but 13th- 
century terms such as repercussio gutturis 
[sec *Plica] and reverheratio [cf. CS i, 
91] would seem to indicate a vocal trem- 
olo. In the early part of the 17th century 
the vocal tremolo was widely used under 
the name trillo, and was usually written 
out in quick notes [sec Ex. (c), from 
Benedetto Ferrari’s Varie musichcy 16331!; 
cf. also GD V, 20 (Caccini); GD iv, 234 
(Porter); RiHM ii.2, 28, and 297 (Cac- 
cini, Saracini) ] . It should be noticed that, 
in this period, the term tremolo denoted 
a trill; see ^Ornamentation I, III. 

In the 1 8th century the vocal tremolo 
fell into disuse and was henceforth re- 
ferred to under derogative names such as 
chevrotement [F.] and Boc\striller [G.; 
cf. MoML, 82], both of which liken it to 
the bleating of a goat [F. chhvre, G. 
Boc 1 (\ , 

Tremulant. A mechanical organ device 
operated by a stop which produces alter- 
nating increase and decrease of wind 
pressure, thus producing mechanical 
pulsations of tone which are sometimes 
euphemistically compared to the violin- 
ist’s vibrato. The tremulant is, no doubt, 


one of the most detestable inventions of 
modern organ building. 

Trenchmore. An English country- 
dance of the 1 6th and 17th centuries, in 
lively triple meter with dotted rhythms. 
An amusing description from 1689, show- 
ing that its only rival in popularity at the 
court of King Charles was the cushion 
dance, is quoted in GD v, 377. 

Trent Codices [G. Trienter Codices^, 
Seven MS volumes of 15th-century poly- 
phonic music, the first six of which were 
discovered by F. X. Haberl in the library 
of the cathedral of Trent (in Southern 
Tyrol, also famous through the ’"'Coun- 
cil of Trent) and first described in his 
Dufay (1885). In 1891 they were pur- 
chased by the Hofbibliothek of Vienna 
but became Italian state property in the 
treaty of St. Germain of 1918. The first 
six volumes (Codd. 87-92) contain 1585 
compositions, mostly from the middle of 
the 15th century, while a recently dis- 
covered seventh volume contains mostly 
duplicates. The major part of the collec- 
tion was written by Johannes Wiser for 
the bishop Johannes Hinderbach. This 
collection, which is by far the most impor- 
tant source of 15th-century music, con- 
tains compositions of about 75 composers, 
French, English, Italian, and German, 
e.g., Dunstable, Lyonel Power, Reginald 
Liebert, Ciconia, Brasart, Dufay, Bin- 
chois, Ockeghem, Busnois, and Isaac. A 
large selection has been published in the 
following 6 volumes of the DTOe [see 
♦Editions VII, Collective Volumes] : 7 
and ii.i (all the French, Italian, and Ger- 
man secular songs); 19.! (5 complete 
Masses); 27.! (Mass of Reginald Liebert, 
motets, antiphons, hymns); 31 (Masses 
and Mass movements by various com- 
posers); 40 (sacred and secular motets by 
Dunstable, Dufay, Brasart, de Vitry, and 
others). 

Lit.: G. Adler, “Ueber Textlegung in 
den Trienter Codices” {Riemann Fest- 
schrift, 1909); R. V. Ficker, “Die Kolo- 
rierungstechnik der Trientcr Messen” 
(StM vii); A. Orel, “Einige Grundfor- 
men der Motettkomposition im 15. Jahr- 
hundert” (StM vii); R. Wolkan, “Die 


[759] 



TREPAK 


TRILL 


Hcimat dcr Tricntcr Musikhandschrif- 
tcn” (StM viii). 

Trepak. A Cossack dance in quick du- 
ple time. 

Trisor musicale. Sec ^Editions, His- 
torical, XXVII. 

Trezza. A dance movement occurring 
in some German suites of the 17th cen- 
tury, c.g., in the ballets of J. H. Schmelzer 
[cf. DTOe zS.ii, p. 9]. It is similar in 
character to the courantc or gagliarde. 

Triad [G,Drei\lang\, A chord of three 
tones obtained by the superposition of 
two thirds, i.e., consisting of a third and 
a fifth above the root. There arc four 
species of triad, major (major plus minor 
third), minor (minor plus major third), 
diminished (minor plus minor third), 
and augmented (major plus major third). 
The former two arc consonant, the latter 
two dissonant chords. Each triad (c.g., 



Triads: (a) major; (b) minor; (c) dimin- 
ished; (d) augmented. 

c-e-g) admits of two inversions, the 
•sixth-chord (c-g-c'; G. Sexta^^ord)^ 
and the ♦six-four chord (g-c'-e'; G. 
QuartsextaWord^. 

The triad is the basis of our harmonic 
system, a place from which even the radi- 
cal developments of the past thirty years 
[sec ♦New music] have not completely 
ousted it, although its position is much 
less dominant than it formerly was. See 
♦Harmony; ♦Harmonic analysis II. 

Triangle [G. Triangel\ It. triangolo\. 
See ♦Percussion instruments B, 5. 

Trias [L.]. Triad. 

Tricinium [L.]. A 16th-century name 
for vocal compositions in three parts. A 
large repertory exists in publications such 
as G. Rhau, Tricinia . . . Latina, Ger- 
manica, Brabantica, et Gallica . . . (1542); 
J. Montanus and A. Ncuber, Sclectorum 
triciniorum discantus . . . (1559); Sethis 


Cal visius,T ricinia ( 1 603 ; cxpl . in Sc A GMB, 
no. 160); Melchior Franck, Tricinia nova 
( i6n) ; Michael Praetorius, Musae Sionae 
(1605-10; complete ed. vol. ix); and else- 
where. Particularly the latter’s three-voice 
elaborations of chorale melodies arc true 
gems of musical art. 

Trienter Codices [G.]. ♦Trent Cod- 
ices. 

Trigon. See ♦Neumes 1. 

Trill [formerly sha\c\ F. cadence, trem- 
blement\ G. Triller; It. trillo], A musical 
ornament consisting of the rapid alterna- 
tion of a given note with the diatonic 
second above it. 

I. The trill originated in the i6th cen- 
tury as an ornamental resolution of a 
suspension dissonance at a cadence. Ex- 
ample I shows various forms of the 16th- 
century trill: (a) and (b) represent the 
typical vocal cadence as it is found in the 
works of Palestrina, Lassus, etc. The 
other variants occur frequently in instru- 
mental transcriptions of vocal works and 
in independent keyboard compositions. 
It is probable, however, that even in vocal 



performances the singers of this period 
were accustomed to embellish the simple 
written cadence in this more elaborate 
manner. 

It will be noted that the cadence for- 
mulas given above have the following 
characteristics in common: (i) the trill 
begins on the penultimate strong beat of 
the phrase, with a dissonant note (suspen- 
sion or appoggiatura); (2) it consists 
chiefly in the alternation of that dissonant 
note with its resolution; (3) the dissonant 
note receives the accent throughout, since 
it coincides with the accented subdivisions 
of the beat; (4) the note below the resolu- 
tion may be introduced, either near the 
beginning or near the end of the trill. 


[760] 




TRILL 


TRILL 


These characteristics remain to form 
the basis of the most important agrSment 
of the 17th century, the French cadence 
or tremblementy which was adopted in 
Germany as the Trillery in England as the 
sha\ey and in Italy as the trillo [for the 
early meaning of this term, see *TremoIo 
(3)]. As its French name implies, the 
ornament was at first (i.e., in the early 
17th century) invariably associated with 
cadences. Later it was freely introduced 
at other positions in the musical phrase, 
retaining, however, until the end of the 
1 8th century, its primary function as the 
ornamental resolution of a dissonance. 
G. F. Wolf, writing in 1783 {Vnterricht 
im Klavierspiel) that: “The trill is a series 
of superior appoggiaturas repeated one 
after another . . , one should note that 
the lowest tone of the trill is always the 
main note and that it is not this note but 
its upper neighbor which begins the trill” 
was only repeating a definition previously 
formulated in almost these identical terms 
by Loulie in 1698 and by Marpurg in 1755. 

11 . In music of the 17th and i8th cen- 
turies the trill, instead of being written 
out in notes or being left to the improvisa- 
tion of the performer (as had hitherto 
been the case), is usually indicated in the 
score by one of the following signs: 

tT t AVW AV *♦' 

These signs are exactly synonymous; the 
use of one rather than another has no rela- 
tion to the performance of the ornament 
and reveals nothing but the composer’s 
personal preference. Since the sign is al- 
ways placed over the harmony note the 
accent must always fall upon the upper 
auxiliary which, as the dissonance, re- 
quires the greater emphasis. Apart from 
this factor, which is constant throughout 
the period, the execution of the trill was 
varied considerably in individual cases by 
adding prefixes or terminations and by 
varying the number and rhythm of the 
notes comprising the ornament. At the 
time of Bach and Handel three ways of 
ending the trill were almost equally popu- 
lar [Ex. 2]. The use of a simple sign (t, 
tr) for the trill left the performer free to 


choose interpretation (a), (b), or (c). If 
the composer especially desired an execu- 
tion as at (b) or (c) he used one of the 
notations shown at (b) or (c). 



The number and rhythmic distribution 
of the notes comprising the trill were gen- 
erally left entirely to the discretion of the 
performer. Ex. 3 shows several realiza- 
tions of a cadence formula that is particu- 
larly common in the works of J. S. Bach 
and his contemporaries. All these inter- 
pretations are equally correct according to 
the traditions of Bach’s time; the choice 
between them should depend upon the 
tempo and character of the passage in 
which the trill occurs. A greater number 
of notes should obviously be used for a 
trill on a long note than for one on a short 
note. Interpretations (d) and (e) arc 
therefore more appropriate for a rapid 
tempo; (a) and (c) for a slow tempo. It 
is also evident that the most expressive 
interpretations are those which give the 
most weight to the initial dissonance, as 
at (c) and (d). This dwelling upon the 
introductory note of the trill, known in 
French as tremblement appuyiy in Ger- 
man as vorbereiter T filler , is sometimes 
expressly indicated by the composer (i) 
by inserting the sign for an appoggiatura, 
(2) by prefixing a vertical stroke to the 
sign for the trill, or (3) by writing the 
introductory appoggiatura as an ordinary 
note. The excerpts given in Ex. 4 illustrate 
J. S, Bach’s use of all three procedures. 

In the music of this period, trills on very 
short notes are best rendered as four notes 
of equal value. If the tempo is too rapid 
to permit the clear execution of four notes 


[761 ] 




TRILL 


TRILOGIE 


the trill should rather be abbreviated to 
two notes, i.e., a single appoggiatura, with 
which it is, in a sense, synonymous. In no 




case must the trill be reduced to a triplet 
beginning with the main note, for the ac- 
cent would then fall on the wrong note. 
[Sec also remark under *Turn.] 

III. The beginning of a trill is often 
varied by the addition of a prefix, which 
may be indicated by one or more small 
notes, or by a modification of the ordinary 
sign for the trill. The number of small 
notes used in the notation of the prefix 
does not affect the interpretation. A hook 
extending downwards from the begin- 
ning of the trill sign indicates a prefix 
starting below the main note; a hook ex- 
tending upwards represents an introduc- 
tory turn beginning with the upper auxil- 
iary [Ex. 5]. The prefix from below is 


ti— 






a 






— 4J — L 4 J 

4=' 



low, as in the illustrated passage from 
Beethoven’s Piano Sonata op. 10, no. 3 
[Ex. 6]. 

IV. The modern trill, which begins 
with the main note, was first introduced 
early in the 19th century by the Viennese 
pianists, Hummel, Czerny, and Mosche- 
les. It is usually played with a two-note 



termination [G. Nachschlag], This trill 
no longer fulfills the appoggiatura-func- 
tion with which the ornament had been 
associated for nearly two centuries; it is 
an effect of virtuosity and serves merely 
to accentuate the main note or to add 
brilliance or color to the performance, as 
shown in Example 7 [a, Chopin (Bolero); 
b, Liszt (Hungarian Rhapsody no. 14)]. 

The “main note” trill did not entirely 
supplant the traditional form, which often 
appears in the works of Chopin, Schu- 
mann, and Liszt. It is customary, however, 
in the music of the Romantic and Modern 
periods, for the composer to indicate the 
first note of the trill by means of a small 
grace note. In the absence of such indica- 
tion the trill should begin on the main 
note. P. A. 


fir , 

PI— 1 V 1 . 

ptgr; 



especially common; indeed, it was cus- 
tomary, throughout the i8th century, to 
start a long trill with such a prefix, even 
when not indicated, whenever the main 
note was approached conjunedv from bc- 


Triller [G.]. Trill. chain, 

series of trills. 

Trillo [It.]. Trill. In the 17th ceiitury 
usually the true vocal tremolo [see ♦Trem- 
olo (3)]. Trillo del Diavolo (The Devil’s 
Trill), a famous sonata for violin with 
accompaniment by Tartini (1692-1770), 
so called on account of the trills in the last 
movement. 


Trilogie [G.]. Sec *Ring des Nibel- 
ungen. 

! 762] 




TRINKLIED 


TRIO SONATA 


Trinklied [G.]. Drinking song. 

Trio [It.], (i) Originally and properly 
a contrapuntal composition in three parts. 
This meaning exists in Bach’s six sonatas 
for the organ [see ’••'Trio sonata] as well 
as in the three-voice pieces in Hindemith s 
Reihe \leiner Stuc\e^ op. 37. 

(2) In the Scherzo or Minuet move- 
ment of the sonata (symphony, quartet, 
etc.), the middle section played between 
the scherzo (minuet) and its repetition 
[see ^Scherzo]. The designation trio 
comes from the 17th-century custom of 
writing minuets and other dances in three 
parts, frequently for two oboes and bas- 
soon (Lully), a treatment which was used 
particularly for the second of two dances 
played alternately, so that the arrange- 
ment Menuety Menuet en trioy Menuet 
resulted. A good instance exists in Bach’s 
Brandenburg Concerto no. i, in which 
the minuet is fully orchestrated, while 
the trio is written for two oboes and bas- 
soon. The accompanying example, from 



Bach’s French Suite no. 6, shows the use 
of the same trio-style in harpsichord mu- 
sic. As late as Haydn, Mozart, and Bee- 
thoven (e.g., Symphony no. 7) the trio 
usually retained the lighter texture and 
the wood-wind character of Lully’s trio. 
Schubert and others adopted the term as 
a designation for the middle section of 
compositions in ternary form. Cf, E. 
Blom, in ML xxii, no. 2. 

(3) Chamber music for three players. 
The most important type is the pianoforte 
trio, for piano, violin, and cello. In most 
of Haydn’s 35 trios the violin and cello 
are chiefly reinforcements of the piano 
part. Mozart’s 7 trios show greater indi- 
viduality of the parts and pave the way 
for such great works as Beethoven’s Trios 
op. 70, op. 97, and Schubert’s op. 99 and 
op. 100. The list of the classical repertoire 
is completed by Schumann’s three, Men- 


delssohn’s two, Brahms’s three, and Dvo- 
fak’s four trios. The string trio, usually 
for violin, viola, and cello, has been much 
less attractive to composers. After Hay- 
dn’s 20 trios (for two violins and cello) 
there is only one divertimento by Mozart 
(K.V. 563), Beethoven’s opp. 3, 9, 87, 
and a few later compositions. 

Triole [G.], triolet [F.]. Triplet. 

Trionfale [It.]. Triumphant. 

Trionfo di Dori, II. See *Triumphes 
of Oriana, The. 

Trio sonata. The most important type 
of Baroque chamber music, written in 
three parts, two upper parts of similar 
range and design and a supporting fig- 
ured-bass part [see *Thorough-bassJ. 
The trio sonata is usually performed on 
four instruments, two violins (or, in the 
earlier period, viols, cornetti) for the two 
upper parts, a cello (viola da gamba, vio- 
lone) for the bass part, and a harpsichord 
(organ, theorboe) for the bass part to- 
gether with the realization of the thor- 
ough-bass accompaniment. Other per- 
forming bodies were occasionally em- 
ployed, e.g., in Biagio Marini’s Sonatas for 
violin and organ op. 8 ( 1626) in which the 
organ has two written parts, in Bach’s six 
organ trios written for the organ alone in 
three parts without thorough-bass figures, 
or in G. B. Bononcini’s op. 4 (1686), for 
which there are five part books, ist and 2d 
violin, cello, theorboe, and organ. Towards 
the end of the 17th century there occur 
trio sonatas written in four voices, the 
cello part becoming somewhat different 
from the bass part for the harpsichord [cf. 
Tommaso Vitali, Sonate da chiesa a trey 
1^93]* There even exist orchestral trio 
sonatas, usually called Sinfonia. In all 
these cases, however, the writing is essen- 
tially in three parts, and it is this texture 
which is indicated in the customary des- 
ignation “a trhr 

Early three-voice compositions, written 
mosdy in the form and style of the in- 
strumental *canzona, are by Salomone 
Rossi {Varie Sonate y 1622), Buonamentc 
(4th, 5th, 7th .book of Sonatey 1626-37), 


[763] 



TRIPLA 


TRISTAN UND ISOLDE 


Tarquinio Merula, Biagio Marini, and 
others [see ^Editions II, 7]. Towards the 
end of the 17th century the trio sonata 
became established in two types, known 
as sonata da chiesa (church sonata) and 
sonata da camera (chamber sonata). Re- 
garding the former, see ^Sonata B, II; re- 
garding the latter, see *Suite IV. The 
trio-style was cultivated particularly in 
France, under the name of sonate en trio 
[see *Trio (2)]. The medium persisted 
into the classical period, the last examples 
being those by Gluck (1746), the *Mann- 
heimers, and Haydn sonates d deux 
violons et Basse y op. 8, c, 1762]. There- 
after it changed into the classical trio for 
three instruments, and with a fully writ- 
ten-out part for the pianoforte [see *Trio 
(3)1 

The literature of the trio sonata includes 
all the illustrious names of the Baroque, 
such as Corelli (48, opp. 1-4, 1683-94), 
Purcell (12, 1683), Buxtehude (1696), 
Handel (21, six of which are for two oboes 
and bass), Francois Couperin (14), An- 
tonio Vivaldi (12, 1737). Bach wrote 
only a few trio sonatas of the normal type 
(i.e., for two melody instruments and 
thorough-bass accompaniment), namely, 
that from the ^Musical Offering and three 
others [B.-G, vol. ix, pp. 221, 231, 260]. 
His sonatas for violin and harpsichord as 
well as his organ sonatas represent the 
trio sonata with three obbligato parts, i.e., 
without thorough-bass accompaniment. 
The fact, however, that the opening meas- 
ures of the movements in the violin so- 
natas have thorough-bass figures suggests 
(together with some other considerations) 
that a second, “accompanying” harpsi- 
chord was used wl^ich played the main 
notes of the bass part and improvised the 
chordal accompaniment. 

Lit.: H. Hoffmann, Die Norddeutsche 
Triosonate . . . ( 1929) ; E. Kuri, “Die Trio- 
Sonate von ihren Anfangen bis zu Haydn 
und Mozart” {Zeitschrift fiir Hausmusi\ 
iii, 37); sec also under *Sonata. 

Tripla. (i) In mensural notation, i.c., 
proportio triphy sec *Proportions. — (2) 
Same as *Proportz. — (3) Plural of ♦trip- 
lum. 


Triple concerto. A concerto for three 
solo instruments, such as Bach’s two con- 
certos for three harpsichords. 

Triple counterpoint. See *Double 
counterpoint. 

Triple-croche [F.]. Sec ♦Notes. 

Triple fugue. See ♦Double fugue. 

Triplet [F. triolet\ G. Triole\ It. ter- 
zina ] . A group of three notes to be per- 
formed in the place of two of the same 
kind, indicated by a 3 and, usually, a slur: 

sj} rn 

3 ^ 

For the indication of a certain triplet 
rhythm by dotted notes, sec *Dotted notes. 

Triple time. See *Meter. 

Triplum. See ♦Duplum. 

Tris(h)agion [Gr. tris, thrice; hagiosy 
holy]. The oldest form of the Sanctus, 
written in the Greek language (as is also 
the Kyrie). In the Roman rites it occurs in 
the ♦Improper ia of Good Friday, in which 
each Greek phrase (Agios o Theos) is an- 
swered antiphonically (to the same mel- 
ody) by its Latin translation (Sanctus 
DeuSy . . .) [cf. GRy 198]. The text is also 
known as the Cherubic Hymn and has 
been set to music various times by Rus- 
sian composers. 

Tristan und Isolde. Opera in three 
acts by Richard Wagner, to his own li- 
bretto, after a medieval legend of Celtic 
origin; produced 1865. The main char- 
acters arc Isolde (Soprano), an Irish prin- 
cess, and Tristan (Tenor), a knight who 
is escorting her from Ireland to Corn- 
wall, to be married to the English King 
Marine (Bass). Isolde, torn between ha- 
tred and love, orders her companion 
Brangdne (Mezzo-soprano) to prepare a 
poisoned drink for Trist^in and herself, 
but Brangane mixes a love potion instead 
(Act I). The lovers, meeting while the 
king goes hunting (opening of Act II), 
arc spied upon by Melot (Baritone), who 
wounds Tristan in combat. Tristan, 
brought to his own casde by his servant 


[764I 



TRISTE 

Kur venal (Baritone), dies, and Isolde, 
her heart breaking, follows him. 

Tristan is, without doubt, the truest 
and fullest incarnation of love passion 
ever presented on the stage. Practically 
the whole second and third acts are an 
“unending love duet” in which every feel- 
ing and sensation, ranging from the ten- 
derest to the most passionate, is portrayed. 
Owing to the relative simplicity and un- 
importance of the “story,” the ^leitmotif 
plays a secondary role in this opera (if 
compared with the *Ring), and the most 
conspicuous features of the music are the 
“unending melody” and a harmonic vo- 
cabulary full of daring chromatic pro- 
gressions and bold appoggiaturas. In fact, 
so conspicuous are these traits that “Tris- 
tan melody” and “Tristan harmony” have 
become common technical terms. 

Triste. An Argentine type of love song, 
slow and melancholic. It is a mixture of 
Indian and European elements, musically 
as well as textually. 

Tristopha. See *Neumes I. 

Trite [G,]. See ’^Greek music II (a). 

Tritone [L. tritonus]. The interval of 
three whole tones, i.e., the augmented 
fourth (c.g., f-^b). As a melodic progres- 
sion it sounded awkward, and was hence 
forbidden in plainsong and in early poly- 
phonic music under names such as diabo- 
lus in musica (the devil in music) or *mi 
contra fa. The rule prohibiting the tritone 
is still observed in students’ counterpoint. 
However, the progression becomes much 
less objectionable if the b resolves upwards 
as a leading tone: f'-b-c', a progression 
which is not infrequent in arias of Mozart. 

The avoidance of the tritonc as a chord- 
al combination plays an important part 
in the early organum {Musica enchiriadis, 
c. 900) where it leads to certain modifica- 
tions of the strictly parallel movement 



[Ex. la instead of ib]. The sources of 
13th- and 14th-century polyphonic music, 


TROMBA MARINA 

however, show clearly that the tritonc 
chord b-f'~b' was considered a legitimate 
combination, although it had to be re- 
solved into a full consonance such as 
a-^'— a' or c-g'-c" [Ex. 2]. In classical 
harmony the tritonc is admitted only in 
combination with other intervals, mainly 
in the seventh chord and its derivatives. 
The third inversion of the seventh chord, 
b-f'-g'-d", is sometimes called tritonc. 

Trittico [It.]. A triptych, i.e., a paint- 
ing on three panels such as is common 
over altars. The name was used by Puc- 
cini for a group of three short independent 
operas, ll Tabarro (The Cloak), Suor 
Angelica (Sister Angelica), and Gianni 
Schicchi (composed 1918), which are to 
be performed together. 

Triumphes of Oriana, The. A col- 
lection of English madrigals, published 
by Morley in imitation of an Italian col- 
lection of madrigals, 11 trionfo di Dori 
(1592), and dedicated to Queen Eliza- 
beth. The book was scheduled to appear 
in 1601, but was not published until 1603, 
after the Queen’s death. It contains 29 
madrigals in five or six parts, by Morley, 
Weelkcs, E. Gibbons, and others, all of 
which close with the refrain “Long live 
fair Oriana” (an imitation of the refrain 
“Viva la bella Dori” in the Trionfo), ex- 
cept for the last three which have the re- 
frain “In Heaven lives Oriana.” List of 
contents in GD v, 385; reprint sec *Edi- 
tions X, 32. 

Trochee, trochaeic. See *Poetic me- 
ter I; *Modes, Rhythmic. 

Tromba [It.]. Trumpet. T. cromatica 
{a macchina, ventild), valve trumpet. T. 
bassa, bass trumpet. T. da tirarsi, slide 
trumpet [see *Trumpet II]. T. spezzata 
(pieced trumpet), trombone. 

Tromba marina [marine trumpet, sea 
trumpet, nun’s fiddle; V.'trompette ma- 
rine; G. Trumscheit, Nonnengeige]. An 
instrument of the later Middle Ages, but 
still in use in the i8th century, which 
consisted of a long tapering body (5 to 6 
feet) over which a single string was 
stretched. The string was not stopped, as 


[765] 



TROMBETTA 


TROMBONE 


in violin playing, but slightly touched to 
produce harmonic notes, the bow playing 
above the touching finger near the upper 
end* Inside the long soundbox a great 
number (up to fifty) of sympathetic 
strings were fixed which were tuned in 
unison with the playing string [see illus- 
tration, on p. 800]. The most peculiar 
detail of construction was the ‘‘trembling 
bridge,” i.e., a bridge in the shape of a 
wide inverted U the right leg of which 
was placed directly under the string, 
while the other was free to vibrate against 
the soundboard so that a drumming noise 
resulted, hence the German name Trum- 
scheit (drum log). At the same time the 
sound of the instrument is strikingly like 
that of a trumpet, thus leading to another 
possible explanation of the name trumpet 
{tromhd). More difficult is the explana- 
tion of the adjective “marina” which ap- 
pears after 1600. It has led to various 
fanciful explanations, the most amusing 
of which is that the instrument was used 
for signaling purposes in the Navy. A 
plausible explanation derives the word 
from “Mary”; as a matter of fact, the in- 
strument was frequently used by nuns 
under the name Nonnengeige (nun’s fid- 
dle). Antonio Vivaldi {c. 1680-1743) 
wrote solo parts for two tromba marinas 
in one of his concertos [cf. A. Schering, 
Geschichte des Instrumental^onzerts 
(1905), p. 62], and the Swiss Johann 
Gletle (d. before 1684) wrote duets for 
the instrument (new ed. in A. Stern and 
W. Schuh, Schweizer Sing- und Spiel- 
musi\ (Hug), vol. 6). A Memoire by J.-B. 
Prin of 1742 is reprinted in BSIM iv 
(1908). For a detailed description of the 
instrument cf. N. Bessaraboff, Ancient 
European Musical Instruments (1941), 
3171!; also SaHMI 291, 304f, and GD v, 
386f. 

Lit.: F. W. Gal pin, “Monsieur Prin 
and his Trumpet Marine” (ML xiv, no. 
i); LavE ii.3, 17571! (bibl.); P. Garnault, 
La Trompette marine (1926). 

TrombettA [It.]. Old name for a small 
trumpet. 

Trombone \Q,Posaune]. I. The mod- 
ern orchestral trombone is a brass instru- 


ment with a cylindrical bore except for 
the lower third of its length which gradu- 
ally expands into the bell, and with a 
cup-shaped mouthpiece. It consists of two 
separate pieces, one being formed by the 
mouthpiece and the bell, held together 
by a crossbar, the other by a U-shaped 
middle piece which, by means of another 
crossbar, can be moved away and towards 
the player and which, therefore, is called 
slide. This sliding mechanism takes the 
place of the valves used with the other 
brass instruments and, like these, serves 
to fill in the gaps of the natural tones [see 
*Wind instruments IV (a)]. There are 
seven recognized positions (six plus the 
original one) of the slide, each a semitone 
lower and thus changing the natural tun- 
ing of the trombone successively from, 
say, B-flat into A, A-flat, etc. The range 
for each position is one of about two oc- 
taves (Bib-Bb-f-bb for the normal posi- 
tion), but the lowest note of this series, 
called *pedal tone, is difficult to produce 
in the three lowest positions. Since the 
movement from position to position re- 
quires a certain amount of time, a true 
legato is not possible on the trombone. 
On the other hand, a ^glissando (prop- 
erly termed ^portamento) is possible, and 
this effect, although musically bad, has 
been used by some modern composers for 
the purpose of caricature. 

The trombone can be regarded as the 
bass of the trumpet although its tone is 
more dignified and solemn, less brilliant 
than the latter’s. This difference in tone 
color is due mainly to the larger mouth- 
piece of the trombone. Trombones have 
been made in many sizes ranging from 
soprano to contra-bass, and in many keys. 
The four types used in the modern or- 
chestra are the tenor trombone, the bass 
trombone, the tenor-bass trombone, , and 
the double-bass trombone. 

(a) Tenor trombone. This is pitched 
in B-flat and has a complete chromatic 



compass as shown in (a), in addition to 
which four pedal tones, as shown in (b), 


[766] 



TROMBONE 

arc available. It is notated at its sounding 
pitch (not transposing as, e.g., the horn). 
Sec the illustration on p. 97. 

(b) Bass trombone. This is pitched in 
F, although instruments pitched in G or 
E-flat occur in England. Its compass is a 
fourth below that of the tenor trombone. 
Owing to the great length of the pipe the 
slides are difficult to handle, and the in- 
strument is nowadays replaced by the 
tenor-bass trombone. 

(c) Tenor-bass trombone. This has the 
size (and pitch) of the tenor trombone, 
but a wider bore which facilitates the 
playing of the pedal tones and renders 
the sound similar to that of the bass trom- 
bone. It is furnished with a single valve 
which lowers the pitch a fourth, i.e., to 
that of the bass trombone. The tenor-bass 
trombone has virtually supplanted the 
bass trombone in the present-day orches- 
tra. 

(d) Double-bass trombone. This is 
pitched an octave below the tenor trom- 
bone (English instruments are sometimes 
pitched in C). The difficulty caused by 
the great length of its pipe was overcome 
in 1816 (Gottfried Weber) by the inven- 
tion of the “double slide,” the pipe being 
bent into four parallel tubes. Wagner in- 
troduced it into his Ring, and other com- 
posers have followed his example (e.g., 
d’Indy in A Summer Day in the Moun- 
tains), It is, however, very tiring to play, 
owing to the great strain on the player’s 
lungs and lips. 

Occasionally valve trombones have been 
made (used by d’Indy in Le Chant de la 
cloche). Their tone, however, is less noble 
than that of the slide trombone, 

II. History. The trombone was the 
first of all our orchestral instruments to 
appear in its present shape. It developed 
in the 15th century out of a large trumpet 
(hence the name trombone, i.e., large 
tromha) by the addition of a slide, and 
the earliest representations, on paintings 
of the late 15th century, show all the es- 
sentials of the present instrument. The 
German name Posaune points to another 
line of descent, the large and straight 
huysine, a name which in turn goes back 
to L. *buccina. The medieval name for 


TROPARION 

the trombone was saebut (derived from 
an old Spanish word sacabuche, “draw 
tube,” or from old French sacqueboute^ 
“pull-push”). Trombones were common 
throughout the i6th century in the cere- 
monial bands of princes and of large cities 
as well as in churches. Their sliding 
mechanism made them suitable for the 
rendering of art music at a time when the 
horns and trumpets were still limited to 
the performance of military signals. Ow- 
ing to the less expanded bell of the old 
trombones their sound was relatively soft 
and therefore combined well with the 
strings. Among the earliest compositions 
prescribing trombones are G. Gabrieli’s 
Sacrae symphoniae of c, 1600, scored for 
cornetti, trombones, bassoons, and strings 
[sec ^Orchestra II]. Michael Praetorius, 
in his Theatrum instrumentorum (1620), 
gives reproductions of Alto, Tenor, and 
Bass trombones, called Alt-Posaun, Rechte 
gemeine (right common) Posaune, and 
Quart-Posaune, respectively. Bach and 
Handel used the instrument occasionally, 
but mostly in unison with voices for the 
sake of greater sonority. Gluck was per- 
haps the first to make effective use of the 
trombone for accompanying chords, e.g., 
in the aria “Divinite du Styx” of his AU 
ceste, and Mozart gave the trombones a 
prominent place in his The Magic Flute 
and Don Giovanni, Beethoven introduced 
the trombones into symphonic music in 
the final movement of his Fifth Sym- 
phony, but it was not until after 1850 
that, owing to the precedence of Berlioz 
and Wagner, the trombone became firmly 
established as a member of the orchestra. 

Trommel [G.]. Drum [see *Percus- 
sion instruments B, 1-3]. Trommel- 
sc hie gel, drumstick. 

Trommelbass [G.]. Derogative name 
for stereotyped bass figures, such as the 
pianoforte tremolo in octaves. 

Trompete [G.], trompette [F.]. 
Trumpet. 

Trompetengeige [G.], "^Tromba ma- 
rina. 

Troparion. Sec ^Byzantine chant II. 


[767] 



TROPARIUM 


TROUBADOURS 


Troparium [L.]. Troper. See ♦Litur- 
gical books L 

Trope [L. tropus], (i) In certain medi- 
eval treatises, synonym for moduSy tonuSy 
i.e., *church mode. — (2) Same as ♦dif- 
ferentiae, — (3) See ♦Twelve-tone tech- 
nique (Hauer). 

(4) In the Roman liturgy of the 9th to 
the 13th century a textual addition to 
the authorized texts as they were set down 
by St. Gregory {c, 600). There was, in 
the above period, an extensive activity of 
this kind, springing from the natural de- 
sire toward continued creative contribu- 
tion to the authorized repertory of texts. 
The tropes range from a few amplifying 
words interpolated between the Kyrie 
cleison (e.g., Kyrie-/o«r bonitatis-<\c\- 
son: ♦farced Kyrie) to lengthy explana- 
tory sentences (e.g., Smgt^infida genSy 
dejecta perfidiay quern demonstravit Stella 
re gem re gum verier are-ex. illuminare- 
cogitay spera et suspiray coelestia contem- 
plate-]tt\xs^em)y and even to entire 
poems placed between two words of an 
authentic text [cf., e.g., O. Ursprung, 
Katholische Kirchenmusi\y 68]. As re- 
gards the musical treatment of the tropes, 
two categories must be distinguished: 
(a) Troped texts which were adapted to 
a pre-existing melisma, occurring in the 
original chant at the place of the trope 
(e.g., in a Kyrie on the syllable <?), Here 
the new text was underlaid to the single 
notes of the melisma, so that a syllabic 
setting resulted. Most of the shorter 
tropes belong to this class [cf. HAMy no. 
15; also 26b, 37]. A particularly impor- 
tant type of this group are the tropes to 
the final melisma of the Alleluia, the Al- 
leluia tropes or ♦sequences which under- 
went a special development, (b) Tropes 
which were sung to new melodies. The 
musical material for such new melodics 
was occasionally derived from the origi- 
nal melody in a free variation technique 
[cf. BeMMRy 90]. 

The origin of the tropes is still obscure. 
Tutilo of St. Gall (d. c. 915; cf. HAMy 
no. 15) would seem to have played in this 
field a role similar to that of his con- 
temporary Notker in the field of the se- 


quence, i.e., that of an early master rather 
than of an inventor. His Christmas trope 
“Hodie cantandus cst’’ {SchGMBy no. 3], 
written in the form of a dialogue (dia- 
logue trope), is considered a forerunner 
of the ♦liturgical drama. Troping was 
used most frequendy with the items of 
the Ordinary of the Mass (Kyrie tropes; 
Sanctus tropes; Gloria tropes, also called 
laudes)y and with the Benedicamus dom- 
ino (Benedicamus tropes). All the tropes 
were abolished by the ♦Council of Trent, 
and the five sequences which were re- 
tained are the only remnant of a once 
flourishing production. Traces of the 
tropes survive, however, in the present 
names of many Kyries [see ♦Kyrie]. 

In musicological research, the term 
troping is also used in connection with 
the polyphonic elaborations of liturgical 
chants. For instance, the early motet may 
be considered a “polyphonic trope” (or 
“vertical trope”), since here a new text, 
elaborating upon the idea of the original 
chant in the tenor, is used for the upper 
parts. Finally, the process of troping can 
also be observed in trouvfere music in 
which new texts were interpolated be- 
' tween the two halves of a refrain, a pro- 
cedure which is believed to have been the 
origin of the ♦rondeau (Gennrich), and 
which is clearly noticeable in the motets 
entes [see ♦Entc]. 

Lit.: See under ♦Sequence (2); also 
J. Handschin in ZMW x. 

Troper, English for ♦troparium, i.e., a 
liturgical book containing tropes [see 
♦Liturgical books I]. Cf. W. H. Frere, 
The Winchester Troper (1894); J. Hand- 
schin, “The two Winchester Tropers” 
{Journal for Theological Studies xxxvii). 

Troppo [It.]. Too much. Allegro non 
troppOy not too quidk. 

Tropus. See ♦Trope (i), (2), (4). 

Troubadours. The aristocratic poet- 
musicians of the Middle Ages in southern 
France (Provence). It was here, c. 1100, 
that a movement started which in the mid- 
i2th century spread to northern France 
{^trouvhres) and Germany {*Minne- 


[768] 



TROUBADOURS 


trouvRres 

singer) y and which presents a unique pic- the troubadour songs, sec under *trou- 
ture of high nobility devoting themselves vercs; also for literature. Examples in 
to the cultivation of poetry and music in HAM, no. i8. 
a romantic service of chivalrous love [G. 

Minnediensi], There is no complete Trouveres. The aristocratic poet-musi- 
agreement among scholars regarding the cians of the Middle Ages in northern 
roots of this movement. Arabic-Spanish France, where the movement, spreading 
models as well as Carolingian love-lyrics from the Provence [see ^Troubadours], 
and the adoration of the Virgin Mary started in the mid- 12th century with Blon- 
have been cited as sources of origin. Very del de Neslcs (r. 1150-1200) and Quesnes 
likely, these all contributed certain im- de Bcthunc (1150-1 224), continued with 
pulses. Another much-discussed question Thibaut IV, King of Navarre (1208-53), 
(of somewhat secondary importance) is and Perrin d’Angecourt (fl. c, 1250), and 
to what extent the noblemen were as- closed with the commoner Adam de la 
sisted in their creative or reproductive Halle (1220— 87). Regarding the general 
activities by individuals of minor birth, features of the movement, see *Trouba- 
the so-called jongleurs. Probably the dours. About 800 songs are preserved 
practice varied in different cases [see with their melodies. The chief sources 
^Minstrels]. Among the troubadours of trouvere and troubadour melodies are 
who are known to us by their melodies Chansonnier de St. Germain (Paris, Bibl. 
we find Guillaume de Poitou (1070- Nat. 20050; facs. ed. by G. Raynaud and 
1127), Marcabru (a commoner, d. c. P. Meyer, 1892); Chansonnier de VAr- 
1150), Bernart de Ventadorn (d. 1195), (Paris, Bibl. de TArsenal, 1598; new 

Peire Vidal (d. 1215), Rambault de Va- ed. by Pierre Aubry, 1909^); Chanson- 
queiras (d. 1207), Folquet de Marseille nier du Roy (Bibl. Nat. 8^^) new ed. by 

(d. 1231), Raimon de Miraval (d. J. B. Beck, 1938); Chansonnier CangS 

1220), Aimeric de Peguillan (1205-75), (Bibl. Nat. 846) new ed. by J. B. Beck, 
and Guiraut Riquier (d. 1294), the “last 1927); Bibl. Nat. 25566 (publ. in E. de 
of the troubadours.*’ Coussemaker, Oeuvres complies du 

Of more than 1000 troubaoour poems trouvere Adam de la Halley 1872); Chan- 
323 are preserved with their melodies in sonnier de Noailles (Bibl. Nat. 726/5); 
the so-called *chansonniers [see under Chansonnier d* Arras {hcs.tA.hy K.]t2in.- 
*Trouveres]. From the textual point of roy, 1925); Bibl. Nat. ^45, 84^, and nouv. 
view these poems fall into classes such as acqu. 10^0 [cf. AdHM i, 193; ReMMAy 
*sirventes (songs of service, usually of 448]. 

political or moral contents), * planes The melodics of the trouvSres, all 
(plainte, song of mourning), * albas monophonic as those of the troubadours, 
(song of dawn), and others. The two show a considerably greater emphasis on 
chief musical forms arc the *canzo and formal structure than those from the 
the *vers. The melodies of the trouba- Provence. As a matter of fact, it is here 
dours (as well as of the trouveres) are all for the first time that musical forms 
monophonic, and were never accompa- proper were developed some of which 
nied in the modern sense of the word, proved of long-lasting importance [sec 
Instrumental participation in the perform- *Barform; *Virclai]. The through-com- 
ance, such as is suggested by some pic- posed type, called simply chanson (cor- 
turcs showing a singer holding a fiddle responding to the Provencal *vers, not 
or being assisted by an instrumentalist, the *canzo), is relatively rare as com- 
was restricted to a strict or slightly varied pared with various strict forms (formes 
unison duplication of the melody [sec fixes) such as the ^rotrouenge, the ^ron- 
*Hctcrophony] or, perhaps, to some deauy the *virelaiy and the * ballade [rp- 
short extemporization in the manner of garding a not very convincing genealogy 
a prelude, interlude, or postludc. For the of these forms, cf. F. Gennrich, Grundriss 
notation and rhythmic interpretation of einer Formenlehre des mittelalterlichen 

[ 769 ] 



TROUVfeRES 

Liedes (1932); also ReMMAy 2igS]. 
Earlier forms of a more narrative type are 
the ^chanson de gestCy and the ^lai or 
descort. Other classifications, such as 
chanson de courty ^chanson de toilcy 
*tensOy or jeu-partiy are made chiefly with 
reference to subject matters. 

The melodies of the trouveres (and 
troubadours) are practically all notated 
in the symbols of ^square notation, i.e., 
with only one character for the single 
note (a square, usually with a tiny tail) 
and short ligatures for a group of notes 
in place of a single one (in German writ- 
ings this notation is usually referred to 
as Choralnotation; see *Plainsong nota- 
tion). The rhythmic interpretation of 
this notation has ’been a subject of much 
investigation and controversy. The early 
attempts to apply the principles of men- 
sural notation (particularly, the Fran- 
conian rules of ligatures; cf. RiHM i.a, 
225) were abandoned around 1890 
(Runge) in favor of a rhythmic inter- 
pretation based on the meter of the text, 
a principle which was considerably modi- 
fied by Beck and Aubry around 1905 by 
the introduction of modal, i.e., ternary, 
rhythm [see *Modes, rhythmic]. The 
modal interpretation has been rather gen- 
erally accepted for the melody of the 
trouveres, while its applicability to those 
of the troubadours and the Minnesinger 
would appear to be much more open to 
question. More recently Beck, who was 
one of the first champions of modal inter- 
pretation, has taken quite a different po- 
sition in his edition of the Chansonnier de 
Noailles (1927). Examples in HAM, 
no. 19; SchGMBy nos. 13, 14; EiBMy no. 7. 

Lit.: (a) General: P. Aubry, Trou- 
vhres et troubadours ( 1909; Engl, transl. 
by C. Aveling, 1914); J. B. Beck, La Mu- 
sique des troubadours (1910); ReMMAy 
204ff; AdHM i, i88ff; GSHMy 258^; B. 
Smythe, “Troubadour Songs” (ML ii, 
no. 3); P. Aubry, “L’Oeuvre mflodique 
des trouveres et troubadours” (RMC vii). 
— (b) Special: J. B. Beck, Die Melodien 
der Troubadours (1908); P. Aubry, La 
Rhythmique musicale des troubadours 
and trouveres (1907); P. Aubry, “Re- 
frains et rondeaux du Xllle siklc” (Rie- 


TRUMPET 

mann Festschrifty 1909); iW., “Quatre 
poesies de Marcabru” (TG x); H. J. 
Moser, “Zu Ventadorns Melodien” 
(ZMW xvi). See also the literature for 
special articles (e.g., *Rotrouenge, *Lai, 
•Modes, Rhythmic, etc.). — (c) Publica- 
tions of music: Various chansonniers 
(see text); P. Aubry, If Lais et descorts 
fran^ais du XI lie siMe (1901); F. Genn- 
rich, "fRondeauXy Virelais und BalladeUy 
2 vols. (1921, *27). — (d) Philological 
studies: H. J. Chaytor, The Troubadours 
(1912); R. Croft-Cooke, Troubadours 
(1930); A. Jeanroy, Bibliographie som- 
maire des chansonniers fran^ais du 
moyen-dge (1918); A. Jeanroy, Bibliogra- 
phie sommaire des chansonniers proven- 
caux (1916). For additional literature 
cf. ReMMAy 445ff. 

Trube [G.]. Grievous. 

Trugschluss [G.j. Deceptive cadence. 

Trumbscheit [G.j. *Tromba marina. 

Trumpet [F. trompette; G. Trompete; 
It. tromba], I. The modern orchestral 
trumpet is a •brass instrument with a nar- 
row tube which is cylindrical for about 
three-quarters of its length, then widen- 
ing out into a moderate-sized bell; and 
with a cup-shaped mouthpiece. These 
characteristics distinguish it from the 
horn which has a prevailingly conical 
bore and a funnel-shaped mouthpiece. 
They account for the different timbres of 
the two instruments, this being bright, 
brilliant, and penetrating in the case of 
the trumpet, mellow and full in that of 
the horn. The difference in shape, circu- 
lar with the latter and oblong with the 
former, is of secondary importance al- 
though it is the most striking characteris- 
tic for the casual viewer. The trun\pet 
has three •valves (rotary or piston) which, 
taken singly or in combination, lower the 
natural pitch of the instrument by one to 
six semitones; hence, the name valve 
trumpet [F. trompette-d-pistons or chro- 
matique'y G. V entiltrompete\ It. tromba 
ventilcy cromaticay a macchinay a pistoni\ 
in distinction from the earlier natural 
trumpet [sec II]. See the illustration on 


[770I 



TRUMPET 


trumpet 

р. 97. The basic principles of tone-pro- isolated instance. In 1638 there appeared 

duction on the trumpet are explained a Modo per imparare a sonar e di tromba 

under *Wind instruments. (Method of learning to play the trumpet) 

The modern orchestral trumpet is by Fantini. Towards the end of the 17th 
pitched in B-flat, and has the chromatic century the trumpets were quite fre- 
compass shown. It is now usually no- quently used in operas, cantatas, etc., for 

scenes of a military character or for the 
expression of joyful triumph (Purcell, 
Buxtehude). At this time there devel- 
oped the art of playing the highest regis- 
tated at the actual pitch, i.e., as a non- ter of the trumpet where the harmonics 
transposing instrument, but this is a rela- form a full scale, while formerly only the 
tively recent practice. In earlier scores low and middle registers had been used 
(Beethoven, Brahms) it was usually no- in which fanfare-like motives only are 
tated as a transposing instrument, either possible [see *Clarin trumpet; *Bacb 
in B-flat throughout, or in different trans- trumpet]. 

positions according to the crooks [see II], During the i8th century various at' 
these being indicated in the score. tempts were made to overcome the limi' 

At the end of the 19th century a larger tation in compass of the natural trumpet 

trumpet, pitched in F (or, for military As early as Bach’s time crooks were used, 
bands, in E-flat), was in vogue. This i.e., additional lengths of tubing which 
corresponds in length of tubing and in were inserted between the mouthpiece 
actual pitch to the horn and has a much and the instrument and which lowered 
nobler tone than the B-flat trumpet. It its pitch by several semitones or whole- 
lacks, however, the latter’s agility and is tones. This, of course, was only an ex- 
now practically abandoned. pedient to make one and the same instru- 

Bass trumpets, pitched in low E, D, or ment useful for pieces in a variety of keys, 
C, were demanded by Wagner for his but in any such key only the natural tones 
Ring, but have proved impracticable, were available. More drastic steps were 
The instruments thus called and used as taken toward the end of the i8th century, 
substitutes are really valve trombones, by the introduction of side-holes covered 
pitched in C. with keys and of a sliding mechanism. 

II. History, The following explanation Key trumpets were invented in 1770 by 
deals only with the immediate predeces- Kolbel of St. Petersburg, but were soon 
SOTS of the modern trumpet, the earlier abandoned since side-holes, though fairly 
types being treated under the general satisfactory on conical instruments such 
article on *brass instruments. Prior to as cornets and bugles (key bugle), arc 

с. 1800 the trumpet existed only in the really not applicable to instruments with 
form known as natural trumpet [G. a cylindrical bore, 

Naturtrompete], i.e., as a plain tube with- More successful was the application of 
out any devices such as side-holes, crooks, the sliding mechanism which had always 
slides, valves, designed to bridge the gaps been used for the trombones. In an 
of the natural scale of harmonics. From earlier construction (17th, i8th centuries) 
the 14th century on the trumpet became the slide was at the mouthpiece which 
associated with military and ceremonial was provided with a long “throat,” long 
functions. It was among the carefully enough to be pulled out so that all the 
guarded privileges of the nobility and gaps in the natural scale could be filled 
only the official court trumpeters were up. It is this instrument which Bach pre- 
allowed to play it [see *Feldtrompeter]. scribes under the name tromba da tirarsi 
After 1600 the trumpet began to be used (Cantatas nos. 5, 20, 46, 77). The terms 
in art music, the “clarino” and “trombe tromba b corno da tirarsi (Cantata no. 46) 
sordine” of Monteverdi’s Orfeo (1607; and corno da tirarsi (Cantatas 67, 162) 
see ^Orchestra II) being an early, though probably indicate the same instrument 

[771 ] 




TRUMSCHEIT 


TUNING 


[cf. SaHMly 384!] . At the end of the i8th 
century another construction was made 
by John Hyde (or by Woodham, c, 
i8io?) in which the U of the upper coil 
was transformed into a movable slide, 
similar to that of the trombone, and pro- 
vided with springs to bring it back into 
its normal position. This instrument has 
been in constant use in England through- 
out the 19th century [cf. GD v, 395f]. 
Although it has the fine sound of the 
natural trumpet it lacked the agility de* 
manded in modern scores and was, there- 
fore, finally given up in favor of the valve 
trumpet. 

The invention of the valves (1813) 
opened the way for the permanent estab- 
lishment of the trumpet in the orchestra. 
The first example of a part for the valve 
trumpet would seem to be that in Ha- 
levy’s La Juive (1835) in which two valve 
trumpets are used side by side with two 
crooked natural trumpets. The recent de- 
velopment of a brilliant trumpet tech- 
nique has enabled composers to use the 
trumpets as melody instruments equal 
and occasionally superior in importance 
to the wood winds. The scores of Stra- 
vinsky, Shostakovitch, and others con- 
tain many interesting trumpet passages, 
frequently of a caricaturing character. 

Trumscheit. ♦Tromba marina. 

T.s. Abbreviation for *tasto solo. 

Tuba, (i) In ancient Rome the name 
for a straight trumpet [see *Brass instru- 
ments V (a)]. 

(2) In modern usage the term tuba is 
loosely and without clear definition ap- 
plied to any sort of bass-pitched brass in- 
strument other than tke trombones. They 
exist in a great variety of shapes, differ- 
ing according to countries and makers, a 
fact which is* partly explained by their 
extensive use in military and other bands. 
The most impbrtant of these, such as the 
Euphonium, I^ielicon, Sousaphone, Bari- 
tone, are brie% described under *Brass 
instruments IIF. 

The tubas of ithe modern orchestra arc 
bass instruments which combine the coni- 
cal bore of the horn with the oblong shape 


and the cupped mouthpiece of the trum- 
pet. They have four or five valves and 
exist in three sizes: (a) Tenor tuba [G. 
Baryton] in B-flat, a fifth below the horn; 
(b) Bass tuba, pitched either in E-flat 
(E-flat or EE-flat bass tuba) or in F (F 
bass tuba); (c) Double-bass tuba (usually 
called BB-flat bass tuba or BB-flat bass), 
piched an octave below the tenor tuba. 

Wagner tuba is the name given to in- 
struments designed for Wagner’s Ring, 
They have a somewhat narrower bore 
(corresponding to that of the *cornet) 
and are provided with a funnel-shaped 
mouthpiece like that of the horns. Wag- 
ner employed two tenor and two bass in- 
struments of this type, together with a 
normal double-bass tuba for the lowest 
part. The Wagner tubas combine the 
agility of the cornet with the mellow 
timbre of the true tubas. They have also 
been used by Bruckner and R. Strauss 
(Elektra). Illustrations on p. 97. 

(3) In Gregorian chant, see under 
*Psalm tones. 

Tucket, tuck. Elizabethan name for a 
trumpet flourish. Evidently this word is 
an Anglicization of toccata [see ’'^Toc- 
cata (2) ] . Cf, the German version Tusch^ 
and the French version touche. 

Tudor Church Music. Sec ^Editions, 
Historical, XXVIII. 

Tune. Popular term for any clear-cut 
and easily retained melody, such as ap- 
pears in folk songs, operatic arias, and 
also in many works of the classical and 
Romantic schools. 

Tuning. The adjustment of the strings 
of stringed instruments to their proper 
pitch. The term is used particularly with 
reference to the pianoforte which, owing 
to its great number of strings, presents a 
special problem in tuning. The modern 
method of pianoforte tuning is based on 
the pure octave and the well-tempered 
fifth. The former is tuned so as to give 
no *bcats, while the latter is obtained em- 
pirically by lowering the pure fifth (no 
beats) to the point at which it gives one 
beat per second. In this manner, a sue- 


[772] 



TUNING FORK 


cession of fifths (with their lower octave): 
a, e, b, fif . . . is tuned. As soon as a 
third is available (a-cif being the first), 
this is used for testing. After the middle 
section of the keyboard (the ground 
work) has been tuned, the higher and 
lower registers are tuned by octaves. 
More recently, another system of tuning 
has been introduced (by O. C. Faust) 
and widely accepted (outside of the piano 
factories), which starts with c and uses 
major thirds upwards and fifths down- 
wards. The accompanying scheme illus- 


trates the general procedure. Even more 
radical is a method advocated by E. Neu- 
gebauer, which has pure fifths but slightly 
sharp fourths and octaves. Tests have 
shown it to be superior to the older meth- 
ods. Cf. J. Redfield, Music: A Science and 
an Art (1928). 

Tuning fork [F. diapason\ G. Stimm- 
gabel] It. corista], A two-pronged piece 
of steel used to indicate absolute pitch. 
The modern tuning forks give the inter- 
national pitch for the tone a (440 vibra- 
tions per second). The instrument was 
invented by John Shore in 1711, and im- 
proved by Rudolph Konig, Paris, around 
1850. For the purpose of acoustical dem- 
onstration entire sets of tuning forks are 
built. They have great permanence in re- 
taining their pitch, and produce almost 
pure tones, without harmonics. Cf. E. A. 
Kielhauser, Die Stimmgabel (1907). 

Tuning slide. In organ building, a 
movable metal clip or cylinder, attached 
to the upper end of an open flue pipe. 
By lowering or raising it the tuning of 
the pipe can be adjusted. 

Tuning wire. In organ building, a 
wire by which the tuning of reed pipes 
can be adjusted. 

Tuono [It.]. See*Tono. 

Turba [L., crowd]. In oratorios, pas- 
sions, etc., name for the choral move- 
ments representing the Jewish or heathen 


TURKISH MUSIC 

population. They are usually allegros in 
fugal style using short motives in close 
imitation. Numerous examples exist in 
Bach’s St, Matthew Passion, Cf. G. Adler, 
in Liliencron Festschrift (1910). 

Turca, Alla [It.]. In the Turkish style, 
i.e., in imitation of the Turkish military 
music (Janizaries) which became popu- 
lar in Europe in the late i8th century. 
See ^Janizary music. 

Turkish crescent (hat, pavilion). See 
^Crescent. 

Turkish music. I. Theory, The clas- 
sical music of Turkey, as practiced at the 
court and the great monasteries at Con- 
stantinople, is based on a fundamental 
scale containing 24 notes to the octave. 
This scale is derived from the chief in- 
strument of Turkish music, the long-neck 
lute, *tanbur, which has 24 frets. The 
various tones of the scale are calculated 
mostly on the basis of the Pythagorean 
system (consecutive fifths) and differ 
therefore from those of the European 
•quarter-tone system [cf. LavE i.53 
3016]. From this fundamental scale selec- 
tions are made for the purpose of prac- 
tical music-making and about one hun- 
dred different “modes” are distinguished, 
Among these are the mode Tchariguiah^ 
which is the Pythagorean scale of C, and 
the mode Raste^ the most frequent of all. 
in which the E and the B are those ol 



lower than the corresponding tones in 
the former mode. Thirty such modes arc 
illustrated in LavE 1.5, 2997!!. No lesi 
elaborate is the Turkish system of rhythm, 
called Oussoul, This is derived from the 
playing of the kettledrum, on which twe 
kinds of drum strokes arc distinguished 
one in the center (callol Dum^ i.e. 
muffled) and one at the side (called Te\ 
i.e., clear). About fifty Standard com 
binations of these beats gtc known anc 
they correspond to our meters, each com 
bination being rep)eated throughout th< 
entire composition. Rhythmic scheme; 


E773I 



TURMSONATEN 


TURN 


involving nine or seven beats are fre- 
quent [Ex. I, Sofian; 2, Devri-Hindi], 



II. Practice, The religious music “con- 
sists of llahiy hymns for all the months of 
the Moslem year, Tevchih, or praises of 
the Prophet, and Ayni Cherif, or offices 
of the w^hirling Dervishes. All these to- 
gether make up an important body of 
music, in which are found many master- 
pieces of Turkish music. To them must 
be added the famous Nat by Itri, the mag- 
nificent Bayram TeJ^biri, also by him, 
the Sala^ the Temdjid, the Sabah essalati, 
the Miradjiye^ [cf. E. Borrel, in GD, 
Suppl. Vol., 633]. The secular art music 
is derived largely from Arabian practice. 
The most important type is the Fasly a 
sort of suite composed of several pieces, 
instrumental and vocal, all in the same 
“key,” i.e., in the same maqam [see 
^Arabian music II]. The instruments 
(tan bur, oud, iceman, *}{anun) are also 
those used in Arabian music. Of particu- 
lar interest is the music of the ’•^Janizaries. 

Lit.: GD, Suppl. Vol., 633(1 (bibl.); 
H. G. Farmer, Turf{ish Instruments of 
Music in the jyth Century (1937); LavE 
i.5, 2845-3064; V. Belaiev, “Turkish 
Music” (MQ xxi); R. Yekta, “Musique 
orientale” (RMC vii, viii). 

Turmsonaten [G. Turm, tower]. A 
type of German 17th-century ^Gebrauchs- 
musik which was sounded on brass in- 
struments from the tower of the town 
hall or a church, as a time signal, at noon- 
time, sunset, etc. It consisted of harmo- 
nized chorales, plain tunes, military sig- 
nals, or “sonatas” [see ^Sonata B, I]. In- 
teresting collections of such pieces arc 
Johann Christoph Pctzold’s (Petzcl) 
Hora decima (1670) and Funfstimmigte 
blasende Musi\ ( 1685). New cd. in DdT 
63; cf. also SchGMB, no. 157. 


Turn [F. double cadence, doubli, bris 6 \ 
G. Doppelschlag], An ornament consist- 
ing of a group of four or five notes which 
wind around the principal note. The 
most common form of turn in the music 
of the 17th and i8th centuries is indicated 
by a curved line, contains four notes, and 
begins on the beat with the note above the 
written note [Ex. i]. It is important to 
note that the melodic form of the turn is 
identical with that of a trill with closing 
notes. The turn, in the 17th and i8th 
centuries, was for this reason regarded as 
synonymous with the short trill; it may 
be substituted for the latter whenever the 
tempo is too fast to permit the clear execu- 
tion of a greater number of notes. 

The sign for the turn was originally 
used only for the first trill of the compound 
ornament known as a ^double cadence. 
The formula, illustrated in Ex. 2, occur- 
ring frequently in the works of J. S. Bach 
and his contemporaries, actually consti- 
tutes a single ornament; there should be 
no break between the turn and the ensu- 
ing trill. So closely was the sign in ques- 
tion associated with this formula that it 
was retained for the isolated turn, as was 
also its name, double cadence. 

It will be noted that in Ex. 2 the sign 
for the turn is placed slightly to the right 
of the written note instead of directly 




above it, showing that the main note 
should be sounded first. In Bach's works 


[774] 




TURN 


TWELVE-TONE TECHNIQUE 


this occurs only when another ornament 
(generally a trill) is to be played immedi- 
ately afterward, as in the double cadence. 
Later, however, this practice became quite 
common, as it appears in the accompany- 
ing examples by Mozart [Ex. 3] and 
Beethoven [Ex. 4]. 

Until about 1750 the turn was regularly 
performed as four equal notes, taking up 
the whole time-value of the written note. 
J. S. Bach frequently writes out this exe- 
cution in ordinary notes [see Ex. 5, from 
CL ii, no. 24]. K. P. E. Bach intro- 
duced the custom of playing the first two 
notes of the Doppelschlag (as the turn was 
now called) more rapidly than the last, as 
in Ex. 6 [Mozart, Violin Sonata G mi- 
nor] . This execution does not apply, how- 
ever, to a turn that is played after the writ- 
ten note or to a turn on a very short note. 

The practice of indicating the turn by 
means of small grace notes (which be- 
came popular during the classical period) 
is more ambiguous than the use of the 
sign, since it is not always easy to deter- 
mine whether a turn upon a note or a 



turn between two notes is intended. Ex- 
amples 7 and 8 show that the turn upon 


the note requires three small notes, while 
the turn after the note requires four. 

The turns of the Romantic composers 
often contain five or six notes. Their 
rhythm is exceedingly flexible, the only 
definite rule being that they are to be per- 
formed in the time-value of the preceding 
note [Ex. 9 and 10: Chopin, Nocturnes 
op. 37, no. I and op. 48, no. i ] . 

Among the exceptional forms of turn 
are: (i) the geschnellter Doppelschlag, a 
rapid five-note turn beginning with the 
main note [Ex. ii, C. P. E. Bach]; this 
was known in Italy as gruppo (groppo) 
or gruppettOy in Germany as Rolle, (2) 
The prallender Doppelschlag, a turn com- 
bined with an appoggiatura and short 
trill [Ex. 12, C. P. E. Bach]. (3) The in- 
verted turn, which is sometimes indicated 
by the ordinary sign upside down or in a 
vertical position but is more often repre- 

Z 

sen ted by tiny notes as in Ex. 13 [Mozart, 
Rondo in A minor] . P. A, 

Tusch [G., from F. ^touche, i.e., toc- 
cata], A fanfare played on brass instru- 
ments. See *Tucket. 

Tutti [It., all]. In orchestral works, par- 
ticularly in concertos, the parts for the 
whole orchestra as distinct from that for 
the soloist. 

Tuyau [F.]. Tube, pipe. T. a anche, 
reed pipe; t, d bouche, flue pipe. 

Twelfth. See ^Intervals. 

Twelve-tone technique [G. Zwolj- 
ton-system ] . A novel system of composi- 
tion, devised mainly by Arnold Schonberg 
as an attempt to arrive at constructive 
methods to take the place of the traditional 
principles of chord-construction, chord- 
relationship, tonality, etc. The negation, 
in ’••'New music, of these principles, al- 
ready foreshadowed in Debussy’s impres- 
sionistic devices (^parallel chords; ^whole- 
tone scale, etc.) and, still more so, in the 
“synthetic chords” of Serrabin (e.g., his 
*mystic chord), led Schonberg, around 
1910, to a type of music which is usually 
referred to as *atonal, although Schonberg 


[775] 




TWELVE-TONE TECHNIQUE 

himself strongly resented the use of this 
term. No matter how it is called, it cer- 
tainly represents a musical style in which 
all the tonal principles of 19th-century 
music are radically denied. Neither the 
chordal combinations nor the melodic 
contours show any traces of “tonality” in 
the broadest sense of the word. The most 
striking examples of this style are his Drei 
KlavierstucXe^ op. 1 1 ( 1908) and his Seeks 
l(leine Klavierstuc\ey op. 19(1911). Their 
amorphous character as well as the expres- 
sion of high-strung and nervous tension 
to be found in them has frequently mis- 
led observers into considering them as 
“Romantic” pieces, a designation which, 
although not entirely without justifica- 
tion, puts them into a wrong place. Actu- 
ally, they became the point of departure 
for efforts to arrive at constructive meth- 
ods of composition, comparable in func- 
tion and serviceability to the orthodox 
principles of tonality, form, thematic ma- 
terial, development, etc. These new meth- 
ods were developed in the second decade 
of the century and found their first defi- 
nite expression in the fourth movement of 
Schonberg’s Serenade op. 24 (composed 
in 1923) and in his Piano Suite op. 25 
(1924). The principles of this technique 
are as follows: 

1. Every composition is based upon an 
arbitrary arrangement of the twelve chro- 
matic tones, called tone-row or series [G. 
Grundgestalt], The chosen succession of 
tones remains unchanged throughout the 
composition, except for the modifications 
explained subsequently. 

2. The octave position of any tone of 
the series can be changed at will. 

3. In addition to its original form (S) 
the series is available also in its inversion 
(S*), in its retrograde form (S*^), and in its 
retrograde inversion (S”). 

4. The above four forms of the scries 
can be used in transposition to any step of 
the chromatic scale. Thus the scries be- 
comes available in 48 (12x4) modifica- 
tions. 

5. From this basic material melodic 
progressions and chordal combinations 
can be formed, the main principles being 
that the tones, whether arranged hori- 


TWELVE-TONE TECHNIQUE 

zontally or vertically, must always occur 
in the arrangement of the scries, and that 
its twelve tones must be presented in full, 
before the series can be used again. The 
beginning of the Trio from Schonberg’s 
Suite op. 25 illustrates the practical appli- 

Schonhergy Suite op. 25 



1 23 3^ 2^ 



cation of these principles. The example 
also shows the series of this piece, together 
with its three basic modifications. The 
composition starts out with four full state- 
ments of the scries, the third and fourth in 
transposition. The continuation is based, 
not so much on the full series, but on sec- 
tions of four tones each, marked i, 2, 3. 
This method of working with fixed sec- 
tions of the series constitutes a deviation, 
or rather a modification, of the principle 
previously mentioned. It may be noticed 
that, in the series under consideration, the 
section 3 is identical (aside from trans- 
position) with its retrograde inversion, 3*^. 
In the Klavierstiick, op. 33a, the three seo 


[776] 




TWELVE-TONE TECHNIQUE 


TYROLIENNE 


tions of the series are treated even more 
individually. Meas. i brings the entire 
series in three chords of four tones each, 
and meas. 2 applies the same treatment to 
the retrograde inversion of the series, 
transposed a semitone below. In the fol- 
lowing three measures the ri-form of the 


Schonbergi K.lavierstuc\ op. 



series appears in the right hand, but with 
the succession of the tones changed in each 
section (ii, 10, 9, 12 instead of 12, ii, 10, 
9, etc.), and in the left hand a similar 
treatment is applied to the sections of the 
original series (2, 3, 4, i instead of i, 2, 3, 
4, etc.). 

Schonberg’s twelve-tone technique has 
been adopted by Alban Berg first in several 
movements of his Lyric Suite for string 
quartet (1925-26), and in all his later 
works, the concert aria Der Wein (1929), 
the Violin Concerto (1935), and the opera 
Lulu (192S-35). His Violin Concerto is 
interesting because its tone-row abandons 
the “traditional” association of this device 
with atonality, since it is constructed in 
such a manner as to include major and 
minor triads as well as the whole-tone 
scale [see illustration]. In fact, it should 



be noted that, while Schonberg studiously 
avoids the use of common triads, there is 
nothing in the twelve-tone technique that 


precludes tonal organization. N. Slonim- 
sky has experimented with the “tonal ap- 
plication of the twelve-tone technique,” 
in rows of four mutually exclusive triads 
[cf. his paper “Plurality of Melodic and 
Harmonic Systems” in PAMS, 1938]. 
Other composers who have worked with 
the twelve-tone technique are Anton We- 
bern and, more recently, Ernst Krenek 
(opera Karl V, 1932; Sixth String Quar- 
tet, op. 78; Twelve Short Piano Pieces, 
op. 83). 

A different twelve-tone technique was 
developed by Josef Hauer who starts from 
the fact that there exist 479,001,600 (i.e., 
I.2.3.4. .. .12=12!) different combina- 
tions of twelve tones, a number which is 
reduced to its 12th part (ii!) by disre- 
garding transpositions. Each such series 
is divided into halves of 6 notes each, 
and all series which have the same notes 
in their first as well as their second half 
are put into one group, called trope, of 
which there exist, according to Hauer, 44 
[a calculation shows that there actually 

are 77 ( such groups] . Each trope, 

then, represents in a way a key with two 
fundamental chords, and the movement 
from one trope to another is comparable 
to modulation. 

Lit.: E. Krenek, Studies in Counter- 
point (1940); R. S. Hill, “Schoenberg’s 
Tone-Rows . . .” {MQ xxii); G. Perle, 
“Evolution of the Tone-Row” {MR ii); 
A. Weiss, “The Lyceum of Schonberg” 
{MM 1932); GD, Suppl. Vol., 635flf 
(bibl.); E. Krenek, in MR iv. 

Two-step. Sec under *One-step. 

Tymbalon, tymbal. An early Proven- 
cal kettledrum [see ^Timbale], 

Tympanon, tympanum. Greek, Ro- 
man, and humanistic name for big drums 
or kettledrums. Medieval writers (e.g., 
Giraldus Cambrensis) also used the name 
instead of cymbalon, i.e., dulcimer. In 
modern writings tympani occurs as a mis- 
spelling of timpani. 

Tyrolienne. A Tyrolean type of folk 
song, in the rhythm of a •Landlcr, and 


[777I 




u.c. 


XJNGEZWUNGEN 


sung with that sudden change from the 
chest voice to the falsetto known as * Yo- 
del. The name is also used for operatic 


ballets (e.g., Rossini, Guillaume Tell, 
Act III) and popular pieces written in the 
style of Tyrolean folk dance. 


u 


U.C. *Unacorde. 

'Ud [Arabic, wood]. See ♦Lute, history. 

Uber- [G., over, above], Vberblasen, to 
overblow; Vbergang, transition; iibergrei- 
fen, to cross the hands (in piano playing); 
V berleitung, transition; iibermassig, aug- 
mented (for intervals); uberschlagen, to 
cross the hands; ubersetzen, to put over 
(in piano fingering). 

Ubung [G.]. Exercise, study. 

Uilleann pipes [from Irish uillean, el- 
bow]. The Irish *bagpipe the name of 
which was later corrupted into union 
pipes. 

Ukulele. A Hawaiian instrument of the 
guitar family, with four strings and a 
long finger board, usually with frets. It 
developed from a Portuguese guitar, called 
machete [see ♦Guitar family] and became 
popular in the United States about 1920. 
The notation for this instrument follows 
the principles used in the lute tablatures 
of the 1 6th century, but was invented in- 
dependently [see ♦Tablatures VI]. Illus- 
tration on p. 314. 

Umfang [G.]. Compass, range (of a 
voice, etc.). 

Umkehrung [G.]. Inversion (of inter- 
vals, chords, or melodies). 

Umstimmen [G.]. To change the tun- 
ing, e.g., of kettledrums. 

Una Corda [It., one string]. In piano 
playing, a direction (abbr. «.r.) to use the 
left pedd (soft pedal; F. petite pidale\ G. 
Verschiebung) which, by moving the en- 
tire action, keyboard and hammers, a little 
to the right side, causes the hammer to 
strike a single string (in modern instru- 
ments usuafiy two strings) instead of all 


three. The indication is canceled by “tre 
corde” or “tutte le corde” {t.c.), Beetho- 
ven, who was the first to indicate the use 
of una corda, not only calls for a gradation 
in three steps: una corda, due, e poi tre 
corde (G major Concerto, op. 58, slow 
movement), but even for a gradual execu- 
tion of the shift: poco a poco due corde 
(Piano Sonata op. loi, slow movement). 
The latter request represents, no doubt, 
an unattainable ideal. See ♦Mute. 

Unda maris. See under ♦Vox angelica. 

Undezime [G.]. Eleventh. 

Unequal temperament [G. Ungleich- 
schwebende Temperatur], A ♦tempera- 
ment which stands midway between pure 
intonation and equal temperament, i.e., 
any system of tuning in which the pure 
intervals are still retained for some keys 
(C, G, F), adjustments being made for 
the more remote keys, with the result that 
the most remote keys (G-sharp, C-sharp) 
cannot be used. Various systems were in 
use prior to the general acceptance of 
equal temperament, e.g., the mean-tone 
system (which by some writers is not con- 
sidered an unequal temperament; cf. GD 
v, 301), and the systems of Euler, Kirn- 
berger. See ♦Temperament. 

Unequal voices. Mixed male and fe- 
male voices. 

Unfinished Symphony. Schubert’s 
Symphony no. 8 in B minor, so called be- 
cause only the first two movements exist. 
These were written as early as 1822, six 
years before the composer’s death. The 
work had its first performance in 1865. 

Ungebunden [G.] . Unconstrained, free. 
Ungeduldig [G.]. Impatient. 

Ungezwungen [G.]. Easy going, nat- 
ural. 



UNGRADER TAKT 

Ungrader Takt [G.]. Uneven, i,c., 
triple meter. 

Unheimlich [G,]. Uncanny. 

Union pipes. See *Uillean pipes. 

Unison [from It. unisono^ one sound; 
F. unisson\ G. EinJ{lang\. (i) Playing of 
the same notes or the same melody by 
various instruments or by the whole or- 
chestra, either at exactly the same pitch 
or in a different octave, e.g., violin and 
cello in unison {alV unison^. — (2) The 
pseudo-interval formed by a tone and its 
duplication [G. Pr/;we], e.g., c-c, as dis- 
tinguished from the second, c-d, etc. 

Unit organ. A modern type of organ in 
which one rank of pipes is arranged to do 
duty for several stops through the medium 
of an electric couple device. Thus an ex- 
tended rank of 85 Principal pipes can be 
employed to form 16' Principal, 8' Prin- 
cipal, and 4' Octave. In the straight or- 
gan 183 pipes would be necessary to form 
these three stops, 61 for each. Unification, 
or Extension as it is sometimes called, is 
extensively used for cinema organs, and 
is also useful for very small organs where 
space is at a premium, or on a Pedal de- 
partment. Its general acceptance is pro- 
hibited chiefly by the fact that in the play- 
ing of contrapuntal music there occur 
numerous gaps, e.g., whenever a C in a 
lower part sounds against its octave in a 
higher part. 

Unmerklich [G.]. Imperceptibly. 

Un peu [F.]. A little. 

Unruhig [G.]. Restless. 

Unter- [G., below, under], Unterdo- 
minantCy subdominant; Unter me diante^ 
submediant; unter setzen, to put under 
(the thumb in piano playing); Unter- 
stimmcy lower, or lowest part; UntertastCy 
white key; Unterwer\y choir organ. 

Up-beat [G. Aufta\t]. One or several 
initial notes of a melody which occur be- 
fore the first bar-line. The up-beat plays 
a central part in a theory of Riemann and 
others, according to which every melody 
or phrase begins with an up-beat (real or 


URLINIE 

imaginary). This is a gross exaggeration 
of the pertinent observation that the be- 
ginning or ending of a phrase frequently 
does not coincide with the bar-line (par- 
ticularly in the music of Bach). Sec 
♦Phrasing (“Auftaktigkeit”). 

Urlinie, Ursatz [G.]. Terms coined 
by the German musicologist Heinrich 
Schenker (1868-1935) which may be 
translated “fundamental line,” “funda- 
mental structure.” They represent the 
attempt to discover, in any composition, 
an underlying skeleton structure and to 
show that the skeleton structures of all 
compositions written by the great masters 
— roughly from Bach to Brahms — fol- 
low certain fundamental principles and 
patterns of structure. By a process of step- 
wise reduction Schenker’s analysis leads 
from the actual composition, the “fore- 
ground,” to the structural tone pattern in 
the “background,” i.e., the Ursatz, Its 
treble line is the Urlinie, which Schenker 
in his earlier studies considered exclu- 
sively, but which he later discarded com- 
pletely as an independent phenomenon, 
replacing it by the full Ursatz. 



The analysis of the theme from the last 
movement of Beethoven’s Ninth Sym- 
phony may serve as an example. The 
well-known melody itself is the “fore- 
ground,” and Ex. la shows the “middle- 
ground” which represents the first phase 
of the reduction of the actual music to its 
basic structure (the Arabic numerals refer 
to the measures of the original melody). 
The reduction leads from this stage to the 
“background” which is shown in Ex. ib; 
this is the Ursatz. Important elements of 
this, as of every, structural pattern are the 
“motions” (Zuge) of the upper part, or 
parts [in our example it is a “motion of a 
third” (Terz-Zug); the numerals 3, 2, i, 
signify scale degrees] and the “breaking- 
up” of an otherwise continuous tonic by a 


[779] 



URLINIE 


UT SUPRA 


1-5-1 movement of the bass (Bassbrech^ 
ung). 

It is not the purpose of this kind of 
analysis to show that all the various com- 
positions can be reduced to a few types of 
“fundamental structures.” Naturally, the 
analysis has to proceed from the fore- 
ground to the background, but its results 
should be read in the opposite direction. 
Schenker’s analysis does not seek to prove 
that ultimately all compositions are more 
or less alike; it seeks to demonstrate how 
a few basic patterns miraculously unfold 
into the infinite variety, the broad and 
rich life, of the actual compositions. Ac- 
cordingly, its main interest does not lie in 
the background itself, but in the point 
where it shows how background and fore- 
ground are connected: the middleground. 
For instance, an analysis of the second 
song from Schumann’s “Dichterliebe” 
leads to the same Ursatz as Beethoven’s 
melody. The difference lies in the middle- 
ground, which appears more complex 
here — so complex indeed that two suc- 
cessive reductions become necessary, re- 
sulting in two levels of middleground. 

It is the middleground where hidden 
relations are revealed and the secret mean- 
ing of many a detail finds its explanation. 
It is the middleground where the work of 
the genius can be distinguished from the 
work of the lesser talent. An Ursatz can 
be found in any music, be it great or poor; 
without such a skeleton music would not 
move at all. In poor music, however, the 
relation between foreground and back- 
ground will appear primitive, without 
interest. Only the creation of the genius 
has the density, of organic structure which 
in turn produces such interesting middle- 
gfound pictures as the one in Ex. 2 (Bach, 
12 Litde Preludes, no. 3). 

By no means should the development 
from background through middleground 


to foreground be interpreted in a tem- 
poral sense, as if the actual creation of a 


2 



composition proceeded from one to the 
other as through successive stages. The 
relation between the actual music and its 
Ursatz is completely subconscious to the 
composer and has nothing whatsoever to 
do with the creative process. 

Schenker applied the Ursatz analysis 
mostly to compositions of the period from 
Bach through Brahms (excluding Wag- 
ner). His pupils have shown that the re- 
sults are equally satisfactory when the 
method is applied to medieval music; 
there is no doubt that only slight modifi- 
cations arc necessary to make it equally 
applicable to late Romantic music (Wag- 
ner, Bruckner). No attempts have been 
made as yet to study the Ursatz problem 
in relation to 20th-century music. 

Lit.: H. Schenker, Der Tonwille (pam- 
phlets); /J., Das Meisterwer\ in der Mu- 
si\, 3 vols. (1926-29); id,y 1 [Funf Urlinie- 
Tafeln (1932); A. T. Katz, in MQ xxi; 
R. Sessions, in MM xii, no. 4; W. Riezler, 
in DM xxii, no. 7, V. Z. 

Ut. The first of the Guidonian syllables 
of solmization [see *Hexachord]. In 
French and Italian nomenclature, name 
for C [see *Pitch names], Ut-rc-mi-fa- 
sol-la is used as a title for pieces (Swee- 
linck, and others) based on the tones of 
the hcxachord. 

Utility music. See *Gebrauchsmusik. 
“^t supra [L.]. As above, as before. 



V 


V. i-vuui. iui ii) vide^ i.c., see. (2) 
Violin (also V°); W, violins. (3) Voci, 
e.g., 3 V, for three voices. (4) In liturgical 
books, y means *verse. 

Va. Abbreviation for viola. 

Vacillando [It.]. Wavering. 

Vagans [L., rambling, i.e., part]. In 
15th- and 16th-century polyphony, name 
for a *part which is designed chiefly to 
fill in the harmony and which, therefore, 
has a less natural design than the others, 
frequently jumping up and down in sev- 
enths, octaves, etc. In compositions of the 
early Burgundian school (Cesaris, Du- 
fay), the contra-tenor usually is a vagans. 
For other explanations of the term, cf. the 
articles in RiML and GD. 

Vaghezza, Con [It.]. With charm. 

Vago [It.]. Charming, graceful. 

Valkyrie, The. See *Ring des Nibe- 
lungen. 

Valor [L., value]. In mensural notation, 
same as integer valor [sec ^Proportions] . 

Valse [F.]. Waltz. 

Valve [F. piston\ G. Ventil\ It. pistone]. 
A mechanism, invented by Bliihmel in 
1813, hy which all the tones of the chro- 
matic scale become available on brass in- 
struments. The principle of the construc- 
tion is to add to the proper pipe of the in- 
strument short additional pieces of tubing 
which arc connected with the main pipe 
in such a manner that, upon depressing a 
knob, the wind is compelled to make the 
detour through this additional tubing so 
that the sounding length of the pipe is in- 
creased and the instrument, normally, foiv^ 
example, in B-flat, is momentarily changed 
to one pitched in A or A-flat. Usually 
horns and trumpets have three valves ' 
which lower the pitch a semitone, a whole- 
tone, and a minor third respectively. By • 
combining two or all three valves the pitch 

[7i 


can be lowered by six semitones, resulting 
in a complete chromatic scale [see *Wind 
instruments IV (c)]. It should be noted 
that the simultaneous use of two (even 
more, of three) valves produces tones 
which are somewhat too sharp, since an 
additional tubing which is calculated to 
lower the normal pipe by a semitone is, of 
course, a little too short to produce the 
same effect on a pipe which is already 
lengthened by another tubing. This 
drawback is corrected in the “compensat- 
ing valves** (numerous patents; cf. GD v, 
438) and avoided in Adolphe Sax’s “as- 
cending valves’* which shorten the origi- 
nal pipe. Neither method, however, has 
gained acceptance. 

For the closing and opening of the by- 
path two types of valves are in use, piston 
valves and rotary (or cylinder) valves. In 
the former a piston works up and down 
in a casing. The latter, which is preferred 
in the United States and on the Continent, 
though not in England, is a four-way 
stop-cock turning in a cylindrical case in 
the plane of the instrument, two of its 
four ways forming part of the main pipe, 
the other two, on its rotating through a 
quadrant of the circle, admitting it to the 
bypath. The practical results are the same 
in both types. See *Horn; ^Trumpet; 
*Tuba; ’*^Wind instruments IV (c). 

Valve instruments. Brass instruments 
provided with a *valve mechanism. To- 
day all the brass instruments (trumpets, 
horns, tubas, etc.) arc built with valves 
except the trombone. The terms valve 
horn, valve trumpet, etc., distinguish the 
modern typ>es from the earlier natural or 
keyed types. 

Vamp. An extemporized accompani- 
ment consisting of simple chords. Hence, 
^ vamping tutor, a book of instruction in 
' this type of accompaniment.^ 

Vamphorn. A speaking tube of 2 to 8 
feet in length which was used as a mega- 

li] 



VAPOREUX 


VARIATIONS 


phone in English churches during the 
1 8th and 19th centuries, to give out no- 
tices. 

Vaporeux [F.]. “Vaporous,” hazy. 

Variante [G.]. In H. Riemann’s system 
of harmonic analysis, term for parallel 
key (substitution of minor for major, or 
vice versa). 

Variation canzona. See *Canzona 

(5). I. 

Variations. The variation or, more 
fully, the theme with variations, is a mu- 
sical form based upon the principle of 
presenting a musical idea (theme) in an 
arbitrary number of modifications (from 
4 to 30 or more), each of these being a 
“variation.” Variations appear as inde- 
pendent compositions (Bach’s Goldberg 
Variations; Beethoven’s Diabelli Varia- 
tions) or as a movement of a sonata, usu- 
ally the slow movement (Beethoven’s 
Appassionata, Ninth Symphony). 

I. T heme. The theme is usually a sim- 
ple tune in binary form, ranging in length 
between 16 and 32 measures and fre- 
quently borrowed from other composers 
(e.g., Beethoven’s variations on a theme 
by Diabelli, or Brahms’s variations on a 
theme by Handel). There exists, how- 
ever, a special class of variations whose 
theme is not a complete tune but is only 
a four- or eight-measure scheme of har- 
monies or a bass line of the same length. 
Under this class fall the examples known 
as *chaconney passacaglia^ *groundy and 
*hasso ostinato. To consider these forms 
as different from or even opposed to 
“theme with variations,” as is done by 
some writers, is scarcely justifiable, since 
variation technique is basic for one as for 
the other. The fundamental difference 
between the two classes of variations 
might be fittingly expressed by the terms 
sectional variations and continuous varia- 
tions, The former term applies to those 
examples in which the theme is a full- 
grown and complete tunc calling for a 
stop at Its end and consequently at the 
end of each variation (aside from excep- 
tional cases in which the composer pre- 


scribes segue suhito for the purpose of a 
special effect); the latter, to those in which 
the theme is only a short succession of 
harmonies to be repeated over and over 
again without any interruption. Another 
important difference between the two 
classes is that in the former a theme al- 
ways has a distinct melody while in the 
latter it consists only of a scheme of har- 
monics which is frequently, but not nec- 
essarily, represented by a reiterated bass. 
To distinguish between the two classes as 
“variations of a melody” and “variations 
of a bass” is not very fortunate, since there 
exist numerous chaconnes and passaca- 
glias which are lacking a clearly designed 
bass line [see •Chaconne and passaca- 
glia]. At any rate, the length or shortness 
of the theme and its sectional or continu- 
ous character are more pertinent marks of 
distinction than the presence or lack of a 
bass. Border cases are the *strophic basses 
of the 17th century, whose theme is a bass 
of such extension and completeness that 
a sectional structure results. The subse- 
quent explanations refer chiefly to the 
normal (sectional) type of “theme with 
variations.” 

II. The Fixed Elements, It is evident 
that a variation of a theme will always 
have some features in common with the 
theme, and also that it will deviate from 
the theme in other traits. As regards the 
former point of view, a distinction is fre- 
quently made between variations in which 
the original melody is preserved, these 
being called melodic variations^ and those 
in which the original harmonics are pre- 
served, these being called structural or 
harmonic variations [cf. the article in GD 
which, however, is not always consistent 
in the use of the last two terms]. This 
distinction is unsatisfactory for various 
reasons. First, the terminology is unfor- 
tunate, since the adjectives “melodic” and 
“harmonic” are used with reference to 
the fixed (i.e., unchanged) features while 
similar terms such as “rhythmic varia- 
tion,” “contrapuntal variation,” “canonic 
variation” arc naturally and generally 
understood to refer to the variable and 
distinctive features of the variation. As a 
matter of fact, the terms “melodic varia- 


[782] 



VARIATIONS 

tions” and ‘‘harmonic variations’* are fre- 
quently used in the exact opposite mean- 
ing, a usage which deserves preference 
and which is adopted in the present ex- 
planations [see below]. Second, aside 
from the ambiguity of meaning, the di- 
chotomy as such has little value, since the 
two types — whatever they are called — 
are not really of similar or comparable 
importance. Stability of the harmonic 
scheme (at least in its main outlines) is a 
prerequisite for practically all variations, 
except the entirely free variations of mod- 
ern composers (since Brahms). Stability 
of the melody is an additional restriction 
which was traditionally observed in the 
early period of variation (i6th, 17th cen- 
turies) but is the exception rather than 
the rule with composers such as Mozart, 
Beethoven, Schubert, Brahms. 

In studying the question of the fixed 
elements it is essential to bear in mind 
that the main bond of connection between 
the theme and any variation is the scheme 
of harmonies. Starting from the har- 
monically fixed variation as the normal 
type, we find two others, one showing a 
greater, the other a lesser degree of re- 
striction to the theme. The former is that 
in which, in addition to the harmonies, 
the melody of the theme is kept more or 
less intact (a mere ornamentation of the 
melody, which is one of the most fre- 
quent devices of variation, is not consid- 
ered as a new melody, so tbat all examples 
of “ornamenting variation** would fall in 
the present category). The latter is that 
in which the harmonies deviate deliber- 
ately from the original scheme so tbat only 
its larger outlines arc preserved, such as 
the number of measures, the structure of 
sections and phrases, the cadential end- 
ings. For the sake of convenience these 
three categories, the harmonically and 
melodically fixed, the harmonically fixed, 
and the structurally fixed, will be referred 
to here as the categories A, By C. In order 
to make the classification complete, a 
fourth categoryy D, should be reserved for 
the entirely free variations of recent date 
in which even the structural outlines of 
the theme are no longer recognizable. 

As is natural to assume, these four cate- 


VARIATIONS 

gories are not only of methodical but also 
of historical significance. Generally speak- 
ing, category A prevails throughout the 
i6th and 17th centuries, category B 
throughout the classical period, category 
C is frequent among the Romantic com- 
posers, and D is characteristic of the most 
recent style (d’Indy, Reger, R. Strauss). 
It should be noted, however, that all the 
variations of the class referred to previ- 
ously [see I] as continuous variations be- 
long to the category B (not A), since here 
the thematic substance does not include a 
melody so that by necessity each variation 
will be melodically independent. Since 
this type of variations prevailed mainly 
during the Baroque era, it appears that, 
in this period, two categories of variations 
existed side by side, category A for the 
sectional variations (such as Scheidt’s 
variations on a Passamezzo), and category 
B for the continuous variations (passa- 
caglias, chaconnes, grounds). 

It may be mentioned that there is still 
another category of fixation, which would 
have to be termed “melodically fixed,** 
and which includes variations in which 
the melody is retained but the harmonies 
are altered. In the classical period this 
occurs only exceptionally as a “trick,** an 
instance in point being the variation no. 6 
of Beethoven’s Eroica Variations, op. 35, 
in which the original melody is harmo- 
nized in C minor instead of E-flat major. 
This method attains a somewhat greater 
significance, however, in the contrapuntal 
variations of the Baroque, in which the 
melody is treated as a cantus firmus [cf., 
e.g., variation no. 4 of Samuel Scheldt’s 
Wehe Windgen wehe\ DdT ij. 

III. The Variable Elements. Taking 
the consideration of the fixed elements 
as a point of departure, the interest now 
turns to the question as to how variety is 
achieved in a variation. Although it is 
difficult to generalize, certain standard 
procedures of composers can be singled 
out. In the strictest category, A, the most 
frequent procedure is to ornament the 
melody {ornamenting vartation\ see Ex. 
i). Another method, particularly fre- 
quent in the 17th century, is to modify 
the contrapuntal web by the introduction 



VARIATIONS 


VARIATIONS 


of characteristic figures, or by placing the 
melody in one of 3 ie lower parts (contra- 
puntal variation) see Ex. 2). Under cate- 



gory B we find practically all the varia- 
tions of the classical period, except for the 
ornamenting variations. Within this large 
field — the center-piece of the whole pic- 


ture, as it were — some typical procedures 
may be singled out as follows: (a) melodic 
variations^ i.e., those in which a new mel- 
ody is invented to the original scheme of 
harmonies [Ex. 3]. Perhaps the earliest 
instances of the full-scale application of 
this method are Bach’s Goldberg Varia- 
tions. Another striking example is the 
first variation in the final movement of 
Beethoven’s Piano Sonata, op. 109. Other 
types are (b) the figural variation in which 
a characteristic figure is employed through- 
out [Ex. 4]; the canonic variation [Ex. 
5]; the harmonic variation [Ex. 6]; the 
tempo variation involving a change of 
tempo; the modal variation involving a 
change from the major to the minor mode 
or vice versa; and the character variation 
which bestows upon the variation a spe- 
cial character such as that of a dance, a 
military march, etc. The last three meth- 
ods may be summarily illustrated by our 
Ex. 7. Naturally, most of these procedures 
may occur in any of the four categories, 
except for the ornamenting variation 
which is restricted to category A, the 
melodic variation which cannot occur in 
this category, and the harmonic variation 
w^hich belongs to category C. 

IV. History, a. (-1600). Of all the 
forms of present-day music none has a 
longer and more continuous history than 
the variation. The earliest extant exam- 
ple of a theme with variations is a com- 
position of the late 14th century, “Di 
molen van pariis” (The Windmills of 
Paris). [Cf. R. Haas, Musi\alische Auf- 
fiihrungspraxis, pp. i03f.] This, however, 
is an isolated specimen. The history prop- 
er of variations starts with the rise of lute 
and keyboard music in the early i6th 
century. Judging from the preserved ex- 
amples, Spain and England have about an 
equal claim to precedence, the latter coun- 
try in the field of continuous variations 
(Aston’s ^Hornepype, Mylady Carey’s 
^Dompe, both c. 1525; sec ♦Ostinato), the 
former in this field as well as in that of the 
sectional variations based on a fully devel- 
oped theme (lute variations by Narvaez, 
1538; cf. HAM^ no. 122; ApMZ ii). The 
advanced style of the Hornepype as well 
as of Narvaez’ variations points to a pre- 


[784] 



VARIATIONS 


VARIATIONS 


history of considerable length, all traces of character variations, in the style of a 
of which are lost. By 1550 the evolution courantc or sarabande. These are indica- 
of the Spanish variations had come to its tive of a trend towards merging the form 
peak and close in the masterworks of of variations with that of the •suite which 
Antonio de Cabezon (1510-66; cf. is quite frequendy encountered in the 
no. 134). Cabezon’s variations, called music of the Baroque. For instance, Wolf- 
•diferencias [see also •Glosa], are mostly gang Ebner’s 36 “Variazioni sopra un* 
of the contrapuntal type which, needless aria deir Imperatore Ferdinando III” [c. 
to say, prevails also in the variations of 1660; TaAM vii] fall into three groups of 
the later masters (Sweelinck, Scheidt, twelve variations each, the first dozen 
Frescobaldi). Toward the end of the 1 6th containing those in the style of an alle- 
century the English virginalists (Byrd, mande, the second and third those in the 
Bull, Munday, Gibbons) established a styles of the courante and sarabande [re- 
novel trend in variation technique by ex- garding the absence of the gigue, see under 
ploring the figural variation, frequently *Suite III], A remarkable specimen is 
in a brilliant virtuoso style (rapid scales, Alessandro Poglietti’s “Aria allemagna” 
broken chord figures, figures in parallel (1677; TaAM viii) which consists mainly 
thirds, etc.; cf. HAM, no. 177). While of programmatic character variations 
with Byrd the technical and the musical such as Lyra, Bohmisch Dudlsackh, Hol- 
interest are well in balance, Bull’s varia- l^disch Flageolett, Bayrische Schalmei, 
tions are conspicuous for their exploita- Alter Weiber Conduct, Gaugler Sciltantz, 
tion of the former aspect, frequently at Franzosische Baiselemens (French Kiss- 
the expense of the latter. Another great the-hand). Although not of a very refined 
master of the variation arose in Sweelinck taste, these pieces are amusing portrayals 
who took over the technical achievements or caricatures forming together a sort of 
of the virginalists, but used them with pageant in honor of the Austrian Empress 
superior ingenuity. His variations on Maddalena Theresa to whom the work 
“Mein junges Leben hat ein End” [TaAM was dedicated in 1677. Of particular im- 
iii] figure among the dozen of the greatest portance is the German 17th-century tra- 
masterworks in this form. Measured by dition of variations based upon a chorale 
this standard, the variations of his pupil [see *Chorale partita]. For other types, 
Scheidt frequently appear somewhat dull sec •Chaconne and passacaglia; *Ground; 
and monotonous [cf. the examples by *Strophic bass; •Noel. At the end of the 
Sweelinck and Scheidt in RMC v, 199^] Baroque period stand as a fitting clin^ax 
although a certain reservedness and sim- Bach’s •Goldberg Variations in which, as 
plicity raises them ^beyond the level of has been pointed out previously, the vari- 
showy display which is characteristic of ation type referred to as category B pre- 
John Bull [cf. HAMy no. 196] . vails for the first time. 

(b. (1600-1750). In Italy the traceable c. (1750-1900). In comparison to the 
history of variations starts with the Nea- rather elaborate variation technique of 
politan composers Valente, Trabaci, and the Baroque, that of Mozart’s pianoforte 
Mayone who, probably influenced by Ca- variations appears simple and somewhat 
bezon, wrote •partitas on popular tunes schematic although the results certainly 
such as •Romanesca, •Ruggiero, Zefiro, do not lack in charm all their own. Mo- 
etc. [see also •Folia]. Their tradition zart usually sets out with a group of 
was continued, with greater artistic in- ornamenting variations in triplets and 
spiration, in the numerous partitas of sixteenth-notes, then turns to some more 
Frescobaldi which, owing to their intel- special methods such as pianistic or con- 
lectual refinement, are likely to interest trapuntal devices, follows up with a slow 
the connoisseur rather than the average variation and concludes with a quick 
listener [cf. HAM, no. 192; also 199]. In variation in changed meter (duple instead 
Froberger’s (1616-67) partitas “Auff die of triple or vice versa). Haydn’s greatest 
Mcyerin” we encounter the first examples contributions to the repertory arc found 

[785] 



VARIATIONS 


VARIATIONS 


in his symphonies and, particularly, in his 
late quartets, above all the Emperor Quar- 
tet (op. 76, no. 4) with its variations on 
“Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser.” With 
Beethoven the variation form reached its 
all-time peak. He replaced the more con- 
ventional methods, particularly that of 
ornamentation, by a wealth of individual 
treatments and ideas which evades all at- 
tempts at summary description. He also 
was the first to organize the mere succes- 
sion of variations into contrasting groups, 
a procedure which is particularly patent 
in his “continuous” variations in C minor 
op. 32 (sometimes described as a cha- 
conne). In his “Eroica” Variations op. 35 
he prefaces the theme by a short group of 
“negative variations,” so to speak, which 
are based on the bass motive only. His 
Diabelli Variations op. 120 (1823) are 
an incomparable treasure of ingenuity, 
while in the variations of his late quartets 
and pianoforte sonatas technical methods 
arc sublimated into a new realm of tran- 
scendental vision, so that even the most 
conventional methods attain a new sig- 
nificance. Nowhere is this transformation 
more clearly patent than in the “orna- 
menting” (Variations of the pianoforte 
sonatas opp. 106 and in. 

Hardly second to Beethoven is Franz 
Schubert in such great though little known 
works as his variations for four hands in 
B minor and in A-^flat major, compositions 
which arc quite superior to his more pop- 
ular variations for two hands in B-flat 
major. Schumann's most remarkable con- 
tributions are the fitudes Symphoniques 
which open the field of free variations 
since some of them derive not more from 
the theme than a germinating motive. In 
his Andante and Variations for two pi- 
anos, on the other hand, he falls into his 
habit of exploiting ad nauseam a some- 
what obtrusive figure or rhythm, as he so 
frequendy docs in his later works. 

Franz LiSzt made very frequent and, 
needless to say, effective use of a brilliant 
and highly virtuoso-like variation tech- 
nique in many of his Rhapsodies and, 
particularly, in his variations on the theme 
by Paganini (Paganini Etudes, no. 6) 
which was also used by Brahms as a theme 


for a series of extremely difficult and ex- 
tremely interesting variations. The fame 
of Brahms as a master of this form rests, 
however, on his Variations on a Theme 
by Handel (op. 24) for pianoforte, and on 
his orchestral Variations on a Theme by 
Haydn op. 56 (also for two pianos). His 
variations belong mosdy to our category 
C, owing to the freedom with which he 
treats the harmonies without giving up 
the structural outlines of the theme. Fol- 
lowing the precedent of Beethoven's 
Eroica and Diabelli Variations he usually 
climaxes the series of variations with an 
elaborate fugue (in the case of the Haydn 
variations this is replaced by a passa- 
caglia). 

d. (1900-present). Shortly before 1900 
two important examples of “free varia- 
tion” were written, Vincent d'Indy's Istar 
Variations (1896) and Richard Strauss's 
Don Quixote (1897). The former are 
“variations in the reverse” in so far as the 
“theme” (properly, two thematic mo- 
tives) appears at the end, a procedure 
of “disrobing” which is insinuated in the 
title, Istar being the Egyptian goddess 
of Sin. In comparison with these two 
works, the treatment of Elgar's ^Enigma 
Variations is considerably more conven- 
tional, approximately along the lines of 
Schumann's Etudes Symphoniques. The 
last composer to work along these lines 
was Max Reger, who wrote numerous 
variations for pianoforte, organ, and or- 
chestra, among which the Pianoforte 
Variations on a Theme by Bach (op. 81, 
1904) and the Orchestral Variations on a 
Theme by Mozart (op. 132, 1912?) are 
outstanding, while his Pianoforte Varia- 
tions on a Theme by Telemann (op. 134, 
1914) show the attempt, not very suc- 
cessful, to revert to the tradition of the 
Mozart period. The composers of the 
youngest generation have shown com- 
paratively more interest in the Baroque 
type of the chaconne (Busoni, Krenek) 
than in the traditional type of 19th-cen- 
tury variation. 

Lit.: R. Gress, Die Entwic\lung der 
Klavier-V aviation von A, Gabrieli bis zu 
/. 5 . Bach (1929); E. Reichert, Die Varia- 
tions-Arbeit bei Haydn (Diss. Vienna 


1 786] 



VARSOVIENNE 

1926); V. Luttmann, Brahms' WerJ{e in 
V ariationsjorm (Diss. Vienna 1926); W. 
Schwarz, Robert Schumann und die Va- 
riation (1932); P. Mies, in AMF ii (Mo- 
zart); V. Luythlen, in StM xiv (Brahms). 

Varsovienne. A Polish dance, named 
after the city of Warsaw, in slow mazurka 
rhythm, usually with an accented dotted 
note on the first beat of each second and 
fourth measure. It was popular in die 
ballrooms from about 1850 to 1870. 

Vater unser [G., father our]. German 
version of the Lord’s Prayer [Pater nos- 
ier], It is sung as a hymn {Choral) to a 
16th-century melody (by Luther?), which 
has been used as a basis of compositions 
by Hans Leo Hassler (10 choral settings 
in Psalmen und Christlich Ges'dng^ 1607; 
new ed. by Saalfeld), Ulrich Steiglcder 
{Tabulaturbuch, Das Vaterunser , . . vier- 
zigmal variierty 1627), Bach (organ cho- 
rales), and others. Cf. HAM^ no. i9oa-e. 

Vatican Edition (Editio Vaticana). 
Sec ^Liturgical books II. 

Vaudeville [F., from vaux de Vire^ the 
valley of Vire, birthplace of a 15th-century 
poet who is said to have been the origi- 
nator of the vaudeville; another, less fa- 
vored, etymology is voix de ville^ voices of 
the town, or d vau de ville^ all about the 
town]. In the 17th and i8th centuries, a 
short satirical poem sung to a melody of 
popular character. One and the same mel- 
ody commonly served for many different 
texts written in the same poetic meter. 
The vaudeville was the principal type of 
song in the early opera-comique (i7i5-<*. 
1735)' ^ large collection of such songs 
may be found in Le ThSatre de la foire 
(Paris, 1734-37) ^ 

veau (4th ed., 1872). In the 19th century, 
vaudeville was the name given in France 
to short comedies interspersed with sim- 
ple popular songs. D. J. G. 

Vcl. Abbreviation for violoncello. 
Velato [It.]. Veiled. 

Veloce [It.]. Quick. 

Venetian School. A 16th-century school 
of Flemish and Italian composers working 


VENETIAN SWELL 

in Venice. It was inaugurated by Adriaen 
Willacrt {c, 1485-1562) and included, 
among others, Andrea Gabrieli {c, 1510- 
86), Cypriano de Rore (1516-65) — both 
pupils of Willacrt — Joseffo Guami {c, 
1540-1611), Giovanni Gabrieli (1557-- 
1612), Giovanni Croce {c. 1557-1609), the 
organ composers Jacques Buus (-1565)- 
Annibale Padovano (1527-75), Vincenzo 
BeirHaver {c. 1530-88), Claudio Mcrulo 
(1533-1604), and the theorists Niccola 
Vicentino (1511-72) and Gioseffo Zar- 
lino (1517-90), 

While the contemporary ♦Roman School 
represents the final high-point of a long 
development of polyphonic music, the 
Venetian School is important mainly on 
account of its novel ideas and progressive 
tendencies which, together with the Flo- 
rentine ♦monody, paved the way for the 
17th century. Among these contributions 
are Willaert’s chromaticism and freer use 
of modulations, the toccata style of A. 
Gabrieli and Merulo, Vicentino’s daring 
speculations and experiments with quar- 
ter-tones [sec ♦Arciccmbalo] , Zarlino’s in- 
vestigations of ♦just intonation, ♦dualism, 
and, to some extent, equal temperament; 
finally and above all, Giovanni Gabrieli’s 
magnificent “Venetian style” with its 
broad masses of sound, ♦polychoral treat- 
ment, ♦echo effects, and progressive use 
of instruments which makes him the “fa- 
ther of orchestration” [see ♦Orchestra- 
tion]. The movement spread particularly 
to Germany where Jacob Gallus (Handl, 
1550-91), Hieronimus Praetorius (1560— 
1629), Hans Leo Hassler (1564-1621), 
and Michael Praetorius (1571-1621) are 
the most important representatives of the 
Venetian style {Deutschvenezianer), 

Although the novelty of the Florentine 
monody {c, 1600) for some time put the 
Venetian School into an eclipse, the latter 
continued to exercise a lasting influence 
throughout the Baroque period, a period 
which, in fact, is rooted equally in Flo- 
rence (vocal music) and in Venice (in- 
strumental music) [see ♦Baroque]. 

Lit.: C. von Winterfeld, Johannes Ga- 
brieli und sein Zeitalter (1834). 

Venetian swell. Sec •Swell. 


[787] 



VENEZUELA VENI SANCTE SPIRITUS 


Venezuela. During the Colonial period 
and the early years of Independence, 
Venezuela had what was probably the 
most homogeneous and most flourishing 
school of music in the whole of South 
America. It was, moreover, a school of 
music in the strictest sense of the term, 
since its representative figures were pupils 
of the same teacher and followed the same 
general style. The founder of this school 
was Juan Manuel Olivares, who founded 
a philharmonic society in the capital 
around 1750. Olivares was also the di- 
rector of a music academy founded by 
Pedro Palacios y Sojo (d. c. 1800), an- 
other eminent figure in the early musical 
life of Venezuela. Other notable mem- 
bers of this school were Jos6 Francisco 
Velasquez, Jos6 Antonio Caro de Boesi, 
Jos6 Cayetano Carreno, Josi Lorenzo 
Montero, and Jos^ Luis Landacta (who in 
1 81 1 composed the Venezuelan National 
Anthem). The greatest composer of this 
period, and the most famous produced by 
Venezuela, was Jos6 Angel Lamas (d. 
1814), author of the celebrated ‘Topule 
meus*" (1806) which the Venezuelans re- 
gard as a sort of unofficial national hymn. 
Lamas, like the other composers men- 
tioned above, was primarily a composer 
of church music. Many MS compositions 
by these musicians have been preserved 
in the archives of the Escucla de Musica 
of Caracas. They display an admirable 
technique, with strong Italian influences. 
Mention should also be made of Lino Gal- 
lardo who from 1819 was director of the 
Music Academy of Caracas and conductor 
of the concerts of the Philharmonic So- 
ciety. 

During the 19th century the outstand- 
ing composers were Jose Angel Montero 
(183^-81), choirmaster of Caracas Ca- 
^edral, who composed, in addition to 
religious music, 15 zarzuelas and the op- 
era Virginia (1873); Felipe Larraz 4 bal 
(1816-73), pianist and composer of a 
^ebrated trio for piano, violin, and cello; 
and Federico Villena (1835-c. 1900), a 
prolific composer of Romantic tendencies. 

Turning to the contemporary scene we 
find that the composers of today have 
carefully cultivated their musical herit- 


age, in both its artistic and folklore as- 
.pects. Juan Bautista Plaza (b. 1898), 
archivist of the Escuela de Musica, has 
made a special study of Colonial music 
and has produced a copious amount of 
original work in both secular and sacred 
forms. Vicente Emilio Sojo (b. 1887) is 
director of the choral society, “Orfedn 
Lamas,” of the Escuela de Musica, and of 
the Orquesta Sinfdnica. He has com- 
posed church and chamber music, choral 
works, and songs, and has also collected 
and harmonized Venezuelan folk songs. 
Juan Lecuna (b. 1898), for several years 
a diplomatic attach^ in Washington, has 
published four pieces for piano based on 
Venezuelan traditional dances, and has 
in MS various chamber music works. 
Maria Luisa Escobar (b. 1903) has spe- 
cialized in stylizations of Venezuelan folk 
music. Other composers who may be 
mentioned are Moi^s Moleiro, Jos^ An- 
tonio Calcano, Eduardo Plaza, Jos6 An- 
tonio Estevez, and Evencio Castellanos. 
Reynaldo Hahn (b. 1875), though a 
native of Caracas, was taken to France 
as a child and is generally considered 
French. 

Venezuela has produced one of the 
world’s greatest pianists in the person of 
Teresa Carreno (1853-1917), the teacher 
of Edward MacDowell. She composed a 
festival hymn for the Bolivar centenary 
(1883), also many pieces for piano, a 
string quartet, etc. 

The most characteristic Venezuelan 
folk dance is the *joropOy in lively tempo 
and % rhythm, strongly accented. In 
the coastal region of Venezuela the joropo 
and other popular forms have undergone 
considerable Negro influence. 

Lit.: Jos6 A. Calcano, Contribucidn al 
estudio de la mdsica en Venezuela (Ca- 
racas, 1939); Baltasar de Matallana, La 
musica indtgena Taurepan (Caracas, 
1939); M. de Lara, “Ritmo y melodia 
nativos de Venezuela” (Boletin latino- 
americano de musica^ vol. iii, 1937); J. B. 
Plaza, “Music in Caracas . . . (1770- 
1811)** {MQ xxix, no. 2). G. C. 

Veni Sancte Spiritua. See ♦Sequence 

(:»). 

[788] 



VENITE EXULTEMUS 

Venite exultemus. See *Psalmody 
III. 

Vent [F.]. Wind. Instruments h venty 
wind instruments. 

Ventil [G.], ventile [It.]. Valve. 
Ventilhorny i.e., valve horn. 

Veranderungen [G.]. Variations. 

V erbunko. *See Hungarian music II. 

Verdoppeln [G.]. To double. See 
•Doubling. 

Vergleichende Musikwissenschaft 
[G.]. Comparative musicology. 

Vergnugt [G.]. Gay. 

Vergrosserung [G.]. Augmentation. 

Verhallend [G.]. Fading away. 

Verismo [It., realism]. An Italian op- 
eratic school of the late 19th century 
which represents the musical counterpart 
of the literary “realism” of Zola, Flau- 
bert, Ibsen, and others. Instead of the 
heroic, exalted libretti of the preceding 
operas which practically always dealt 
with mythological or historical matters, 
realistic subjects from everyday life were 
chosen. As a matter of course coloratura 
arias and other features of the earlier 
Italian opera were abandoned in favor 
of a melodramatic recitative which is 
frequently much more naturalistic than 
Wagner’s “unending melody.” Mascagni’s 
Cavalleria Rusticana of 1890 (dealing 
with scenes from peasant life) and Leon- 
cavallo’s Pagliacci of 1892 (circus life) 
were the first products of the new move- 
ment, which were followed, in 1900, by 
the Frenchman Charpentier’s Louise. 
Puccini’s La Bohhme (1896) represents 
a somewhat modified verismo of a more 
lyrical character. Cf. M. Rinaldi, Musica 
e verismo (1932). 

Verkaufte Braut, Die [G.]. See 
•Bartered Bride, The. 

Verklart [G.]. Transfigured, super- 
natural. 

Verkleinerung, Verkiirzung [G.]. 
Diminution (of a fugal subject). 


VERSET 

Verlierend [G.]. “Losing,” fading out. 

Verloschend [G.]. “Extinguishing,” 
fading out. 

Vermindert [G.]. Diminished (inter- 
val). 

Vers [F., G.]. (i) See •Verse. — (2) 
In the tradition of the Provencal •trouba- 
dours, vers denotes a very ancient type of 
song characterized by the absence of 
formal structure, such as exists with the 
canzo, rondeau, ballade, virelai; in other 
words, a through-composed melody, 
which was repeated with the various 
stanzas of the poem. Examples in HAMy 
no. i8a; BeMMRy 106; ReMMAy 229. 

Verschiebung [G.]. Soft pedal. Sec 
•Una corda; •Mute. 

Verschwindend [G.]. Disappearing, 
i.e., fading out. 

Verse [L. versus^ F. vers'y G. Vers\ It. 
verso], (i) In poetry a line or — less 
correedy — a stanza of a poem. In Ger- 
man terminology Vers always means a 
stanza, the single line being called Zeile. 
— (2) In Gregorian chant the term (ab- 
breviated y) denotes a verse of a psalm 
or canticle, or a sentence from other scrip- 
tural texts. Single verses of this sort 
occur chiefly in the graduals, alleluias, 
and introits (in which they arc indicated 
Ps., i.e., psalm) [see •Psalmody II, III]. 
They arc always sung by the soloist 
(though usually with a short choral open- 
ing). The soloist connotation of the 
plainsong verse survived in the Verse 
Service and Verse_ Anthem of the Eng- 
lish church. These terms denote settings 
which include sections for solo voices, as 
distinguished from the purely choral Full 
Service and Full Anthem. — (3) For 
organ verse, sec ♦Verset. 

Verset [G. Versetty Versettl\ It. versOy 
versetto'y Sp. versillo]. Organ verse, i.e., 
a short organ piece, usually in fugal style, 
designed to be played in the place of a 
plainsong •vetse of a psalm, canticle, etc., 
or of other short items of the service (sec- 
tion of a Kyric). In the i6th to the i8th 
centuries it was customary to have the 


[789I 



VERSETTO 


VESPERS 


cvcn-numbcrcd verses of a psalm or can- 
ticle replaced by organ versets, in alterna- 
tion with plainsong performance for the 
others [sec ^Magnificat]. This practice 
was designed to relieve the monotony of 
the traditional method of psalm singing. 
Although, from the liturgical point of 
view, it represents an abuse and decline, 
it has been a great stimulus in the field 
of organ composition. Organ composers 
usually provided a number (from four to 
eight) of versets for each church mode 
(Versi octo fonorum). The vast reper- 
tory of such versets includes contributions 
by Johannes Buchner (^Fundamentum^ 
c. 1530); Antonio Valcntc (Verst spiritu- 
alty 1576); Antonio de Cabezon (Obras 
de musicuy 1578; cf. HAMy no. 133); 
Christian Erbach (after 1600; cf. DTB 
4.ii); Erasmus Kindermann (Harmonia 
organicUy 1645); Georg Muffat (Appa- 
ratus musico-organisticusy 1690; new ed. 
by S. de Lange, 1888); Johann Speth 
(Ars magna organisticay 1693); F. X. 
Murschhauscr (Octitoniumy 1696; DTB 
18); J. K. F, Fischer (Blumenstraussy 
c, 1700; new cd. E. von Werra, 1901); 
and Gotdicb Muffat (72 Versettl samt 12 
Toccaterty 1726; DTOe 29.ii). In the more 
recent of these collections the first verset 
is frequendy in a freer style and there- 
fore designated Toccata. For the versets 
designed especially for the Magnificat, 
see •Magnificat. 

The practice of replacing plainsong by 
organ playing still exists today, particu- 
larly in France, and is known as “sup- 
plying.” While the organist plays, the 
clergy and choir merely repeat the words 
to themselves. Pius X, in his *Motu 
Proprio of 1903, abolished a good deal of 
this practice. 

Versetto [It.]. ♦Verset. 

Versetzung [G.]. Transposition. Ver- 
tetzungszeichetty accidental. 

Versicle. In the Roman or Anglican 
service a •verse spoken or chanted by the 
priest. 

Versillo [Sp.]. •Verset 
Versmaass [G.]. Poetic meter. 


Vers mesur6. The term denotes a late 
16th-century French practice of setting 
poetic texts to music in a rhythm which 
reproduces exactly the strong and weak 
syllables of text, by giving the former the 
exact double duration of the latter. This 
procedure which is observed, e.g., in the 
Chansonettes mesuries of Jacques Mau- 
duit (1557-1627) and in Claude Ic 
Jeune’s Le Printemps (1603; see •Edi- 
tions XVI, II, 12; Ex. in HAMy no. 138) 
is the continuation of earlier methods ap- 
plied to the Horatian *odes. See also 
•Air de cour; •Rhythm II (b). Cf. 
LaMWCy 253ff; P.-M. Masson, “L’Hu- 
manisme musical en France . . (KlMy 
1906, p. 170). 

Verso [It.]. •Verse; •verset. 

Verstarken [G.]. To reinforce. 

Versus alleluiaticus. See under ♦Al- 
leluia. 

Vertical. See under •Texture. 

V erwechslung, Enharmonische 

[G.]. Enharmonic change. 

Verweilend [G.]. Delaying. 

Verzierung [G.]. Ornamentations in- 
dicated by signs or small notes. 

Vesperal, vesperale [L.]. Sec •Litur- 
gical books I ( 1 ). 

Vespers. The last but one of the 
•Office hours. The service consists of the 
Dcus in adjutorium, 5 psalms each pre- 
ceded by an antiphon, a hymn, and the 
♦Magnificat. It is particularly important 
from the musical point of view because 
it is, outside of the Mass, the only service 
for which music other than plainsong is 
admitted. Beginning with the i6th cen- 
tury the evening psalms were frequently 
treated in four-voice harmony (so-called 
•fauxbourdon), and the Magnificat, par- 
ticularly, has been composed very elabo- 
rately by numerous great composers. 
The motets also find their place chiefly 
at Vespers. Mozart wrote two Vespers 
(K.V. 321 and 339) for voices, orchestra, 
and organ, each comprising five psalms 
and the Magnificat. 


[790] 



VIA 

Via [It.]. Away. Via sordini^ remove 
the mutes. 

Vibrations. See * Acoustics I. 

Vibrato, (i) On stringed instruments 
a slight fluctuation of pitch produced on 
sustained notes by an oscillating motion 
of the left hand. Violin and violoncello 
players use it freely in order to increase 
the emotional quality of the violin tone. 
Some great violinists have strongly ob- 
jected to the consistent application of this 
technique, insisting that it be reserved 
for moments of heightened expression. 
Sensible as such advice seems to be to 
every musician and listener to music, the 
vibrato has been adopted by most players 
as a basic technique, but is usually ap- 
plied with sufficient moderation to pro- 
duce no noticeable fluctuation of pitch. 

Lute players of the 17th century made 
a distinction between a vibrato produced 
by a motion of the finger [F. langeur\ 
E. closed sha\ey see under ♦Grace; It. 
ondeggiamento] and one performed with 
the aid of a second finger which lighdy 
beats the string as close as possible to the 
stopping finger [F. *battement\ E. sting]. 
A particularly striking vibrato is possible 
on the clavichord [sec ♦Bebung]. 

(2) Among singers there exists not 
only uncertainty as to what vibrato means 
but also confusion with the term ♦trem- 
olo. According to some authorities the 
vocal vibrato is the quick reiteration of 
the same pitch produced by a quickly 
intermittent stream of breath with fixed 
vocal chords. This effect corresponds to 
what the string players correctly term 
tremolo. As explained under this head- 
ing, it is never used in modern singing. 
Most singers use the term vibrato for a 
scarcely noticeable wavering of the tone, 
an effect which would correspond to the 
moderate vibrato of the violinist, since it 
increases the emotional effect of the sound 
without resulting in a noticeable fluctu- 
ation of pitch. Cultivated by many sing- 
ers, it is avoided by others as likely to 
degenerate into a real wobble, caused by 
a lack of control over the vocal chords 
which may be due either to an insufficient 
technique or to extreme overuse of the 


VIENNESE CLASSICS 

voice. This unwelcome effect the singers 
call tremolo, thus using the term in a 
sense altogether different from its proper 
one. 

The vocal vibrato, whether in its mod- 
erate or exaggerated form, constitutes a 
danger for the singer, since most singers 
use it without being aware of doing so. 
Apparently the reason for the perpetual 
use of a mannerism which every serious 
music lover detests is not so much lack 
of taste on the part of the singers as their 
lack of control of the vocal chords. 

A scientific study of the vibrato has 
been made by C. Seashore; The Vibrato 
(1932), and Psychology of the Vibrato in 
Voice and Instrument (1936). 

Victimae paschali laudes. See ♦Se- 
quence (2). 

Vide [F.] . Empty. Corde d vide^ open 
string. — [L.] . See. The term is used, 

with its syllables Vi de placed at 

separate places of the score, to indicate an 
optional shortening, the player being per- 
mitted to proceed from die place marked 
Fi— immediately to the place marked 

Viella, vielle. The most important 
string instrument of the I2th-i3th cen- 
turies, mentioned by numerous writers 
and described in detail by Hieronymus 
de Moravia, according to whom it had a 
drone string and four fingered strings 
[cf. WoHN ii, 220]. Its prominent role 
is also attested in the inscription “In 
scculum viellatoris” found with instru- 
mental pieces of the 13th century [see ♦In 
seculum] . Later ( 15th century) the name 
was applied to the ♦hurdy-gurdy, prop- 
erly called vielle d roue (wheel viol). Il- 
lustration on p. 800. 

Vielstimmig [G.]. For many voices, 
polyphonic. 

Viennese Classics [G. Wiener Klas- 
sil{er\ . Collective designation for the 
Viennese masters of classical music, 
Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. See 
♦Classicism. The term Viennese School 
may be used in a wider sense, including 
predecessors such as Georg Reutter 


[791] 



VIERHEBIGKEIT 


VILLANCICO 


(1708-72), Georg Chr. Wagenseil ( 1715- 
77), and Matthias Monn (1717--50). Re- 
garding the latter two, see ^Mannheim 
School. 

Vierhebigkeit [G. vier^ four; Hebungy 
stress]. A term introduced by H. Rie- 
mann for musical phrases involving four 
accents (four measures) or multiples 
thereof. The great majority of all melo- 
dics and themes belong to this class, a 
fact which was strongly emphasized by 
Riemann, who claimed for it almost uni- 
versal validity throughout the entire his- 
tory of music. Such a contention goes 
much too far. It was not until the end of 
the 17th century that the four-measure 
phrase became established as a principle 
of structural organization of music other 
than dance music and simple songs. 
Composers such as Cesti and Carissimi 
seem to have been among the first to use 
it with some degree of consistency, thus 
bestowing upon their music a novel touch 
of “popularization.” It must be noticed 
that the somewhat obvious and facile 
regularity which attaches to music writ- 
ten in four-measure phrases is not with- 
out danger, a danger of which the great 
masters have usually been aware, but 
which lesser composers have not always 
escaped. The accompanying example 



from Haydn’s Quartet op. 20, no. 5 is one 
of the most striking proofs against the 
idolization of four-measure phrases. 

•Riemann was particularly unfortunate 
in his attempts to draw upon Vierhebig- 
ke^t as a scholarly principle in interpret- 
ing medieval monophonic music. He has 
not hesitated to apply truly procrustean 
methods in order to force rhythmically 
free melodies into patterns of four beats 
and four measures [cf. his interpretations 


of Gregorian chants, RiHM i.2, pp. 32!!; 
or of the two-voice “Ut tuo propitiatus,” 
ibid^ p. 1 4 1, which may be compared 
with that in ApNPM, 205]. Riemann’s 
principle has recently been adopted, with 
equally unfortunate results, by F. Liuzzi 
in his edition of the 14th-century *laudas. 
See also *Plainsong notation. 

Viertel [G.]. Quarter. ViertelnotCy 
quarter-note; Vierteltony quarter tone. 

Vihuela [Sp.]. Early Spanish name 
(i) for the viola {vihuela de arco\ cf. GD 
iii, 260). — (2) More frequently, for the 
Spanish “lute” of the i6th century {vihu- 
ela da mano). Actually, this instrument 
had the flat and waisted body of a guitar 
[sec *Guitar family]. Since, however, 
the number and tuning of the strings as 
well as the notation and manner of play- 
ing were the same as those of the ordi- 
nary lute, it is usually classified as such. 
An impressive repertory of music for the 
vihuela has come down to us in a num- 
ber of Spanish lutebooks [see *Lute 
music; ♦Spanish music II]. 

A repertory for the vihuela is also indi- 
cated in the tides of the two remaining 
books of Spanish 16th-century organ 
music, by Hinegas de Vincstrosa (1557) 
and Antonio de Cabezon (1578), both of 
which bear the remark: “para tecla, 
harpa y vihuela” (for keyboard, harp and 
lute). However, they do not contain 
specific compositions for the last two in- 
struments, but only strictly polyphonic 
organ music most of which could not be 
played on a harp or a lute without con- 
siderable adaptation. 

Lit.: J. B. Trend, Luis Milan and the 
Vihuelistas (1925); G. Morphy, fLer 
Luthistes espagnols (1902); L. Schrade 
[sec *Editions XXV, 2]; E. Torner, 
^Coleccidn de vihuelistas espanoles del 
sigh XVI (1923); W. Apel, “Early Span- 
ish Music for Lute and Keyboard Instru- 
ments” {MQ XX); G. Chase, in BAMS 
vi. 

Villancico [Sp., from villano, rustic]. 
In the 15th and i6th centuries a type of 
Spanish poetry, idyllic or devotional as 
to subject-matter, consisting of several 


[792] 




VILLANCICO 

stanzas (copld) linked by a reiterated re- 
frain {estribillo) , A considerable number 
of such poems, set for three or four voices 
in a simple notc-against-note style (♦fa- 
miliar style), occur in the Cancionero del 
Palacio {c, 1500; sec *Sourccs, no. 27). 
Most of these pieces show the form A B 
B A (derived from the French *virclai) 
which, in the case of several stanzas, is 
extended toABBABBA . . .A [cf., 
e.g., Cancionero i no. 14; other examples 
in HAMy no. 98; OH ii (1905), 308; 
RiHM ii.i, 201; SchGMBy no. ^b; LavEy 
i.4, 20oyS] . After 1500 the villancico was 
also cultivated as a solo song with lute 
accompaniment. Luis Milan, Diego Fu- 
enllana, Alonso Mudarra [see *Lute 
music], wrote a number of Spanish and 
Portuguese villancicos which arc out- 
standing for their grace and finish and 
which, in fact, might be considered the 
earliest examples of song in the modern 
sense of the word [cf. G. Chase, The 
Music of Spain (1941), pp. 47^; also A. 
Geiger, in ZMW iv j. 

After 1600 the villancico adopted an 
entirely different significance, i.e., of a 
composition resembling a cantata or an 
anthem, based on a religious text and 
written in several movements for chorus, 
soloists, and orchestra. These villancicos 
usually open or/and close with a choral 
movement called estribilloy between which 
there are a number of solo movements 
(arias) called coplas. (This terminology 
points to a connection, otherwise obscure, 
with the 16th-century villancico in which 
the estribillo could be sung by a chorus, 
the coplas by a soloist.) Among the com- 
posers of such villancicos are Carlos Pa- 
tino (d. c, 1680) and Fray Juan Romero 
(fl. c. 1670) [cf. LavE i.4, 205off]. A 
number of villancicos are preserved in 
MSS at the library of Munich [cf. the 
catalogue by J. J. Maierj. The scarcity 
or inaccessibility of sources makes it 
difficult to obtain a correct idea of this 
phase of Spanish music. Fortunately the 
gap has been filled in to some extent by 
the recent publication of the villancicos 
by Joan Cererols, a member of the School 
of Montserrat, who died in 1676. His 
villancicos consist of a choral estribillo 


VILLANELLA 

and one copla in the form of a short 
strophic song with from 6 to 9 stanzas 
[cf. D. Pujol, Mestres de Vescolania de 
Montserraty vol, iii, 1930; example in 
HAMy no. 227]. 

Villanella, villanesca [It., properly 
canzon villanescUy rural song]. A 16th- 
century type of vocal music which origi- 
nated in Naples {v. alia Napolitana) and 
which regarding text as well as musical 
style forms a sharp contrast to — prob- 
ably a reaction against — the refinements 
of the contemporary madrigal. M. Prae- 
torius* characterization of the villanella 
as “eine Baurisch Music zu einer Bau- 
rischen Matcry” is less appropriate than 
Morley’s designation as a “clownish mu- 
sick to a clownish matter,” since the vil- 
lanclla, although suggested by folk music, 
had as little in common with the Italian 
peasants as had the “style galant” of the 
1 8th century with the shepherds of 
France. The sophisticated and parodistic 
character of the villanella appears par- 
ticularly in its frequent use of “forbid- 
den” parallel fifths [see Ex.]. The earli- 



est collections of villanellas are by Gio. 
Dom. Nola (1541), Thomaso Cimello 
(1545), A. Willaert (1545), Baldassare 
Donati ( 1550). The stile villanesco spread 
particularly to Germany where it was 
adapted to drinking songs, jesting songs, 
etc., not without losing a good deal of its 
Italian flavor, and becoming either more 
civilized (Orlando di Lasso), or simply 
dull. 

The villota represents a somewhat 
earlier type of dance song, more genuinely 
folk-like, lacking the parodistic character 
of the villanella, and chiefly of North- 
Italian provenance. Its local character is 
indicated in titles of publications sueh as 
Villote alia veneziana (i535)> Villote 
padovane (1550), Villote alia napoletana 
(1550), Villote mantovane (1583). Expl. 
in BeMMRy 299. The recent attempt 
made by F. Torrcfranca to elevate the vil- 


[793 1 



VILLANELLA 

lota to the rank of a “missing link” be- 
tween the Italian music of the 14th cen- 
tury [see •Airs Nova] and that of the i6th 
century (•frottola) rests on very weak 
ground. Cf. O. Kinkcldey, “F. Torrc- 
franca’s Theory of the Villota” {BAMS 
vi). 

Subspecies of the villanella are the 
greghesca^ the justinianay the mascheratay 
and the moresca. The greghesca is a vil- 
lanella alia napolitana, in 3 parts, and 
with a text mixed of Venetian and Greek 
elements. Its creator was the Venetian- 
Levantinc poet-musician Antonio Molino 
whose texts in such dialects were com- 
posed by many Venetian composers, from 
Willaert to Bel* Haver. The justiniane 
are a type of villanella (always in three 
parts) the text of which is a ridicule of 
the enfeebled and stuttering Venetian 
patrician. The poems have no relation- 
ship whatsoever to the choice lyrics also 
called “giustiniani** of the early 15th- 
century poet Leonardo Giustiniani ( 1385- 
1446). The maschcrata is a type of vil- 
lanella designed to be sung during a 
masked ball or procession [Ex. by Nola 
in EiBMy no. 18]. Collections of such 
songs were published by G. Scotto (Primo 
libro delle \usunianey 1570), A. Gabrieli 
{Greghesche et justiniane y 1571; Masche- 
rate et justiniane y 1601), O. Vecchi 
{Selva di varia ricreatione, 1590), and 
others. The moresca is a type in which 
the singers represent Moorish girls (ex- 
amples in Lasso, cpl. ed., vol. x). It has 
no relationship to the dance •morisca. 
See also •Maggiolata. 

Modern composers, such as Berlioz, 
Chabrier, Dukas, Granados, Loe£ 3 er, 
have used the term villanelle or villanesca 
for instrumental pieces in the style of a 
rustic dance, usually in quick % -meter. 
An*’ early example of such villanelles oc- 
curs in a suite! by Telemann (no. 5 of the 
six Ouverturesy c. 1725). 

Lit.: W. Scheer, Die Fruhgeschichte 
der Villanella (Diss. Cologne 1935); G. 
M. Monti, La^ Villanella alia napolitana 
. . . (1925); A. W. Ambros, Geschichte 
der Musi\ iii,‘ 526!!; K. Somborn, Die 
Vdlota (1901); H. Springer, “Villota und 
Nio** {IMiencron Festschrijty 1910); iW., 


VIOL 

in SIM xi; A. Einstein, “Die Parodic in 
der Vaianella** {ZMW ii). 

Villota, villotta. Sec under •Villa- 
nella. 

Vina. See •Hindu music IL Illustra- 
tion on p. 823. 

Vingt-quatre violons. A band of 24 
violinists, in the service of the French 
kings Louis XIII, Louis XIV, and Louis 
XV {c. 1650-1761), which became par- 
ticularly famous under its leader Lully 
who first (1655) obtained the direction 
of a smaller group of 16 players, called 
“petite bande,** but later became the con- 
ductor of the “grande bande.** Their 
main function was to play at the court- 
balls, at the king*s levee, dinner, etc. 
Lully organized the band into a string 
orchestra which became famous all over 
Europe and which was imitated by vari- 
ous sovereigns, e.g., by Charles II, under 
the name “King’s Music.** 

Vinnula. See •Neumes I; •Tremolo 

(3). 

Viol. I. General Characteristics, Name 
for a family of stringed instruments 
which were in use mainly during the 
i6th and 17th centuries, following after 
the various types of medieval fiddles 
(•rebec, •vielle) and being superseded in 
turn by the •violin family. The viols 
stand in about the same relationship to 
the violins as the harpsichord to the piano, 
the recorder to the flute. They are very 
delicate and soft in timbre, lacking the 
brilliance and the versatility of the mod- 
em instruments. Thus they are suited 
for the intimacy of a private room and 
for the musical amateur rather than for 
the concert hall and the professional vir- 
tuoso. The making and playing of viols 
has been revived to quite an extent, owing 
chiefly to the initiative of Arnold Dol- 
nictsch in England. 

The instruments of the viol family dif- 
fer from those of the violin family in the 
following characteristics; (a) The shoul- 
ders slope from the neck instead of start- 
ing from it at right angles; (b) the back 
is usually flat, instead of bulging; (c) the 

[794] 



VIOL 


VIOL 


ribs arc deeper; (d) the normal number ceded by the •Innomincs and *Brown- 
of strings is six, instead of four; (e) the ings, the English •fancy of the 17th cen- 
fingcr board is provided with frets in tury steps out as the chief representative 
the form of pieces of gut tied around the of English viol music [see also •Consort] • 
finger board; (f) the sound-holes have Around 1660 the appearance of the violin 
usually the shape of a r instead of an / in England quickly brought an end to 
[see •F-holesj; (g) the bridge is less this splendid period [see •English music 
arched thus facilitating the playing of V]. The bass viol, however, had a longer 
full chords; (h) the strings are thinner career as a solo instrument, beginning 
and less tense; (i) the viol is played with with the Rccercadas for “violonc” and 
an older type of bow the stick of which organ in Diego Ortiz* Tratado de glosas 
curves outward from the hair [see •Bow], (1553), continuing with famous players 
and the hand is properly held under the such as Christopher Simpson (d. 1669; 

bow, not over it as today; (j) the viols The Division Violist^ 16591!), Andr6 

were not pressed against the shoulder but Maugars (born c, 1600), Hautman or 

were held downward, resting on or be- Hotman (d. 1663), Jean Rousseau 

tween the legs of the player. Some of the de la vioUy 1687), and with composers 

above characteristics are frequently neg- such as Marin Marais (1656-1728; 5 

lected in modern viol playing, e.g., the vols. of pieces for 1—3 viola da gambas, 

use of frets and the downward position. 1686-1725), his son Roland Marais (two 

II. Standard Types. In the 17th cen- books Pihees de violeSy 1735, *38), Johann 

tury, the classical period of the viols, these Schenk {Scherzi musicaliy c. 1692; sec 
existed in three sizes, treble viol [F. •Editions XXIX, 28, also SchGMBy no. 
dessus de viole\y tenor viol {taille de 245), Ernst Christian Hesse (1675-1762), 
viole')y and bass viol (basse de viole)y the August Kiihnel (b. 1645?; Sonate . . . 
last being known also as viola da gamba ad una o due viole da gambay 1698; sev- 
[modern G. *Gambe; see •Viola (2)]. eral republished by A. Einstem, Do- 
According to Th. Mace’s Music 1 (s Monu- bereiner, Bennat), Antoine Forqueray 
ment (1676) a good set of viols or, as it (1671-1745; Piices de violey edited by his 
was called, “chest of viols” consisted of son Jean-Baptiste; several republished by 
“two basses, two tenors and two trebles: Carl Schroder), Louis deCaix d’Hervclois 
all truly and proportionably suited.” The (r. iSyo-e. 1760; 6 books Pibees de violey 
tuning of these instruments followed that 1725-52; several sonatas republished by 
of the 16th-century lute, viz., in fourths Carl Schroder), and finally Karl Frie- 
with a third in the middle; bass viol D G drich Abel, the last of the violists (1725— 
c e a d'; tenor viol A d g b e' a'; treble 87; numerous MS pieces, one sonata pub- 
viol d g c' e' a' d". Towards the end of lished by R. Englander; see Lit., Ein- 
the 17th century French musicians added stein). Bach wrote three wonderful so- 
a small viol tuned a fourth above the natas for viola da gamba (B.-G. ix, 175!!) 
treble viol and called it pardessus de and the aria “Komm susses Kreuz” of the 
viole. The corresponding English term is St. Matthew Passion for viola da gamba 
descant viol which, however, is used also and bass. There also exists an early so- 
for the treble viol. nata by Handel [see reference imder 

III. Viol Music. Although instrumen- •Thorough-bass II]. 

tal ensemble music of the i6th century, IV. Special Types. In addition to the 
such as the ricercares by Willaert, the aforementioned standard types there cx- 
canzonas by Maschera, etc., were doubt- isted various other instruments of die 
less played on viols (as well as on other same family. 

melody instruments such as recorders or i. Double-bass Viol [F. contre-basse de 
Cornetts), it was in England that viol viole\ It. violone]. A six-stringed instru- 
making, viol playing, and viol composi- ment tuned an octave below the bass viol, 
tion reached its “Golden Age,” mainly This is the ancestor of the modern 
in the period from c. 1625 to 1675. •double-bass which has retained some of 

[795] 



VIOL 


VIOL 


the features of the viol family, together 
with the alternative name bass viol. The 
violone frequently prescribed in Bach’s 
cantatas probably was an intermediate 
instrument between the old type with six 
strings and the modern double-bass. 

2. Division Viol. A slightly smaller bass 
viol which was preferred for the playing 
of ^divisions upon a ground and for simi- 
lar soloist performance. 

3. Lyra Viol. An instrument still some- 
what smaller than the division viol. Since 
its size was in between that of the bass 
viol and the tenor viol it was also called 
viola bastarda. The lyra viol, or “bass 
viol lyra-way** as John Playford calls it 
(1658), differed from the other viols in 
its tuning which was in fifths and fourths, 
e.g., C G c e a d' or Ai E A e a d', and 
which was taken over from that of the 
older lira da gamba^ hence the name lyra- 
way. This manner of tuning, which 
greatly facilitated the playing of chords, 
was also known as “harp-way tuning” 
(Th. Mace). The music for this instru- 
ment was written, not in ordinary nota- 
tion, but in *tablature [cf. the example 
in WoHN ii, 226f]. 

4. Viola d’amorc [F. viole d* amour}. 
This instrument was the size of a treble 
viol, from which it was distinguished 
by the addition of *sympathctic strings 
made from thin wire which were 
stretched behind the bowed strings, thus 
producing a silvery resonance. In distinc- 
tion from the viols proper it had no frets 
and was held like a violin. It must be 
noted, however, that alongside this type 
there existed viola d’amorcs without sym- 
pathetic strings, but with metal strings 
replacing the gut strings of the ordinary 
viols. Since this instrument had a metal- 
lic timbre, the name viola d’amore (love 
viol) is not likely to refer to a “loving” 
sound, but perhaps to the peculiar shape 
of the scroll which usually was fashioned 
as a blindfold face like that of the god 
Amor [cf. SaHMI^ 366f]. The En^iih 
violet mentioned by Leopold Mozart prob- 
ably was a larger variety of viola d’amorc 
with seven bowed and fourteen or fif- 
teen sympathetic strings [cf. Bessaraboff, 
p. 286] . 


The literature for the viola d’amore is 
quite extensive, considering the peculiar 
traits of the instrument. It includes com- 
positions by Attilio Ariosti (i666-r. 1740; 
6 Sonatas, new ed., Augener, Durand); 
Jean-Baptiste Loeillet (1680-1730; 3 So- 
natas, ed. by Beon); J. S. Bach (1685- 
1750; St, John Passion^ Cantata no. 132); 
Michel Corrette (early i8th cent.; Sonata, 
new ed., Lemoine); Haydn (1732-1809; 
Divertimento, new ed., Nagel); and Karl 
Stamitz (1746-1801; DTB 16; also new 
ed., Schott). In 1782 Milandre published 
a Methode facile pour la viole d* amour. 
In the 19th century the instrument was 
used by Meyerbeer {Les Huguenots), 
Charpentier {Louise), Puccini {Madame 
Butterfly), R. Strauss {Sinfonia Domes- 
tica), and Ch. Loeffler {The Death of 
Tintageles), In concert performance it 
has been revived by Louis van Waefel- 
ghem (1840-1908), Carli Zoeller (184a- 
89), Francis Casadesus (b. 1870), and 
others. Hindemith wrote a Sonata (op. 
25, 2) and a Concerto (op. 46, i) for 
viola d’amore. 

5. Baryton. An 18th-century instru- 
ment which might be considered as a 
viola da gamba provided with sympa- 
thetic strings, or, in other words, a larger 
size of the viola d’amore. The neck was 
usually carved out beneath the finger 
board (leaving only an oblong frame) so 
that the sympathetic strings could also be 
reached from underneath, by plucking 
with the thumb of the left ( !) hand [illus- 
tration in SaRM, 32; SaHMl, 368] . Quite 
a number of late- 18th-century composi- 
tions for the baryton are extant. Most of 
them were written for Prince Nikolaus 
Esterhazy, who was a great lover of the 
instrument. Among them are Partien auf 
die Viola Paredon by J. G. Krause {c, 
1700), 175 compositions by Haydn (cf. 
C. F. Pohl, Haydn i, 249], 24 diverti- 
menti by Luigi Tommasini (1747-1806), 
pieces by Joseph Wcigl (1766-1820), and 
others. 

Lit.: Viols in general: N. Bessaraboff, 
Ancient European Musical Instruments 
(1941), pp. 255-89, 357-73; G. R. Hayes, 
Musical Instruments . . . ; vol. 2: The 
Viols (1930); LavE ii.3, i753ff; E. van 


[796] 



VIOLA 


VIOLA POMPOSA 


dcr Straetcn, “The Revival of the Viols” 
{The Strady May, ipoS-June, 1912); J. 
Pulver, “The Viols in England” {?MA 
xlvii); Ch. Bouvet, “Les Pieces dc viole 
dc Couperin” {RdM, 1922, no. 2). — 
Viola d' amove: C. Zoeller, The Viole 
d* amour . . . (without date); R. Dole jJx, 
Modern Viola Technique ( 1939)) pp. 38ff, 
133; E. de Bricqueville, La Viole d* amour 
(1908); LavE ii.3, 17811!; W. Altmann 
and W. Borissowsky, Literaturverzeichnis 
fiir Bratsche und Viola d*amore (1937); 
W. E. Kohler, Beitrdge zur Geschichte 
und Literatur der Viola d*amore (Diss. 
Berlin 1938); F. Scherber, in Musil^buch 
aus Oesterreich (1910); W. Altmann, in 
Lie Bratschcy no. 4; D. Fryklund, in 
Svens\ Tids\rift for Musil{jors\ning iii 
(1921). — Baryton: LavE ii.3, 17791!; 
W. O. Strunk, “Haydn’s Divertimenti 
for Baryton, Viola, and Bass” {MQ xviii); 
L. Grcilsamer, in BSIMy 1910; D. Fryk- 
lund, in Svens\ Tidshfift for Musil{]ors\- 
ning iv (1922), — Viola da gamha and 
other types: A. Einstein, Zur deutschen 
Literatur fiir Viola da gamba im 16 j 17. 
Jahrhundert (1905); E. Albini, “La Viola 
da gamba in Italia” (RMI xxviii); C. 
Sachs, “Die Viola bastarda” (Z/M xv). 

Viola, (i) In modern usage, the second 
member of the violin family [G. Bratsche; 
F. alto ] . It is tuned a fifth lower than the 
violin, c g d' a'. Nonetheless, its size is 
only Yj larger than that of the violin, a 
disproportion which causes its timbre to 
become quite different from that of the 
violin and violoncello, rendering it more 
nasal and veiled. For modern construc- 
tions in deviating sizes, see * Viol in fam- 
ily (c), (d). In contrast to the violin, the 
viola has been used almost exclusively as 
an ensemble instrument, in the orchestra 
or in chamber music [see *Quartct]. 
Notable exceptions are P. Hindemith’s 
Sonatas for viola solo (op. ii, 5; op. 25, 
i) and for viola and piano (op. ii, 4; 
op. 25, 4; without op. number, 1939). 

Around 1600 the viola was called vio- 
lino (violino ordinario)y the smaller vio- 
lin being called violino piccolo [see •Vio- 
lin II], Therefore the viola would seem 
to have been considered at that time the 


normal type of the violin family. In the 
17th and 1 8th centuries it was frequendy 
called *violettay the name viola being 
used for the viola da gamba [cf., e.g., 
Roscnmiiller’s Symphoniae, in DdT 18]. 

(2) In the Renaissance and Baroque 
periods viola is the generic Italian name 
for the entire group of bowed strings. 
This fell into two classes: viole da gamba 
(knee viols) and viole da braccio (arm 
viols). The former which were held on 
or between the knees arc the •viols; the 
latter which were held against the shoul- 
der (at least with the smaller sizes) are 
the immediate forerunners of the violins 
[sec •Violin II]. Later, these collective 
terms became identified each with one 
special member of the group, the viola 
da gamba [G. Gambe] with the bass viol 
[see •Viol II] , the viola da braccio [viola; 
G. Bratsche] with the alto violin. 

Lit.: B. Tours, The Viola; R. DolejXf, 
Modern Viola Technique (1939); Cl. 
Meyer, ^Alte Meister des Violaspiels 
(Ed. Peters); R. Clarke, “The History of 
the Viola in Quartet Writing” (ML iv, 
no. i). 

Viola alta. See •Violin family (d), 

Viola bastarda. Italian name for the 
lyra viol [see •Viol IV, 3], not for the 
baryton [sec •Viol IV, 5]. Cf. C. Sachs, 
in Z/M XV. 

Viola da braccio, da gamba. See 
•Viola (2); also •Viol II. 

Viola d’amore. See •Viol IV, 4. 

Viola da spalla [It. spallay shoulder]. 
An i8th«century variety of the cello which 
was carried by ambulant musicians across 
the chest suspended from a strap over the 
shoulder. 

Viola di bordone, viola paredon. 

Same as baryton; see •Viol IV, 5. 

Viola pomposa. An 18th-century in- 
strument of the violin (not viol) family, 
the invention of which is erroneously 
credited to J. S. Bach (in unreliable 
sources dating from 1782 to 1792). Ac- 
tually Bach never wrote for it, and the 


[797] 



VIOLE 


VIOUN 


only dues for the identification of the 
instrument are two compositions by Tele- 
mann, a concerto by Graun, and a Sonata 
per la Pomposa col Basso by Cristoforo 
Gius. Lidarti from about 1760. From the 
nature of these pieces it has been con- 
cluded that the viola pomposa was a 
larger viola held on the arm (not under 
the chin) and with five strings, tuned 
c-g-d'-a'-e'. The violino pomposo 
found in some sources denoted the same 
instrument. Cf. F. W, Galpin, A. I>ol- 
metsch, G. Kinsky, F. T. Arnold, in ZMW 
xiii, xiv; F. W. Galpin, in ML xii; 
SaHMI, 367L 

Viole. F. for •viol. Viole d^amour^ 
viola d’amore [see •Viol IV, 4]. 

Violet. A name sometimes given to the 
viola d’amore [see •Viol IV, 4]. 

Viole-tenor. See •Violin family (g). 

Violetta, (i) Name for 16th-century 
three-stringed instruments of the violin 
type [see •Violin II]. — (2) lyth/iSth- 
century name for the viola, used by Rosen- 
miiller, Bach, and other German com- 
posers. — Violetta marina is a name for 
the viola d’amore. — Violetta piccola was, 
according to Praetor ius {Syntagma mu- 
sicum, 1614-20), a small viol, but may 
also have denoted a violin. 

Violin [F. violon\ G. Violine^ Geige; It. 
violino]. I. General. The most impor- 
tant of the stringed instruments, in the 
orchestra as well as in chamber and solo 
music. Its main parts are: (a) the body, 
consisting of the table (sound board), 
the back, and the ribs (side walls); (b) 
the finger board ending in the pegbox 
and the scroll; (c) the string holder (tail 
piece); (d) the bridge. Other details of 
the construction are shown in illustration 
on p. 799. Inside the body there is the 
•bass-bar glued to the table, reinforcing 
blocks glued to the corners of the bouts 
and to the back, and the •sound-post fixed 
between the table and the back. The vio- 
lin has four strings tuned in fifths: g d^ 
a' c". 

The prominent position which the vio- 
lin holds in our music rests on its singular 


qualities, such as an expressiveness rang- 
ing from the softest lyricism to the high- 
est dramatic excitement, an extremely 
soulful and sensitive timbre which comes 
closer than any other instrument to the 
sound of the human voice, crescendos 
and diminuendos unequaled by other in- 
struments, and a great variability of per- 
formance which includes many types of 
•bowing as well as the •pizzicato and the 
use of •harmonics. 

A singular glory surrounds the “old 
violins.” While all the other modern 
instruments (except the organ) have 
reached their highest degree of perfection 
within the last fifty years, the great period 
of violin building followed very shortly 
after the emergence of the instrument as 
a definite type. From 1600 to 1750 there 
worked at Cremona the great masters of 
violin making, notably Nicolo Amati 
(1596-1684), Antonio Stradivari (1644— 
1737), and Giuseppe Guarneri, also 
known as Giuseppe del Gesh (1681— 
1742). Their instruments are priceless 
treasures for which fabulous sums have 
been paid. Although the craftsmanship 
and beauty of these instruments have 
never been equaled, modern makers have 
succeeded in producing instruments the 
sound of which cannot be distinguished 
from that of a genuine “Strad,” as has 
been proved by actual tests in which old 
and new instruments were played behind 
a screen before outstanding authorities. 
In particular, the widespread opinion 
that the composition of the varnish has a 
decisive influence on the sound of a violin 
has been shown to be untrue. The in- 
comparable luster of the old instruments 
adds greatly to their beauty, but nothing 
tangible to their tonal quality. 

II. History. The violin, as the main 
representative of the class of “bowed 
stringed instruments” or, as they are sci- 
entifically termed, “fiddles” [see •Instru- 
ments IV, B, 2], has a relatively short 
prehistory and ancestry. There is no evi- 
dence of the use of the bow (which dis- 
tinguishes the fiddles from the much 
earlier lutes and zithers) prior to the 9th 
century when it is mentioned in Persian 
and Chinese sources. There is some evi- 






VIOLIN 


VIOLIN 


dcncc in favor of the theory that the well as with the *viohttas mentioned by 

fiddle originated in Central Asia whence Lanfranco and Ganassi (1543). The lat- 

it spread to the Far East as well as to ter instruments which had no frets and 

Europe. The Chinese have a fiddle called three strings tuned in fifths came very 

hu cKin which has a small cylindrical close to the classical violin. A picture by 

soundbox made of bambo or some other Gaudenzio Ferrari from about 1535 

material, covered at the front with snake- shows violettas with shallow ribs, pointed 

'skin and pierced diametrically by a long corners, round shoulders, a depression 

neck in the form of a stick over which running around the edge, /-holes, and a 

from two to four strings are stretched, scroll [cf. SaHMly 357]. Thus only the 

The bow cannot be removed since it addition of a fourth string was necessary 

passes between the strings, rubbing some in order to arrive at what might be called 

of them from below, the others from ^‘the first violin.” 

above. A similar instrument is the Per- As is usually the case in historical evo- 
sian \emantche [see * Arabian music II] . lutions, the emergence of a name does not 

In India fiddles called sarinda have truly coincide with the emergence of the thing 

fantastic shapes such as only the Indian itself. Thus throughout the i6th century 

fancy could have produced [cf. SaHMly names such as i/iolini, violons^ were ap- 
227]. Slightly less fantastic are the shapes plied to viols and similar instruments, 
of the Arabian *rebab the name of which Around 1600, violino denoted the *viola 
recurs in the rebec of medieval Europe. rather than the violin, as, e.g., in Giov. 

The earliest European fiddles had the Gabrieli’s Symphoniae sacrae (1597) and 
shape of a slender bottle or of a pear, in Monteverdi’s Orjeo (1607) in which 
and were known under various names: violino ordinario means the viola, violino 
* rebec ^ *gigue, *lyra. The last of these piccolo the violin [cf. SaHMIy 358]. 

names persisted with the Italian *lira da The first known makers of true vio- 

braccio and lira da gamba. The slender lins were Gasparo Bcrtolotti, called from 
fiddle (rebec) persisted in the }(lein gei- his birthplace “da Salo” (1540-1609), 
gen [sec below] and in the *\it. The Gio. Paolo Maggini (1581—1628), both 
most important medieval fiddle was the working in Brescia, and the brothers 
^vielle of the 13th century. The develop- Amati (Antonio, c, 1555-aftcr 1640; 
ment during the ensuing two centuries is Hieronymus, c, 1556—1630) who founded 
somewhat obscure. Suffice it to say that the fame of Cremona as the center of 
the violin developed between c. 1550 and violin making. Hieronymus’ son Nicolo 
1600 out of several earlier types each of (1596-1684) is the first of the great triad 
which contributed some of its essential of violin makers. The Amatis created the 
features. Bearing in mind the character- classical shape of the violin by flattening 
istic differences between the violin and the body which is deeply bulging in the 
the earlier viols [see under *Viol] quite instruments of Bertolotti, by deepening 
a number of “predecessors” of the violin the middle bouts, sharpening the corners, 
can be singled out. The practice of lean- rounding the holes in a more elegant 
ing the instrument against the shoulder shape, and improving the varnish, 
and bowing it palm-downward oc- Nicolo Amati’s pupil Antonio Stradi- 
curred with the vielle. The tuning in con- vari built the most famous of all violins, 
secutive fifths is documented as early Working at first along the lines of his 
as 1533 (Lanfranco, Scintille de musica) master, he created, in 1690, that model 
and was consistendy used with the three- which has become known as the “Long 
stringed l(lein geigen (descendants of the Strad” (length 14% e width 8 in.; 
slender rebec) throughout the i6th cen- ordinary length 14 in., width 8% in.), 
tury (Agricola, Musica deudsch, 1528). In 1698 he returned to the shorter pat- 
The rectangle between the finger board tern of the earlier period, and made vio- 
and the upper end of the body occurs on lins of about 14 in. in length, but with 
a *lira designed by Rafael (c, 1510) as widths similar to those of the “Long 

[ 801 ] 



VIOLIN VIOLIN FAMILY 

Strad.” It was in diis pattern that, from linisfs Dictionary (1925); E. van dcr 
1700 on, Stradivarius made his finest Straeten, TAeHir/ory o//Ae Fio/i/i, 2 vols. 
instruments, such as the “Betts” (1704), (1933); H. Poidras, Critical and Docu* 

now in the Library of Congress, the “Vi- mentary Dictionary of Violin Mailer 
otti” (1709), the “Parke” (1711), the 2 vols. (1924, *29); P. Stoeving, 

“Boissier” (1713), the “Dolphin” (1714), of the Violin (1904); id.y The Violin . . . 
the “Messiah” (1716), the “Cessol” 1929); W. M. Morris, British Violin 
(1716), the “Maurin” (1718), the “Rode” Ma\ers (1916); W. H. Hill, Antonio 
(1722), the “Sarasate” (1724), the “Wil- Stradivari . . • (1901); ;V/., The Violin- 
helmj” (1725), the “Swan” (1735). All makers of the Guarneri Family (1931); 
in all Stradivari is believed to have made H. Pcthcrick, Antonio Stradivari (1900); 

1 1 16 instruments between 1666 and 1737; id., Joseph Guarnerius (1906); id.. The 
of these, 540 violins, 12 violas, and 50 Repairing and Restoration of Violins 
violoncellos are actually known. (1903); I- von Liitgendorfl, Die 

Guarneri’s work is on a different line Geigen- und Lautenmacher . . . , 2 vols. 
from that of Stradivari. He revived the (1913, *22); O. Haubensack, Ursprung 
bold and rugged outline, and with it the und Geschichte der Geige (1930); L. 
massive build and powerful tone of the Grillet, Les ancitres du violon et du vio- 
earlier Brescian masters, Gasparo di Sal 5 loncelle . . . , 2 vols. (1901, ’0^); A. 
and Paolo Maggini. He was mainly in- Seiffert, “Eine Theorie der Geige” (^Af IP 
terested in tone quality. In contrast to iv); A. Jarosy, “The Secret of the Italian 
Stradivari he worked with no uniformity Violin Makers” (ML xvi, no. 2). 
as to design, size, appearance, or finish, 

relying only on his intuition and on ex- Violin concerto. Sec *Conccrto II, 
perimentation. Ill (b). 

Other famous violin makers of Italy 

were the Ruggieri (Francesco, known as Violin family. The chief members of 
“il Per,” Giovanni Battista, and others) this family are the ♦violin, the ♦viola, the 
whose instruments bear a general resem- ♦violoncello, and the ♦double-bass. These 
blance to the Amatis; the Roger! (Gio- four instruments form the string section 
vanni and Pietro) of Brescia; and the of the orchestra, the first three being used 
Testore (Carlo Giuseppe, Carlo Antonio, also in chamber music [♦string quartet], 
and Paolo Antonio) of Milan. A famous For more details see the separate articles. 
German violin maker, scarcely second to A great number of in-between sizes 
the great Italians, was Jacob Stainer of have been constructed none of which 
Absam in Tyrol (1621-83) whose tradi- achieved permanent importance. Among 
tion was continued by the family of the these arc (arranged according to size): 
Klotz of Mittcnwald in Bavaria (Ma- (a) Violino piccolo [G. Quartgeige]. 
thias, 1653-1743; Sebastian, 1698-?; and Bach scored for this instrument in his 
others). Nine-tenths of the violins which Cantata no. 140, and in his first Branden- 
pass as “Stainers” were made by the Klotz burg Concerto. The violini piccoli of 
family and their followers. In England Monteverdi’s Orfeo (1607), however, arc 
violin making began with Thomas Ur- true violins [see ♦Violin II; also ♦Viola], 
quhart (active from 1670 to 1690) and (b) Contra-violin, introduced by H. 
continued with Edward Pamphlon (b. r. Ncwbold {c. 1930), slightly bigger than 
1680) and Barak Norman (1688-1740). the normal violin and designed to take 
A French maker of note was Nicolas the place of the second violin in chamber 
Lupot (1758-1824), known for his valu- music. 

able copies of Stradivari violins. (c) Contralto, a larger viola with a 

Lit. (selected): E. Hcron-Allcn, De fuller tone, constructed by J.-B. Vuil- 
Fidiculis Bibliographia^ 2 vols. (1890, laumc, 1855. 

'93); A. Bachmann, An Encyclopedia of (d) Viola alta, constructed by H. Rit- 
the Violin (1925); F. B. Emery, The Vio- ter and used during the Bayreuth Festi- 

[802] 



VIOLIN MUSIC 

vals 1872-75. This was a larger viola 
(length 26 in.) and was later provided 
with a fifth string tuned c". 

(e) Violotta, constructed by A. Stelz- 
ner in 1891, a larger viola measuring 28 
in., tuned G d a c'. F. Draeseke, Max 
Schillings {Pfeijertag)^ and others have 
scored for it. 

(f) Tenor violin. General name for 
various instruments of the size between 
the viola and the violoncello (27 to 28 in. 
in length). They were used mainly 
around 1700, tuned F c g d' or (if with 
five strings) F c g d' a'. Numerous in- 
struments of this type were built in the 
19th century, by Vuillaume (1855), H. 
Ritter, A. Stelzner [see c, d, e], and 
others. 

(g) Viole-t^nor, constructed by R. Par- 
ramon in 1930; is held like a violoncello. 

(h) Violoncello piccolo. An instru- 
ment of 36 to 38 in. in length which Bach 
frequently preferred over the violoncello 
because its smaller size facilitated the exe- 
cution of soloist passages. It was tuned 
like the usual cello. The violoncello i 
cinque cordes which Bach prescribed in 
the sixth of his Suites for cello solo was 
probably only slightly smaller than the 
usual cello. 

(i) Cellone, constructed by Stelzner 
[see (e)], a large violoncello (length 46 
in.), tuned Gi D A e and intended chiefly 
as a contrabass for chamber music. 

(j) Octobasse, constructed by J. B. 
Vuillaume in 1849, a giant size double- 
bass about 13 feet high with three strings 
tuned C2 G2 Cl. The notes were stopped 
by a mechanical system of levers and 8 
pedals. The Victoria and Albert Museum 
of London owns a double-bass which is 
over eight feet high. An American model 
made by John Gcyer in 1889 measures 
almost 15 feet. 

See also •Quinton. 

Violin music. Very shortly after the 
establishment of the violin {c, 1600) 
its virtuoso potentialities, which distin- 
guished it strikingly from the viols, were 
exploited, one of the earliest examples 
being the use of two solo violins in the 


VIOLIN MUSIC 

aria “Possente spirto” of Monteverdi’s 
Orfeo (1607). Giov. Batt. Fontana from 
Brescia (d. 1630) may be considered as 
the first-known composer of violin music. 
His Sonatas (publ. 1641) show a clear 
understanding of true violin technique 
[cf. RiHM ii.2, iiif; also in Wasielew- 
ski, Instrumentalsdtze, see Lit.]. Two 
composers living in Mantua treated the 
instrument with a striking degree of vir- 
tuosity, namely Biagio Marini (c. 1595— 
1665) and Carlo Farina (fl. 1635-37). 
Their sonatas and other pieces make 
use of double-stops, trills, tremoli [cf. 
SchGMBy nos. 182, 183], and in Farina’s 
Capriccio stravagante (1627) these means 
as well as pizzicato^ col legno^ and har- 
monics are used to imitate, rather child- 
ishly, the barking of dogs, caterwauling, 
fifes and drums, etc. Double-stops and 
higher positions (up to the 5th) arc fre- 
quent in the pieces of Marco Uccellini 
(fl. 1639-67; cf. Wasielcwski, Torchi). 
While tjhe virtuoso exploitation of the in- 
strument continued in Germany under 
Joh. Heinrich Schmelzcr (1623-80), 
Nikolas Adam Strungk (1640-1700), 
Heinrich Franz Bibcr (1644-1704; cf. 
DTOe 5.ii and I2.ii; HAMy no. 238; 
SchGMBy no. 238; sec *Scordatura), and 
Joh. Jak. Walthcr (1650-?), Italian com- 
posers turned, after 1650, their attention 
to the true musical qualities of the violin 
and developed its “singing” style. Giov. 
Legrenzi (1626-90), Giov. Batt. Vitali 
(1644-92), Gius. Torclli (r. 1650-1702), 
and others led up to the “classical” sim- 
plicity of Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713) 
who, in spite of his somewhat academic 
tendencies, nonetheless holds a central 
position in the history of violin music [see 
also *Bologna School]. Still another type 
of violin music, characterized by animated 
flow and rhythmic precision, was inaugu- 
rated by Antonio Vivaldi (1680-1743) 
whose violin concertos attracted the inter- 
est of Bach. Francesco Vcracini (1685— 
1750), Giuseppe Tartini (1692-1770), 
and Pietro Locatelli (1693-1764) repre- 
sent the acme of the Italian violin music 
of the Baroque. Their sonatas opened for 
the violin new possibilities of lyric and 
passionate expression while their con- 

[803I 



VIOLIN MUSIC 


VIOLONCELLO 


ccrtos, particularly those of Tartini, arc 
written in a highly virtuoso style. 

Bach wrote an early suite (A major) 
and his well-known six sonatas for violin 
and harpsichord. His six sonatas for 
violin without accompaniment (actually 
three sonatas and three suites, one of 
which includes the celebrated chaconne) 
represent the peak of a rather extended 
literature for the violin solo, including 
pieces by Thomas Baltzer (c. 1630-63; 
cf. SchGMB, no. 237), J. J. Walther 
{Hortus ChelicuSy 1688), Nicola Matteis 
(fl. r. 1670), Biber (1644-1704), Gcmini- 
ani (1674-1762), Telemann (1681-1767), 
and Johann Georg Pisendel (1687-1755) 
[cf. A. C. Roncalio, in T he Journal of Mu- 
sicology, 1940, no. 3]. The violin pieces 
of the *Mannhcimer group, particularly 
the sonatas of Schobert (d. 1767), are 
written in a dynamic style which fore- 
shadows the idiom of Mozart and Bee- 
thoven [cf. DdT 39]. A happy amalga- 
mation of this style with the achieve- 
ments of the Italian school is represented 
by Giov. Batt. Viotti (1753-1824) among 
whose 29 violin concertos the 22d stands 
out as a landmark of violin literature 
(also 18 violin sonatas). Among his pred- 
ecessors Antonio Lolli (1730-1802) and 
Gacto Pugnani (1731-98) must be men- 
tioned. 

With Mozart and Beethoven begins a 
new period of violin music which needs 
no further description. For a list of vio- 
lin concertos see under ^Concerto. 

Lit.: A. Moser, Geschichte des Violin- 
spiels (1922); J. W. von Wasielewski, 
Die Violine und ihre Meister (1883, last 
ed. 1927; Engl, transl. 1894); id,. Die 
Violine im ly, Jahrhundert (1874; Noten- 
beilage, published separately as Instru- 
mentalsdtze)*, S. Pfau, Die Violinmusi\ 
in Itcdien, 1600-50 (Diss. Berlin 1931); 
G. Beckmann, Das Violinspiel in Deutsch- 
land vor lyoo (1918); B. Studeny, Bei- 
trdge zur Geschichte der Violin-Sonate im 
18. Jahrhundert (1911); W. Lungers- 
hausen. Das Violinhpnzert der nord- 
deutschen Schule (1927); A. Pougin, Le 
Violon, les violinistes et la musique du 
violon du xvie au xviiie sihcle (1924); 
L. dc la Laurencie, L*£cole frangaise du 


violon, 3 vols. (1922-24); A. Bonaven- 
tura, Storia del violino, dei violinisti e 
della musica per violino ( 1926); F. David, 
'\Vorschule und hohe Schule des Violin- 
spiels*, D. Alard, "^Les Maitres classiques\ 
G. Jensen, ^Klassische V iolinmusih^, H. 
Riemann, '^Old Chamber Music; id,, 
fCollegium musicum; A. Schering, fAlte 
Meister des V iolinspiels; J. W. Wasielew- 
ski, \lnstrumentcdsdtze des ly, Jahr- 
hunderts; L. Torchi, If L* Arte musicale in 
Italia, vol. vii [see ^Editions II] ; M. Scott, 
“Solo Violin Sonatas” (ML x, no. i); K. 
Gerhartz, “Die Violinschule bis Leopold 
Mozart” {ZMW vii); M. Pincherle, “La 
Technique du violon chez les premiers 
sonatistes fran^ais” {SIM xii). 

Violoncello (abbreviated cello). The 
bass size of the violin, tuned an octave 
and a fourth below this: C G d a. It is 
about double the length of the violin 
(4834 in. as against 23% in.) with the 
other measurements nearly in proportion, 
except for the higher ribs (5 in. as against 
1 34 in.). The violoncello came into ex- 
istence together with the violin and the 
viola, two instruments by Andrea Amati, 
made between 1560 and 1570 being the 
earliest preserved specimens. Through- 
out the 17th century it was used only for 
accompaniment [see *Thorough-bass] . 
Domenico Gabrielli (1659-90) seems to 
have been one of the first to cultivate it 
as a solo instrument. Particularly inter- 
esting are his pieces (called ^Ricercare) 
for cello without accompaniment (MS of 
1689; cf. SchGMB, no. 288) as they be- 
long in the same category as Bach’s '•ele- 
brated six suites for cello solo. Another 
composer of “Ricercate” for the cello was 
Giamb. degli Antoni (1687, *90). 

Giuseppe Jacchini’s Concerti . . . con 
violoncello obligato, op. 4 (1701) open the 
repertory of the violoncello concerto which 
was also cultivated during the i8th cen- 
tury by Antonio Vivaldi, F. dall’ Abaco 
(in Concerti da chiesa, op. 2, 1712-14), 
Leonardo Leo (6 concertos, 1737/38), 
Tartini (properly for viola da gamba), 
Anton Filtz, Matthias Monn, Johann G. F. 
Wassmuth (d. 1766), C. P. E. Bach, and 
Haydn (eight concertos, two of which arc 


[804] 



VIOLONCELLO 


VIRELAI 


preserved). Domenico della Bella wrote 
12 sonatas “a 2 violini c violoncello” 
(1704), G.-B, Bononcini (1665-after 
1648) a sonata for two violoncellos and 
other solo pieces. Of greater importance 
is Jacopo Bassevi, called Cervetto (1682- 
1783), who brought the cello into favor in 
England and published Twelve {Six) 
Solos for a Violoncello with a Thorough 
Bass for the Harpsichord {c. 1747 and 
c. 1749), as well as pieces for two and 
three cellos. He was followed by his son 
James Cervetto {c, 1745“! 837) who pub- 
lished Six Solos (c. 1775), Six Duets (c. 
1792), etc. The Italian violoncello music 
of the 1 8th century culminated in L. Boc- 
cherini ( 1743-1805), composer of six con- 
certos and a number of sonatas for the in- 
strument, as well as 1 13 quintets with two 
cellos. An important method was pub- 
lished in 1741 by Michel Corrette, who 
devoted a full chapter to the higher thumb 
positions. The classical school of cello 
playing is the Essai sur le doigtS du vio^ 
loncelle , . . (before 1819) of Jean Louis 
Duport (1749-1819) who also composed 
sonatas, duets, and other pieces for the 
instrument. 

The 19th- and 20th-century repertory 
includes concertos by Schumann (op. 
129), Dvorak (in A, 1865), Robert Volk- 
mann {c, i860), Saint-Saens (op. 33, 
1873; op. 1 19, 1902), Lalo (1876), Elgar 
(op. 85), Toch (chamber orchestra, op. 
35), Hindemith (chamber orchestra, op. 
36, 1925), Ernest Bloch {Voice in the 
Wilderness^ 1936; Schelomo^ I9i5)> A. 
Tcherepnin {Rhapsodie georgienne), An- 
dre -Caplet {Epiphanie, 1923), and Ja- 
ques Ibert {ConcertinOy 1925); sonatas by 
Beethoven (5), Brahms (op. 38 and op. 
99), Saint-Saens (op. 32, 1873; op. 123, 
1905), Richard Strauss fop. 6, 1883), 
Lalo, Rachmaninov (1901), Hure (3; c. 
1905), Ropartz (2; 1904, ’19), Reger (4), 
Debussy (1915), Casella (1907, ’27), 
Hindemith (A minor, 1922), Alexander 
Tcherepnin (3), and others. Pieces for 
cello solo were written by Reger, Ravel 
(with violin), Kodaly, Wellesz, and Hin- 
demith. 

Lit.: E. van der Straeten, History of the 
Violoncello (1915); A. Broadley, The 


Violoncello (1921); C. Schroeder, Hand- 
book of Violoncello Playing (1894); D. 
Alexanian, Theoretical and Practical 
Treatise of the Violoncello (1932), J. W. 
von Wasielewsky, The Violoncello and its 
History (1894); Merseburger, Das 
Violoncello und seine Literatur (1920); 
B. Weigl, Handbuch der Violoncello 
Literatur (1929); L. Forino, ll Violon- 
cello (1905); E. Rapp, Beitrdge zur Friih- 
geschichte des V ioloncello-\onzerts (Diss. 
Wurzburg 1933); H. Weber, Das Violon- 
cello-Xpnzert des 18, und beginnenden 79. 
Jahrhunderts (Diss. Tubingen 1932); F. 
Vaticlli, “Les Origines de Tart du violon- 
celle” {RM iv, no. 4); E. Albini, ‘‘Do- 
menico Gabrielli . . .” {RMl xli). 

Violoncello piccolo. See *Violin fam- 
ily (h). 

Violoncino. Old name for violoncello. 

Violotta. See *Violin family (e). 

Virelai [probably from F. virery to turn 
around, and *lai]. An important type of 
medieval French poetry and music, the 
standard structure of which is as follows: 
ri T2 ll I2 I3 I4 


text: 


ri 12 


music: A b b A A 
(r, refrain; 1, lines with varying text). The 
virelai, also called chanson balladSy origi- 
nally was a dancing song and was per- 
formed in alternation of a chorus and a 
soloist, the chorus singing the refrain be- 
fore and after each stanza in such a man- 
ner that the final refrain of the first stanza 
also served as the initial refrain of the 
I II III 

second, etc.: AbbaAbbaAbbaA. 
According to F. Gennrich, the virelai de- 
veloped from the medieval *rondeau, the 
poetic structure of which may, for the 
sake of comparison, be indicated thus: 
ri r2 ll ri I3 U fi r2. It should be noted, 
however, that the rondeau invariably has 
only one stanza, while the virelai practi- 
cally always has several stanzas, normally 
three. For another theory see *Zajal. 

A number of monophonic virelais are 
preserved in the repertory of the *trou- 
veres [cf. Gennrich i, nos. 49, 178, 387; 


1805] 



VIRGA 


VIRGINALISTS 


also HAMy no. 19c; BeMMRy 120]. G. 
dc Machaut wrote virclai melodics strik- 
ingly similar in character to the popular 
French chanson of the present day, and 
also composed polyphonic virclais [cf. 
HAMy no. 46], a type which was culti- 
vated throughout the 14th and 15th cen- 
turies [cf. HAMy nos. 74, 75; ApNPMy 
151 and 412]. 

The virclai structure was also frequent- 
ly used in Italy and in Spain. Many of 
the 13th-century •laude and ♦cantigas are 
written in this form, which also occurs 
with the 15th-century *bergercttcs, *frot- 
tole, and *villancicos [for an example 
from 1525, cf. SchGMBy 89 a] . The Italian 
♦ballata of the 14th century (Landini) is 
an exact duplication of the polyphonic 
virclai. Cf. E. Hcldt, Die Liedformen in 
der Chanson des 75. Jahrhunderts (1916); 
F. Gcnnrich, ^RondeauXy Virclais und 
Balladeny 2 vols. (1921, *27). 

Virga [L.]. Sce^NeumcsI. 

Virgil clavier. A practice piano in- 
vented by the American A. K. Virgil in 
1892, which has no sound-producing parts 
but which, by means of a slight click ac- 
companying the depression and the re- 
lease of the key, gives perfect control over 
legato playing. 

Virginal. A 16th-century type of harpsi- 
chord, described as early as 1511, in Vir- 
dung’s Musica getutscht, a fact which 
clearly refutes the current interpretation 
of the name as referring to the ‘‘maiden 
Queen Elizabeth.** Whether it is so called 
because “virgins play on them,’* or with 
reference to L. virga (rod, i.c., jack; cf. 
SaHMI)y is uncertain. The earliest vir- 
ginals had the shape of a small oblong 
box, to be placed on a table or even held 
in the player’s lap. Towards the end of 
the 1 6th century the term was indiscrimi- 
nately applied to all types of harpsichord, 
whether rectangular, wing-shaped, or 
trapezoidal [see ♦Harpsichord II]. The 
conunon denomination was “pair of vir- 
ginals,** an idiom the origin of which is 
unsettled (perhaps L. virginalis — virgin- 
als — pair of virginals?). A description 


of a number of 17th-century virginals still 
in existence is given in GD v, 544f. 

Virginal book. General name of vari- 
ous collections containing music of the 
♦virginalists. The most important ones 
are (in approximate chronological order): 

(a) My Ladye Nevells Boof{e (1591), 
containing 42 compositions by William 
Byrd (new ed. by H. A. Andrews, 1926); 

(b) Fitz william Virginal Boo (also called 
erroneously Queen Elizabeth's Virginal 
Bool()y the most extensive and most im- 
portant collection, containing 297 com- 
positions by practically every composer of 
the virginal istic school (new ed. by J. A. 
Fuller Maitland and W. Barclay Squire, 
1894-99; for a detailed list of contents see 
GD V, 545!!); (c) Benjamin Cosyns Vir- 
ginal Boo}{y containing 98 pieces, chiefly 
by John Bull, Orlando Gibbons, and Ben- 
jamin Cosyns; (d) Will Forsters Virginal 
Boo\y containing 78 pieces, mostly by 
William Byrd. Numerous later MSS of 
lesser interest exist in the libraries of 
London and Paris. A printed collection 
is the ♦Parthenia. The Mulliner Boo\ 
{c, 1550) described in GD, Suppl. Vol., 
651 contains mostly liturgical organ pieces. 
Cf. M. L. Pereyra, “Les Livres de virginal 
de la Bibliotheque du Conservatoire de 
Paris’* (RdM 1926-32, nos. 20, 21, 24, 28, 
29 » 37 > 42, 45 )- 

Virginalists. English composers of the 
late 1 6th and early 17th centuries who 
wrote music for the * virginal. The most 
important ones are, arranged in three 
generations: I. William Byrd (1543-- 
1623); II. Thomas Morley (1557-1603), 
Peter Philips (1560-1633), Giles Farnaby 
(r. i56o-<. 1600), John Bull (1563-1628); 
III. Thomas Weelkes (r. 1575-1623), 
Thomas Tomkins (1573-1656), Orlando 
Gibbons (1583-1625). It is interesting to 
note that William Byrd lived longer than, 
or almost as long as, any of his successors, 
with the sole exception of Tomkins, and 
that the “three famous Masters William 
Byrd, Dr. John Bull and Orlando Gib- 
bons,** as they are called in the title of the 
♦Parthenia, were born exactly 20 years 
apart. Although Byrd seems to have been 


[806] 



VIRTUOSO 


VOCALIZATION 


the first to cultivate the virginal inten- 
sively (only a few scattered pieces, among 
them the famous ^Hornepype by Hugh 
Aston, exist in earlier sources), he repre- 
sents an artistic peak which dwarfs all the 
other virginalists except the last. Gibbons. 
Indeed, Byrd’s natural charm and sim- 
plicity are just as great as Gibbons’ refine- 
ment and sovereign mastery. They indi- 
cate the beginning and the end of a move- 
ment and development which, in a way, 
resemble that leading from Haydn and 
Mozart to the late Beethoven. John Bull’s 
importance lies mainly in his virtuoso-like 
exploitation of the technical means of his 
instrument (rapid passages, scales in par- 
allel thirds, broken chord figures, etc.), a 
contribution which left traces in the works 
of Sweelinck and Scheidt. 

The repertory of the virginalist com- 
posers comprises dances (mainly *pavancs 
and gaillards), variations, *preludes, fan- 
tasias, liturgical pieces (*organ hymns; 
see also *Innomine), and transcriptions of 
madrigals. 

Lit.: Ch. van den Borren, Les Origines 
de la musique de clavier en Angleterre 
(1912; Engl. 1913); M. Glyn, About Eliz- 
abethan Virginal Music and, its Composers 
(1924). See also under ^Virginal books. 

Virtuoso. A performer who excels in 
technical ability; sometimes, one who ex- 
cels in this only. 

Visigothic chant. See *Mozarabic 
chant. 

Vista [It.]. Sight. A prima vista^ at 
sight [see *Sight reading] . 

Vite [F.]. Quick. 

Vivace, vivamente, vivo [It.]. Quick, 
lively. Vivacissimo, very quick. 

VL Abbreviation for violin. Vla,y viola. 
F/c*., violoncello. F//., violins. 

Vocalization [F. vocalise^ G. Vo\cilise\ 
It. vocalizzo] . An extended melody sung 
on a vowel, i.e., without text. The term 
is used chiefly with reference to vocal ex- 
ercises (^solfeggio) and has, therefore, 
adopted a somewhat derogatory meaning, 
implying technical display for its own 
sake. The fact should not be overlooked. 


however, that the absence of words en- 
ables the singer to utilize his “instru- 
ment” to a degree that is not possible in 
texted passages, and that throughout the 
early history of singing (i.e., prior to 
1800) composers have shown full appre- 
ciation of this fact. Bach’s and Handel’s 
works contain numerous vocalizations 
(usually called *coloraturas) of a highly 
artistic character, and the untexted melis- 
mas of Gregorian chant are even more 
remote from any inference of virtuosity 
for its own sake [sec *Neuma]. 

Particularly interesting, though gener- 
ally misunderstood, is the role which 
vocalization pUyed in the polyphonic 
music of the 13th to the 15th centuries. 
The tenors of the 13th-century motets, 
which, being textlcss, have frequently 
been interpreted as “instrumental tenors,” 
arc actually vocalizations on the vowel of 
the *incipit, as they are in their original 
form as melismas of a Gregorian chant 
[see ♦Clausula; ♦Motet A, I]. For an in- 
teresting example of a long vocalization 
in the upper parts of a 13th-century motet, 
cf. ApNPM, 315. Most of the accompa- 
nied songs (ballades, madrigals) of the 
14th century contain extended passages 
lacking a text, passages which, no doubt, 
must be sung as vocalizations. Unfortu- 
nately, modern editors, such as Riemann 
and Schering, have interpreted such pas- 
sages as “instrumental preludes” (or in- 
terludes, postludes), a procedure which 
frequendy leads to an artificial interrup- 
tion of a continuous melodic line [cf., e.g., 
RiHM i.2, pp. 306-34 and SchGMBy no. 
19; for a correct rendition of G. de Flo- 
rentia’s “Nel mezzo a sei paon,” cf. 
WoGM iii, 92] . Sec also ♦Text and music 
(reference to Kyric); ♦Frottola. 

There exists a considerable literature 
of pieces intended to be performed in vo- 
calization throughout; in other words, of 
pieces in which die human voice is treated 
as an instrument, without a “disturbing” 
addition of words. This manner of per- 
formance is indicated in various 16th- 
century publications inscribed **da cantare 
e sonare^' (“to sing and to play”), e.g., 
Willaert’s Ricercari of 1549. Since these 
extended pieces (in three or four parts) 


[ 807] 



VOCAL MUSIC 


VOICE 


have no text, they are meant (primarily, 
to judge from the precedence given to the 
word cantare) to be vocalized throughout 
in all the parts. It is interesting to note 
that this practice persisted in the numer- 
ous two-part ricercares of the 17th cen- 
tury, some of which are expressly desig- 
nated as “vocal exercises** [see ^Ricercarc 
II (c) ] , Spontini, in his opera Nurmahal, 
has chosen vocalization for the “Chorus 
of Heavenly Spirits,** and several recent 
composers have written for vocalizing 
voices, e.g., Debussy {SirhneSy 1899), 
Ravel {Vocalise en forme d* Habanera^ 
1907), and Medtner {Sonate-Vocalise^ op. 
41a; Suite-Vocalisey op. 41b). Cf. M. 
Dange, “Essai sur la vocalise** (RM xvi). 

Vocal music. Music written for voices, 
cither solo or chorus (Choral music). 
Practically all music prior to 1500 is vocal, 
as is nine-tenths of the music of the i6th 
century. During the Baroque period 
vocal and instrumental music arc about 
equal in quantity and prominence, while 
after 1750 instrumental music gains the 
upper hand [see ^Instrumental music; 
also ♦Ensemble]. Following is a survey 
of the most important types of vocal mu- 
sic (italics indicate accompanied vocal 
music) : 

A. Period of superior importance 
(-1600): 6th-9th centuries: Gregorian 
chant. — 9th~i2th (13th) centuries: Se- 
quence; Trope; Organum. — I2th-i3th 
centuries: Troubadours; Trouvercs; Min- 
nesinger. — 13th century: Clausula; Con- 
ductus; Motet. — 14th century: Motet; 
Mass items; Ballade; Virelai; Rondeau; 
Madrigal; Ballata; Caccia. — 15th centu- 
ry: Motet (Flemish); Mass; Chansons. — 
1 6th century: Motet; Mass; Madrigal; 
Polyphonic lied; Chanson; Frottola; Lute 
song; Villanella. 

B. Period of equal importance (1600- 
1750): Cantata\ Opera; Oratorio; Aria; 
Anthem; Glee. 

C. Period of inferior importance ( 1750- 
present): Lied; French, English, etc. 
Song; Opera. 

Voce, pi. voci [It.]. Voice. A due {tre) 
voci^ for two (three) voices. Colla voce^ 


see ♦Colla. Voce di gola^ throat voice, 
guttural voice; voce di pettOy chest voice; 
voce di testay head voice, ♦falsetto. Voci 
pari or eguali, equal voices. 

Voces [L.j. Voices. Voces aequaleSy 
equal voices. Voces musicaleSy medieval 
term for the tones and solmization syl- 
lables of the ♦hexachord [cf. SchGMBy 
no. 86]. Voces belgicae, the syllables of 
♦Bocedisation. 

Voice. The facts about the physical ma- 
chinery of voice production arc widely 
known, but usually only superficially un- 
derstood. The larynx containing the “vo- 
cal cords** initiates the tone in much the 
same way that the lips start the tone in the 
mouthpiece of a brass instrument. The 
breath is pressed upward from the lungs 
through these “vocal lips** which arc held 
closely together, at varying tensions ac- 
cording to the pitch desired, setting the 
lips and the breath into vibration. This 
resulting tone is modified and strength- 
ened by contact with all of the inner sur- 
faces of the mouth, nose, throat, and even 
the lungs. If the singer or speaker be re- 
laxed yet vital, there will then be a balance 
of the different resonances resulting in an 
agreeable tone. 

Singers will generally agree with the 
above statements. They also are in fair 
agreement upon what constitutes an 
agreeable tone. There is, however, a great 
difference of opinion as to how best to 
achieve this ideal; and the reason for this 
disagreement is not difficult to sec, as will 
be pointed out later. 

If it were always remembered that there 
can never be a clear description of the real 
center and essence of singing, the final 
understanding might be more easily at- 
tained. Let one consider how he would 
describe the process of raising his arm or 
closing his eyes: the real impulse can only 
be hinted at. Unfortunately the voice 
teachers* hints arc usually wrongly taken 
as statements of fact; or in other words, 
what should be only sensation or imagi- 
nation is confused with physical effort. 
One cannot, for example, really throne 
tone here or there to a localized point any 
more than one can throw a handful of air 


[808] 



VOICE 

from place to place, since both are im- 
palpable. To imagine doing so, however, 
is often helpful in achieving good tone 
production. Thus we are often more con- 
cerned with what appears to be the fact 
than with what actually is the fact. 

When it is remembered how numerous 
are the muscles of the diaphragm, ribs, 
throat, tongue, jaw, larynx, and so forth, 
that are used in producing the voice, it is 
easy to see the impossibility of keeping a 
conscious control over all at the same time. 
A baby, on the other hand, uses these 
muscles with great efficiency even during 
the first days of life, when it obviously 
knows nothing about them. The fact that 
his tone is of bad quality is not of impor- 
tance in this discussion as the baby quite 
evidently desires a disagreeable tone when 
crying. The tone can be pleasant enough 
when the baby is pleased and happy. The 
voice like the face expresses rather accu- 
rately what is in the mind. It is evident 
then that we are born with the instinctive 
ability to use the voice easily and freely 
and with good expression, without any 
instruction. This of course cannot be con- 
sidered high art, but at least it has some- 
thing to do with good free ton^ work. 

Why then do we not all sing with good 
tone quality? Almost any singer will 
agree that muscular tension is the main 
cause of our bad tones; and also it is evi- 
dent that undue pressure or restraint of 
the tone is the main cause of muscular 
tension, and the main cause of this forcing 
or holding the tone is some form of self- 
consciousness. This self-consciousness di- 
vides the attention, expressing, so to speak, 
two or more thought paths at the same 
time, which is confusing both to the singer 
and the listener. It could be said, then, 
that if the singer’s mind were clearly, 
vitally concentrated upon the expression 
of his song, he would relax and sing well, 
and that the kernel of singing is mental 
control: concentration enough to rule out 
self-consciousness. This is probably true, 
but the practical objection to this point of 
view is the extreme difficulty of really 
clear concentration. For example, if one 
decides to think only of the phrase as he 
sings, his mind will in spite of himself 


VOICi 

also be examining the result, and compar- 
ing it with his desires. This of course dis- 
turbs his concentration, and he sings un- 
naturally, into himself, instead of out to 
the audience, clearly expressing the very 
self-consciousness he seeks to eliminate. 
The body coordinates automatically to the 
thought. But if there arc many conflicting 
thoughts, we are, in effect, trying to make 
several conflicting coordinations at the 
same time. This is simply confusion, as 
the muscles are working at cross purposes. 
The more the singer concerns himself 
with the lack of coordination the more his 
attention is distracted from the song itself, 
which further divides and complicates his 
problem. 

To meet this situation teachers devise 
many exercises and imaginative concepts 
which result mostly in diverting attention 
from the disturbed areas. For example, 
the tongue under tension thickens and 
draws back, pardy closing the throat. The 
back nasal passages become too stretched, 
or too relaxed; the jaw becomes set and 
stiff, and a corresponding distortion ap- 
pears in the tone. If the pupil is taught to 
“place the voice” or imagine the vibration 
of the tone gendy in the front mouth sur- 
faces, and the nose, the attention is re- 
moved from the throat and tongue, which 
tend to relax, and the nasal passages be- 
come free of their own accord. Unfortu- 
nately, the attention then being drawn in 
the new direction, the singer will often 
feel he must push his tone into place, 
causing a new set of tensions. Various 
devices are then employed to teach the 
pupil to “support the breath,” leading him 
to find the knack of avoiding this “forc- 
ing,” and bringing coordination nearer. 
Thought now being upon the breath, the 
pupil tends to strain his breathing, feeling 
that he is aiding the process. Tension re- 
turns and he finds his throat closing again. 

Here can be seen the reason for the great 
disagreement among singers. No single 
phase of singing will function well unless 
coordinated widi other phases. If “place- 
ment” or focus is good, the breath will 
often coordinate to it with litde or no con- 
scious attention, so this individual will 
feel that attention to the breath is unneo 


[809] 



VOICE LEADING 


VOLKSTQMLICHES LIED 


cssary. Another singer will find that if the 
breath is “correct” the relaxation and focus 
need little thought, and will teach his 
pupils accordingly, and moreover have 
success with many whose thought and 
problem happen to fit into the teacher’s 
own pattern. Thus we find fads spring- 
ing up among sincere people. 

There are many ways to help the pupil 
arrive at the goal of good singing. Per- 
haps the best road is simply the one which 
he best understands. Anything that helps 
toward free, simple, vital, sincere, natural 
expression of a clear musical conception, 
without inhibiting counter effort, is good 
practice. 

For a historical conspectus of the art of 
singing, for related articles, and for lit- 
erature, sec *Singing. R. Y. R. 

Voice leading [G. Stimfnfuhrung]An 
contrapuntal music, the principles gov- 
erning the progression of the various 
voice-parts (particularly of those other 
than the soprano) — not so much from 
the point of view of the resulting har- 
mony, but with regard to the design of 
the individual lines. Principles such as 
preference of step-wise motion (at least 
in the three upper parts), contrary *mo- 
tion in at least one part, avoidance of 
•parallel fifths and octaves, form the basis 
of voice leading. See Counterpoint. 

Voices, Range of. The human voices 
are usually classified in six types: three 
female voices, soprano, mezzo-soprano, 
and contralto, and three male voices, ten- 
or, baritone, and bass. In choral singing 
the middle voice of each group is omitted. 
The normal range of these voices may be 
approximately described as an octave 



Baritone Tenor Contralto Meixo S^pvvmo 


(more safely, a seventh) below and above 
the notes d, f, a, and e', g', b', as shown 
in the illustration. (It may be noticed 
that the indication of ranges differs mark- 
edly in books of different nationalities, 
c.g., English, Italian, German, Russian.) 


Trained soloists frequently exceed these 
ranges. Particularly the singers of the 
17th and 1 8th centuries possessed ranges 
which seem miraculous. The soprano 
Lucrezia Agujari (1743-83) could reach 
c"", and a bass-part in Handel’s Ads et 
Galatea (1708), written for Giuseppe Bo- 
schi, shifts, within one measure, from a' 
to Cif, more than 2^ octaves. Russian 
basses are found who can sing down to 
Fi, a fifth below low C. 

Among operatic singers further classi- 
fications are made mainly with regard to 
the character and timbre of the voice: 

Dramatic soprano^ with powerful voice 
and marked declamatory and histrionic 
ability; Lyric soprano^ with lighter qual- 
ity and pleasant cantabile style; Colora- 
tura sopranoy with great agility and a 
high range. 

Tenore rohusto (robust tenor), with 
full voice and vigor; Lyric tenory corre- 
sponding to the Lyric Soprano; Helden- 
tenor (heroic tenor), combining agility, 
brilliant timbre, and expressive power. 

Basso profondo {Basse profondey “deep 
bass”), with low range, powerful voice, 
and solemn character; Basso cantante 
(basse chantante, “singing bass”), with 
qualities similar to the lyric soprano; 
Basso buffoy comical, agile. 

Voicing. In organ building, the adjust- 
ment of /the timbre and the pitch of the 
pipes. 

Voile [F.]. Veiled, subdued. 

Voix [F.]. Voice. Voix de poitriney 
chest voice; voix de tetey head voice; voix 
mixtey the medium register. Voix cSlestey 
see *Vox angelica. 

Vokal [G.]. Vowel. V o\alisiereny to 
vocalize; Vocalise y vocalization. 

Volante [It.]. “Flying,” swift. 

Volkslied [G.]. Folksong. 

Volksttimliches Lied [G.]. A term 
for the German art song of the later part 
of the 1 8th century which, in reaction 
against the supposed artificiality of the 
coloratura aria {Kunstlied)y reverted to 


[810] 




VOLLES WEEK 

a somewhat affected simplicity of expres- 
sion and style approximating folk music. 
Representatives of this period were J. A. P. 
Schultz (1747-1800), J. Fr. Reichardt 
(1752-1814), C. F. Zelter (1758-1832), 
and F. Silcher (1786-1860). See *Lied 
IV; *Berlin School. Example in SchGMBy 
no. 309b. 

Voiles Werk [G.]. Full organ. 

Vollstimmig [G.]. Full-voiced. 

Volltonend [G.]. Sonorous. 

Volta, volte [It., turn], (i) A dance 
of the period around 1600, usually in 
dotted % -meter. It was extremely popu- 
lar, probably on account of the rather in- 
decent character of the dance, such as the 
lifting of the woman high into the air. 
Reynold Scot, in 1584, says that “night 
dansing witches brought out of Italy unto 
France that danse which is called Lavolta.” 
English writers (Shakespeare) and musi- 
cians frequently called it Lavolta or Le- 
valto . — (2) See ^Ballata. — (3) In mod- 
ern scores prima and seconda volta in- 
dicate the first and second ending of a 

section which has to be repeated: la :|j 2a. 
See also *Ouvert and clos. 

Volteggiando [It.]. Crossing the hands 
(in piano playing). 

Volti [It.]. Turn over (the page); volti 
subito (abbr. vs,)^ turn quickly, 

Volubile [It.]. Flowing easily. 

Voluntary. English organ pieces to be 
played in connection with the church 
service. As is suggested by the name, 
voluntaries originally were pieces in a 
somewhat freer style than was common 
in the period in question (for a term of 
similar connotation, see ^Fantasia), Thus, 
Morley says in his Plaine and Easy Intro- 
duction to Music\e (1597): “To make 
two parts upon a plaine song is more hard 
than to make three parts into voluntarie,” 
The earliest voluntaries {Mulliner Boo\y 
c. 1550) are short pieces in imitative 
counterpoint, not based upon a cantus 
firmus (plainsong). Three voluntaries by 
Byrd arc preserved in My Ladyc Nevells 

[81 


VORIMITATION 

Boo\e [see * Virginal book] ; others occur 
in the keyboard works by O. Gibbons and 
Th. Weelkcs [cf. the editions by M. H. 
Glyn]. During the 17th and i8th cen- 
turies the voluntary changed in pace with 
the general changes of style, incorporating 
elements of the prelude, toccata, operatic 
aria, suite, sonata, etc., and frequently 
exceeding by far the limitations of proper 
church style. Among the composers of 
voluntaries we find Benjamin Rogers 
(1614-98), John Blow (1648-1708), Pur- 
cell (1658-95), Thomas Roseingravc 
(1690-1766: Fifteen Voluntaries and 
Fugues)f Jacob Kirkman (d. 1799: A 
Collection of Six Voluntaries for the Or- 
gan^ Harpsichord and Piano-Forte, op. 
9), Samuel Wesley (1766-1837; cf. GD 
V, 702), and numerous mediocre com- 
posers of the 1 8th and 19th centuries. 
More recently, determined efforts have 
been made to raise the artistic level of the 
voluntaries played in English churches. 
It goes without saying that voluntaries 
were frequently improvised. 

Lit.: J. E. West, *Old English Organ 
Music, nos. 14, 16, 20, 24, etc.; G. Frot- 
scher, Geschichte des Orgelspiels (1935), 
passim. 

Vom Blattspiel [G., playing from the 
sheet]. *Sight-reading. 

Vorausnahme [G.]. Anticipation. 

Vorbereiten [G.]. To prepare. 

Vordersatz [G.]. First subject. 

Vorhalt [G.]. Suspension {vorberei- 
teter Vorhalt) or appoggiatura (freier 
Vorhalt). 

Vorimitation [G., anticipating imita- 
tion]. In •organ chorales or in vocal set- 
tings of chorales (as occur frequendy as a 



first movement in Bach’s cantatas), the 
fugal treatment of a chorale line (or its 
initial motive), frequendy in halved or 

i] 



VORNEHM 

quartered note-values (^diminution), as 
a preparation to the final appearance of 
the chorale line in its full note-values. 
Usually each line of the chorale is pre- 
ceded by such a Vorimitation. The illus- 
tration is from Bach’s organ chorale Ach 
Gott und Herr. 

Vornehm [G.]. Noble, dignified. 

Vorschlag [G.]. Appoggiatura (the 
ornament). Kurzer^ lunger Vorschlag^ 
short, long appoggiatura. 

Vorspiel [G.]. Prelude, overture. Also 
simple performance (yorspielen^ to per- 
form before an audience). 

Vortrag [G.]. Interpretation; perform- 
ance. 

Vortragszeichen [G.]. Expression 
marks. 

Vorwarts [G.]. “Forward,” faster. 

Vorzeichnung [G.]. Signature, both 
of the key and of the meter. 

Vox [L.]. Voice. In early music, the 
Guidonian tone syllables; see •Hexachord, 
♦Voces. In the 9th/iith centuries vox 
principalis and vox organalis are the main 


WALDSTEIN SONATA 

and the added part in parallel *organum. 
See ♦Parts. 

Vox angelica, coelestis, Humana. 
Organ stops which are supposed to repre- 
sent the voices of the angels, of Heaven, 
and of men, and which attract the interest 
of the public mainly, it would seem, ow- 
ing to their failure to live up to their 
names. The vox coelestis {voix c6leste\ 
also known as unda maris) utilizes the 
principle of ♦beats in order to produce a 
waving effect; it consists of two ranks of 
soft flue stops one of which is tuned sharp. 
The vox angelica is usually the same, but 
also occurs as a single-rank stop of soft 
dulciana quality. The vox humana is a 
reed stop of the 17th century with very 
short capped pipes (about % of the nor- 
mal length) which therefore reinforce 
only the higher harmonics. Its similarity 
to the human voice is most remote, unless 
it be “the cracked voice of an old woman 
of ninety,” as Dr. Burney remarked. 

V.s. Abbreviation for ♦Volti subito. 

Vuoto [It.]. “Empty,” toneless. Corda 
vuotUy open string. 

Vv. Violins. 



Wachsend [G.]. “Growing,” crescen- 
do. 

\Varme, Mit [G.]. With warmth. 

Wagner tuba. See ♦Tuba. 

Wait. Originally a watchman of an Eng- 
lish town who (like the Nachtwdehter in 
Wagner’s Meistersinger) sounded the 
hours of the night. In the 15th and i6th 
centuries the waits developed into bands 
of musicians, paid by the town and beau- 
tifully uniformed, who provided music 
on ceremonial occasions. They also played 
or sang at Christmas before the houses of 
notables; it is in this meaning that the 
term survives, in present-day parlance, for 


somebody making Christmas music in the 
streets. The term wait (wayte) was also 
used for their characteristic instrument, a 
shawm, as well as for the tunes played by 
the various local guilds, e.g., London 
Waits, Chester Waits. Many of these 
tunes are preserved in 17th- and 18th- 
century dance books, such as Playford’s 
Dancing Master (166^). Cf. F. W. Gal- 
pin, “Shawms and Waits” (ML iv); J. C. 
Bridge, in PM A liv. 

Waldhorn [G., forest horn]. The 
French horn, cither natural or with valves. 

Waldstein Sonata. Beethoven’s Piano 
Sonata in C, op. 53, dedicated to his friend, 
Graf Waldstein. 


[812] 



WALKORE 

Walkiire, Die. See *Ring des Nibe- 
lungen. 

Waltz [F. vaUe\ G. Walzer], A dance 
in moderate triple time which originated 
around 1800 and which not only has re- 
tained its popularity to the present day, 
but has also, time and again, inspired the 
imagination of composers. The waltzes 
by &ethoven [vol. xxv of the B.-H. edi- 
tion; cf. also the well-known Walzer of 
the Diabelli Variations] still resemble the 
earlier ^handler or Deutsche TanZy as do 
also to some extent the numerous waltzes 
by Schubert [vol. xii of the complete ed.] . 
Webers “Aufforderung zum Tanz” 
(1819) for the first time shows that ir- 
resistible sway and characteristic accom- 
paniment which have remained associated 
with the waltz. For the later history of 
the waltz in art music it suffices to men- 
tion the names of Chopin, Johann Strauss, 
father and son (see DTOe 32.ii and 35.ii), 
Berlioz ( Symphonic Fantastique) , Brahms 
(Liebeslieder Walzer), Richard Strauss 
(in RosenJ{avalier) ^ Ravel (Vaises nobles 
et sentimentales; also La Valse, for or- 
chestra). 

The waltz developed from an Austrian 
peasant dance, the ♦Landler (the theory 
of its French origin and its derivation 
from the *volta is discussed and properly 
refuted in GD), As early as 1700 its char- 
acteristic idiom appears in the ritornelle 
of a pastoral Singspiel [see the accom- 
panying example]. The waltz was an 



epoch in the history of the dance because 
it was the first dance in which the part- 
ners embraced each other. Naturally this 
evoked enthusiastic response as well as 
violent protest. Burney, in Reese’s Cyclo- 
pedia {c, 1805), probably confusing wal- 
zen with sich wdlzen^ makes an allusion 
to “rolling in the dirt of mire” and speaks 
about the “familiar treatment” and the 
“obliging manner in which the freedom 
is returned by the females.” Although the 


WECHSEL- 

waltz was already popular in Vienna in 
the time of Haydn and Mozart — the 
English singer Kelly records its vogue in 
^773 — s-tatements found in a recent ref- 
erence book to the effect that Haydn and 
Mozart wrote waltzes are misleading. 
The “Mouvement de Walze” found in a 
Haydn Sonata from about 1766 is a real 
minuet, and the above insdription is very 
likely the addition of one Demar who 
printed the work in his Mithode of 1806 
[cf. the reprint in BSIM vi, 34ff]. Mo- 
zart’s Deutsche Tanze (K.V. 509, 536, 
567, etc.) are real Landlers, as far as die 
musical style is concerned. It is interest- 
ing to note that Beethoven’s name has 
been associated with a number of waltzes 
(“Beethoven’s Last Waltz,” “The Spirit 
Waltz,” “Jubelwalzer”) the utter trivi- 
ality of which clearly marks such attribu- 
tion as spurious. 

Lit.: D. Weigl, Die Geschichte des Wal- 
zers (1910); F. Niecks, “Concerning the 
Waltz” (Z/M vi); J. Mendelssohn, in 
StM xiii; P. Netd, in BUM iii. 

Walze [G.]. (i) The crescendo pedal 
of the organ. — (2) In 18th-century par- 
lance, term for stereotyped undulating 
figures, such as an *Alberti bass. 

War of the Bouffons. See *Bouffons. 

Wasserorgel [G.]. *Hydraulis. 

Water Music. An orchestral suite by 
Handel, composed in 1715 for a festivity 
which took place in boats on the Thames. 
Cf. W. Michael, in ZMW iv. 

Wa-wan Press. An American publish- 
ing firm, established by Arthur Far well in 
1901, which specialized in the publication 
of compositions based on Indian or Negro 
themes (A. Farwell, H. F. Gilbert, H. W. 
Loomis). It was sold to G. Schirmcr in 
1912. 

Wechsel- [G., change]. Wechseldomi^ 
nantCy the dominant of the dominant, i.c., 
the (major) supertonic. W echselgesangy 
alternative or antiphonal singing. Weeh- 
selnote is somewhat loosely used to denote 
♦nonharmonic tones involving a change 
of direction, c.g., cambiata, dchappfc, 


[813] 




WHOLE-TONE 


WEHMOTIG 

appoggiatura; verlassene or Vuxsche and those of Bach in the same key, c.g., 

Wechselnote is always the cambiata, par- those in G minor {Wt,CL i), E major 

ticularly in its combination with a sus- (Wt,CL ii), and F major {Wt,CL i) — 

pension: a similarity which is too striking to be 

incidental [cf. HAMy no. 248]. On the 
other hand, a collection of 24 preludes and 
fugues written by B. C. Weber under a 
title identical with that of Bach's first col- 

Wehmutig [G.]. Sorrowful. I?*"''®" “ forerunner, but an iinita- 

tion of Bach s work (the date 1689, which 
Weihnachtsmusik [G.]. Christmas appears on the MS of the Brussels Con- 
music. servatory, is spurious; Weber lived from 

1712 to 1758). Cf. W. Tappert, in MfM 
Well-tempered Clavier, English for xx, 10 and xxi, 8; new edition in Verdf^ 
Wohltemperiertes Clavier y Bach's collec- jentlichungen der Neuen Bach-GeselU 
tion of forty-eight [see *Forty-eight] prel- schajt xxxiv.i. 

udes and fugues, written in two parts Lit.: J. A. Fullcr-Maidand, The "48,' 
(1722 and 1744) each of which contains Bach*s Wohltemperiertes Clavier (1925); 
24 preludes and fugues, one for each ma- C. Gray, The Forty-eight Preludes and 
jor and minor key (C major, C minor. Fugues of /. S, Bach (1938); E. Prout, 
C# major, C# minor, etc.). The name re- Analysis of Bach's 48 Fugues. 
fers to the then novel system of equal , , . « , 

temperament [see ^Temperament] which Welsh music. See *Bards. 

made it possible to play equally well in Weltlich [G.]. Secular, 
all the keys, and of which Bach’s collec- 
tion was the first complete realization. Whistle. A very small and simple flag- 
The first printed edition appeared in 1799 eolet (end-blown pipe) with only six 
(Kollmann, London). The pieces in the holes, made from wood, cane, metal, or, 
two collections date from widely different recently, celluloid, 
periods of Bach’s life. The most obvious In scientific classification whistle flutes 

difference of style between the first and or fipple flutes denotes a category of flutes 

second parts is found in the preludes in which are blown by means of a “flue” 
aria style and in binary form which do not [see ^Instruments III, B, 2 (c) ] . The 

occur in the first collection. A much dis- upper end of the pipe is stopped by a plug, 

cussed question is that of the “proper” called fipple or Bloc{ (hence the German 
instrument for these pieces, i.e., whether name Bloc\fidte for the recorder), with 
they are written for the harpsichord or for a narrow slit left, through which the 
the clavichord. Usually this problem has breath is led towards the sharp edge of a 
been approached too much from that side opening. The same principle of sound 
modern “either-or” point of view which generation is used in the “flue pipes” of 
has proved detrimental in so many prob- the organ [see *Organ VIII]. To this cate- 
lems of early music. Some scholars have gory belong several families, mainly the 
gone so far as to maintain that certain ^recorders and the flageolets. The latter 
preludes of the Wt. CL are written for the differ from the recorder in certain details 
clavichord while the corresponding fugue of construction, but mainly in the smaller 
is written for the harpsichord. number of finger-wholes, four in front and 

An important forerunner of Bach’s two thumb-holes in the rear. Cf. N. Bes- 
work is the Ariadne musica of J. K. F. saraboff, Ancient European Musical In- 
Fischer (c. 1700; new ed. by E. von Wer- struments (1941), pp. 6off. 
ra) which contains 20 preludes and fugues Whole-note. See *Notes. 
in 19 different keys. Particularly interest- 
ing is the unmistakable thematic simi- Whole-tone. The interval of the major 
larity between some of Fischer’s fugues second. See *Intcrvals. 

[814] 




WHOLE-TONE SCALE 

Whole-tone scale [G. Ganztonleiter']. 
A scale consisting of whole-tones only, 
six to the octave. Only two such scales 
exist, namely; c~d~e-fjf-g#-bb~c' and 
dt-d#--f-^g-a— b-c#'. The whole-tone scale 
lacks three of the most fundamental in- 
tervals of traditional music, i.e., the per- 
fect fifth, the perfect fourth, and the 
leading tone. In fact, the exploitation of 
its resources has been, in the hands of 
Debussy, one of the most obvious indica- 
tions of the 20th-century revolt against 
the harmonic system of the 19th century. 
Owing to the presence of only one interval 
the whole-tone scale completely lacks that 
feeling of “centralization” and “localiza- 
tion” which, in the normal scales or in 
church modes, is indicated by the term 
“tonic.” Its inherent indecision and vague- 
ness make it an appropriate vehicle of the 
impressionistic style, but put a definite 
limitation on its usefulness for a more 
constructive type of music. As a matter of 
fact, after a short vogue in the first decade 
of the 20th century, it has lost most of its 
glamour and is seldom used today. Rebi- 
kov’s (1866-1920) “Les Demons samu- 
sent” is written entirely in the whole-tone 
scale, as are also sections of Debussy’s 
“Voiles” (1910), while Busoni, in the 
second movement of his Sonatina seconda 
(1912), uses it for the passages of the right 


/•~4 ' 








'F A 1 f 



L. lLL_ 

n Lj.. ..w . V ...LI... 


hand [see Ex.]. Whole-tone formations 
in earlier compositions (Schubert (?), 
Rossini, Glinka, Berlioz) which have fre- 
quendy been cited, are merely in the char- 
acter of modulatory progressions within 
the conventional system of harmonies, 
not examples of a unified whole-tone 
tonality. 

Whole-tube instruments. See ♦Wind- 
instruments II. 

Wiegend [G.j. Swaying. 

Wiener Klassiker [G.]. *Vicnnesc 
classics. 


WIND INSTRUMENTS 

Wiezuvor [G.]. As previously. 

Winchester troper. See ♦Troper. 

Wind band. See ♦Band. 

Wind-chest. In organs, an air-tight box 
which receives the wind from the bellows 
and from which it passes to the pipes 
above it. See *Organ I. 

Wind-gauge. In organs, a device in- 
dicating the supply of air in the bellows. 
In the modern electrically operated or- 
gans it is hardly necessary. 

Wind instruments. Generic term for 
all instruments in which the sound-gener- 
ating medium is an enclosed column of 
air. They are, in scientific terminology, 
usually referred to as Aerophones, al- 
though, strictly speaking, this latter cate- 
gory includes a subdivision, the “free 
aerophones” which usually are not in- 
cluded under the term Wind instruments 
[see ♦Instruments III A, B]. The main 
species of wind instruments are the ♦brass 
instruments (*trump€ts, ♦horns, ♦tubas, 
etc.), the ♦flutes, the ♦clarinets, and the 
♦oboes (the last three also called ♦Wood 
winds), each of which receives special 
treatment in this book. The subsequent 
explanations deal with their common 
acoustical properties. 

I. In each wind instrument an enclosed 
column of air, cylindrical or conical (de- 
pendent on the bore of the instrument), 
is set into vibration [see ♦Acoustics Vj. 
Neither the material (whether brass or 
wood) nor the shape (whether straight or 
wound) is important. The pitch of the 
produced sound depends only on the 
length of the pipe, its timbre mainly on 
the mouthpiece (single reed in the clari- 
nets, double reed in the oboes, mouth-hole 
in the flutes, cupped mouthpiece in the 
trumpets, funnel mouthpiece in the horns, 
etc.), on the shape of the bore, the widen- 
ing of the bell, etc. 

II, Properly, a pipe of given length 
gives one tone only, e.g., a pipe of 8 ft. 
length approximately the tone C, of 4 
ft, the tone c, etc. [see ♦Foot]. However, 
by proper control of the breath and the 
lips, called overblowing^ a pipe can easily 





WIND INSTRUMENTS 

be made to sound not only its normal tone, 
the fundamental, but also the higher *har- 
monics. These tones constitute what is 
called the “natural tones” of a wind instru- 
12846C 7 8 9 10 

ment, e.g.; c c' g' c" c" g" bb" c'" d'" e'", 
etc. Another term for the fundamental 
tone is pedal tone. On a number of in- 
struments the pedal tone is practically un- 
obtainable, and a distinction is made be- 
tween whole-tube instruments in which 
the air column can be made to vibrate as 
a whole, thus producing the pedal tone, 
and half-tube instruments in which even 
the slightest air pressure is likely to set up 
vibrations of the half length, thus produc- 
ing the first harmonic (c'). To the for- 
mer category belong all the wood winds 
and the brass instruments of wide bore 
(tubas); to the latter, nominally, the brass 
instruments of narrow bore (trumpets, 
horns, trombones, higher saxhorns). It 
should be noted, however, that good play- 
ers of the present day can obtain the pedal 
notes on trumpets and saxhorns, so that 
the French horn and the trombone in the 
lower positions of the slide remain, for all 
practical purposes, the only half-tube in- 
struments. 

III. The above explanations refer to the 
so-called open pipes, i.e., pipes which are 
open at their lower end. If a pipe of the 
same length is closed at the lower end 
{stopped pipe), its fundamental is an oc- 
tave lower than in the open pipe [see 
* Acoustics V for an explanation] and, in 
addition, the odd-numbered partials only 
above this fundamental are obtainable. If 
an open pipe and a stopped pipe of half 
the length are compared the fundamentals 
will be the same, but the natural series 
will differ as follows: 

128466 7 8 9 10 

Open 4' pipe: c c g' c" c" g" bb" c"' d"' c'" 
Stopped 2' pipe: c g' c" bb" d"' 

Stopped pipes are frequently used in 
organ building, to obtain lower tones 
from relatively short pipes [see *Organ 
IX]. Wind instruments with a cylindri- 
cal bore usually act as stopped pipes, al- 
though they are not actually stopped at 
the lower end. The most important in- 
strument of this class is the clarinet which 


WIND INSTRUMENTS 

is said to “overblow at the fifth” (correct- 
ly, at the tenth), while the instruments 
with a conoidal bore (oboes, horns, etc.) 
overblow at the octave. In German ter- 
minology the former class is called quin- 
tierend [F. quintoyer\, the latter okfa- 
vierend [F. octavier\. 

IV. On a wind instrument which con- 
sists of merely a pipe the natural tones are 
the only ones available (e.g., on the “nat- 
ural” horn or trumpet). In order to obtain 
the numerous tones between the gaps of 
the natural series, means must be provided 
to temporarily shorten or lengthen the 
pipe. These are chiefly four in kind: (a) 
slides; (b) crooks; (c) valves; (d) side- 
holes. 

(a) Slide. This means that the instru- 
ment consists of two separate portions of 
tubing, one sliding within the other so 
that it can be drawn out. Thus the tube 
is actually lengthened, and in each posi- 
tion a new series of natural tones, begin- 
ning respectively with C, B, Bb, etc., be- 
comes available. Since the largest gap in 
the series of overtones is the fifth (c-g'), 
a complete chromatic scale can be obtained 
by the combined tones of seven series of 
overtones, e.g., from c-g-c' . . . down to 
F#-c#-f#. . . . This principle is used with 
the ^trombone. 

(b) Crook or Shank. This is an addi- 
tional piece of tubing which is inserted by 
the player when demanded. Since this 
manipulation consumes time it does not 
really serve to fill in the gaps of the nat- 
ural scale, but only serves to give the in- 
strument a different (lower) tuning for 
different pieces or different sections of a 
piece. This method was used with trum- 
pets in the i8th century [see ^Trumpet 

(c) Valves. This name is misleading. 
What is really meant are crooks attached 
permanently to the instrument, but to be 
opened and closed momentarily by means 
of a valve. Normally three valves (I, II, 
III) are provided which lower the pitch 
respectively by i, 2, or 3 semitones, while 
through their combined use a lowering of 
4 (I+III), 5 (II+III), and 6 (I-I-II+III) 
semitones can be obtained. Thus seven 
series of overtones become available, re- 


[817] 



WIND MACHINE 

suiting in a complete chromatic scale, as 
explained under (a). For more details, 
see * Valve. 

(d) Side-holes. These are holes bored 
in the side wall of the instrument (today, 
of the wood winds only; formerly also of 
trumpets and cornets: key trumpet, key 
bugle) which can be opened and closed 
by the fingers, usually with the help of a 
key mechanism [see *Kcy (i)]. If all 
the holes are closed, the pipe sounds its 
fundamental. If some of the holes are 
opened, the acoustical length of the air 
column is shortened, and higher tones 
are produced. The details of this process 
are too complicated to be briefly described. 

On the horns a limited alteration of 
pitch can be obtained by “stopping” [see 
♦Horn]. 

Lit.: A. Carse, Musical Wind Instru- 
ments (1939); GD V, 737fl; R. Dunstan, 
in PMA xliv. 

Wind machine. A device designed to 
imitate the sound of wind, occasionally 
used for descriptive purposes (R. Strauss, 
Don Quixote). It consists of a barrel 
framework covered with silk and re- 
volved so that the silk is in friction against 
cardboard or wood. 

Wirbel [G.]. (i) The peg of a violin; 
Wirbel\asten, pegbox. — (2) A drum 
roll. 

Wohltemperiertes Clavier [G.J.See 
ell-tempered Clavier, 

Wolf. Generally, any disagreeable effect 
produced by the imperfect tuning of in- 
struments, e.g., by organ pipes not quite 
in tune. Specifically: (i) The slight dif- 
ference in pitch between the G# and the 
Ab of the ♦mean-tone system, and simi- 
lar roughnesses in other systems of un- 
equal temperament [see ♦Temperament 
II J . — (2) In violins and cellos the term 
Wolfnotc is given to certain tones which 
differ markedly both in intensity and in 
quality from those in adjoining parts of 
the compass. This undesirable effect is 
particularly noticeable near the F# on the 
D-string of the cello, a tone which has a 
poor and somewhat wobbling sound. In 


WORD-PAINTING 

the violin a similar effect occurs near the 
Ct on the A-string. The wolf is found in 
practically all instruments, regardless of 
their quality. In fact, it becomes the more 
obtrusive the more sonorous is the gen- 
eral sound of the instrument. The wolf 
is usually attributed to some defect in the 
construction of the particular instrument, 
either the uneven thickness of the belly, 
the unequal elasticity of the wood, etc. 
However, more recent investigations have 
shown that it is a defect inherent in the 
design of the violin and the other instru- 
ments of the same family. It results from 
certain particularly strong vibration pat- 
terns of the belly. Cf. C. V. Raman in 
Nature 97 (1916, *17), pp. 362-363 and 
in Philosophical Magazine 32 (1916); 
J. A. Kessler, The Wolf note (unpubl. 
diss. Harvard 1941). 

Wood winds. See ♦Orchestra I. Cf. 
R. W. Wood, “The Woodwind Ensem- 
ble” (ML xv, no. i). 

Word-painting [G. Wortmalerei], 
The expression through music of the 
ideas resident in or suggested by the 
words of a song or other vocal piece. The 
term is usually^taken to refer to the por- 
traying of single words or phrases which 
lend themselves to specific treatment, 
rather than to the more subtle method of 
capturing in music the “general mood” 
of the text. Modern composers usually 
reject the somewhat naive device of word 
painting which, however, plays a promi- 
nent role in earlier music, particularly of 
the Baroque period. It is hardly an ex- 
aggeration to say that, in the entire vocal 
literature of the Baroque, it will be diffi- 
cult to find the word “Heaven” or 
“water” without an ascending or an un- 
dulating motion in the music. As is ex- 
plained under ♦Program music II, the 
methods of direct word painting are 
mainly of two kinds: imitation of natural 
sounds (laughing, fanfares, birds), or of 
bodily movements (running, falling, 
ascending, descending). Both may, of 
course, occur with associated words, such 
as “war” (fanfare), “Heaven” (ascend- 
ing), “Death” (fall). The accompanying 
examples from Bach’s Cantatas nos. 8, 26, 


[ 818] 



XYLOPHONE 

and 12 illustrate the descriptive treatment 
of the words “Ruhstatt” (resting place), 
“Tropfen” (drops), and '‘Ich folge’* (I 



follow). There are, of course, other as- 
sociations which can be “translated” into 
music. For instance Weelkes in As 
Vesta Was Descending successively uses 
voices to the number of two, three, six, 
and one for the words, “First two by two, 
then three by three to-gether. Leaving 
their Goddess all alone.” 

More subtle and more interesting are 
those types of word-painting which be- 
long within the area of indirect sugges- 
tion achieved mainly through scoring. 
Some of the most telling examples of 
this are found in the works of Josquin, 
in the period of the *musica reservata, 
when words and music wTre first form- 
ing an intelligent partnership. For in- 
stance, in his motet In pauperum re- 
fugium the harmonic and contrapuntal 
treatment is orthodox up to the point 
where the words “via errantium” (the 
life of the erring ones) occur; here the 


XYLOPHONE 

succeeding aimlessness of the lines and 
the absence of harmonic agreement be- 
tween them result in a startlingly vivid 
depiction of the idea expressed in the 
text, a depiction which is strengthened 
by the clear and obviously appropriate 
harmonic implieJations of the music at 
the words “veritas et vita” (truth and 
life). 

Countless instances of word-painting 
of one sort or another might be cited in 
every period from the time of Josquin 
through our own. Some contemporary 
composers, to be sure, seem not to be 
greatly concerned with this matter, per- 
haps because the idiom which they em- 
ploy is better suited to the conveyance of 
abstract musical ideas expressed instru- 
mentally. Many stimulating examples, 
however, may be found in the vocal works 
of sudh composers as Milhaud, Honegger, 
Walton, Thompson, Vaughan Williams, 
Pizzetti, and Holst. 

Word repetition. See *Text and 
Music. 

Wt. CL Customary abbreviation for 
Bach’s ^Well-tempered Clavier. 

Wuchtig [G.]. Forceful, heavy. 

Wurstfagott [G., sausage bassoon]. 
The rankett [see *Oboe family III]. 

Wurdig [G.]. With dignity. 

Wutend [G.]. Furious. 


X 


Xylophone [from Gr. xylos, wood, and 
phone, sound] . A percussion instrument 
consisting of graduated bars of hard- 
wood which are struck with a stick. 
For the modern orchestral instrument 
see ^Percussion instruments A, 3. A jazz- 
band variety is the ^marimba. Xylo- 
phones are frequently used in primitive 
cultures, particularly in Africa, and have 
attained a high degree of perfection in 
the *Javanese orchestra. Around 1500 
they became known in Europe under the 


name hiiltze glechter (“wooden percus- 
sion”; Arnolt Schlick, Spiegel der Orgel 
macher und Organisten, 1511) and 
Strohfiedel (“strawfiddle,” so called be- 
cause the bars were lying on straw) 
Still other names are Holzharmoni\c 
[G.], gigelira [It.], and ligneum psal 
terium [L.]. Around 1830 a Russian 
Jew, J. Gusikow, became famous as s 
player of the Strohfiedel and aroused the 
special interest of Mendelssohn (cf. GL 
7%)* The instrument has been cm- 


[ 819] 



YANKEE DOODLE 


ZANFONIA 


ployed by H. C. Lumbye in his “Traum- 
bildcr,” by Saint-Saens in his Danse 
Macabre (1874), describe the rattling 


of skeletons, and in several modern sym- 
phonies, e.g., Shostakovich’s Fifth Sym- 
phony. 


Y 


Yankee Doodle. A popular American 
tune which, in the course of 150 years, 
has been used for a great number of texts 
of a humorous character. The origin of 
the tunc is just as mysterious as that of 
the words “Yankee” and “Doodle.” Its 
first recorded appearance is in James 
Aird’s Selection of Scotch^ English^ Irish 
and Foreign Airs (c, 1775), where it is 
given, with the title “Yankee doodle,” 
as an instrumental tune, without text. 
This has led to the theory that it origi- 
nally was a tune for the flute, and that the 
word “doodle” imitates the specific sound 
of the flute if played in *tonguing. The 
tune has been used as a theme for vari- 
ations by Anton Rubinstein, Henri Vieux- 
temps (Caprice burlesque, op. 17), and 
Daniel G. Mason (“In the Styles of Vari- 
ous Composers”). It also occurs, in a 
perfectly recognizable modification, in 
the last movement of Dvorak’s symphony 
“From the New World.” 

Yodel. A special type of singing among 
the mountain population of Switzerland 
and Austria (Tyrol) and characterized 
by the frequent and quick passing from 
a low chest-voice to a high falsetto. The 
“Jodler” is a vocalization appended to a 


song, with low vowels (a, o) used for the 
low tones, and high vowels (e, i) for the 
high ones. Cf. E. v. Hornbostel, “Ent- 
stehung des Jodelns” {KIM, 1924). 

Yiieh ch’in, A Chinese guitar. See 
^Guitar family. 

Yugoslavian music. The Yugoslavs 
(formerly Serbs) possess an ancient tra- 
dition of epic poems which are recited 
by itinerant musicians to the accompani- 
ment of the gadulf{a, a zither similar to 
the Russian gusla [Ex. in Panoff, pp. 8f]. 
Of special interest is the history of Serbian 
liturgical chant which to the present day 
has preserved the ancient system of the 
octoechos [see *Echos]. The modern de- 
velopment of Yugoslavian music started 
with Davorin Jenko (1835-1914), com- 
poser of the national hymn and of 39 
operas. The leading composer of the 
present day is Bozidar Sirola (b. 1889) 
who wrote operas and an oratorio in 
archaic style, Cyrill und Methodus ( 1927). 
A modernist is Josip Slavensky (b. 1896). 

Lit.: A. Dobronic, “A Study of Yugo- 
slav Music” (MQ xii); AdHM ii, 1168; 
ML, 785; P. Panoff, in BiiHM; E. Wel- 
lesz, “Die Struktur des serbischen Ok- 
toechos” {ZMW ii). 


Zahlzeit [G.]. Beat. 

Zajal. A type of medieval Arabian 
poetry characterized by the appearance of 
a refrain before and after each stanza. 
It attained a high degree of perfection in 
the first half of the 12th century. Many 
songs of the Spanish *cantigas are writ- 
ten in this form which may also have 


served as the model for the French 
♦virelai and other refrain forms. Cf. 
ReMMA, 245f. 

Zaleo. Same as *Jaleo. 

Zampogna [It.]. A ^bagpipe or a 
*shawm. Also *Hurdy-gurdy. 

Zanfonia [Sp.]. ^Hurdy-gurdy. 


[ 820 ] 



ZAPATEADO 


Zapateado [Sp.]. A Spanish solo 
dance in triple time the rhythm of which 
is marked by stamping of the heels, fre- 
quently in syncopation and in many other 
rhythms in contrast to that of the melody. 

Zapfenstreich [G.]. A *Tattoo; at 
special occasions, however, the Zapfen- 
streich is a much more elaborate perform- 
ance of military music, including signals 
as well as marches played by a large band. 

Zarabanda [Sp.]. See *Sarabande. 

Zarge [G.]. The ribs of the violin. 

Zart [G.]. Tender, delicate. 

Zarzuela [Sp.]. The most important 
type of Spanish opera. It is distinguished 
from the opera proper by the fact that it 
has music intermingled with spoken dia- 
logue, so that it belongs to the category 
of *Comic opera. Its subjects, however, 
are not restricted to the comic type. It 
takes its name from the Palace of La Zar- 
zuela (a royal country seat near Madrid, 
comparable to Versailles) where festive 
representations, called '‘Fiestas de Zar- 
zuela,” were given, the earliest on record 
being Lope de Vega’s ’“‘eclogue. La Selva 
sin amor (The Forest without Love), of 
1629. The earliest known composer of 
zarzuelas was Juan Hidalgo whose Los 
Celos hacen estrellas (text by Velez; pro- 
duced 1644 ?) shows the use of the reci- 
tative [cf. LavE i.4, 2066] as well as of 
choruses in the style of the madrigal. He 
also composed Calderon’s Ni amor se 
libra de Amor (1640; cf. F. Pedrell, 
Teatro lirico espanol, vols. iv, v) and 
Celos aun del aire matan (1660; first act 
published by Subira, 1933). In the later 
part of the 17th century the zarzuela ap- 
proached the French ballet de cour^ by 
the emphasis on elaborate stage produc- 
tion and the addition of ballets and of 
popular dances accompanied by the gui- 
tar and castanets (Conde de Clavijo, c. 
1700). This type of “aristocratic opera,” 
based largely on mythological subjects, 
reached its high-point with Sebastien 
Duron (d. 1716) and Antonio Literes (d. 
after 1752). At the same time there arose 

[I 


ZARZUELA 

a “popular” reaction against the zarzuela 
in the ^tonadilla, a development parallel 
to the “guerre des bouffons.” The in- 
creasing influence of the Italian opera — 
clearly present in the works of Jose de 
Nebra (c. 1685-1768) — also contributed 
to the decline of the zarzuela, a decline 
which went hand in hand with that of 
the Spanish drama. 

An attempt at revival in a more popu- 
lar form, made around 1770 by the drama- 
tist Ramon de la Cruz in collaboration 
with the composer Antonio Rodriguez de 
Hita (d. c. 1787), had only temporary 
success. It was not until the middle of 
the 19th century that a forceful national 
movement led to a new era of the zar- 
zuela. This renascence began chiefly with 
Francisco Barbieri (1823—94; fugar con 
Fuego, 1851) and Pascual Arrieta (1823- 
94; Marina, 1871). In 1865 the Teatro de 
la Zarzuela was founded, and the move- 
ment found numerous collaborators, c.g., 
Ruperto Chapi (1811-1909), M. Fernan- 
dez Caballero (1835-1906), Tomas Bre- 
ton (1850-1923), Joaquin Valverdc (d. 
1910), Amadeo Vives (1871-1933). The 
modern zarzuelas are classified as “zar- 
zuela grande” in three acts, and “genero 
chico” or “zarzuelita” in one act. The 
former deal preferably with subjects of 
a serious and dramatic character, while 
the latter are essentially comic. Breton’s 
La Dolores (1895) and La Verbena de la 
Paloma (1894) are outstanding examples 
of each type. In the most recent times 
the “zarzuela grande” has been culti- 
vated chiefly by Francisco Alonso (b. 
1887) and Federico Moreno-Torroba 
(1891); the “genero chico” (with fea- 
tures derived from the Viennese operetta 
and even of American jazz), by Jacinto 
Guerrero, Rosillo, and others. 

Lit.: G. Chase, The Music of Spain 
(1941), passim (bibl.); E. Cotalero y 
Mori, Historia de la Zarzuela i (1934); 
LavE i.4, 2052ff; A. Salazar, “Music in 
the Primitive Spanish Theatre” (PAMS, 
1938); G. Chase, “Origins of the Lyric 
Theatre in Spain” (MQ xxv); id., “Bar- 
bieri and the Spanish Zarzuela” (ML xx, 
no. i); J. Subira, in AM iv, no. 2; A. 
Pedrell, in SIM iv. 

i] 



ZNAMENNY CHANT 


ZAUBERFLOTE 


Zauberflote, Die (“The Magic Flute”)- 
German opera in two acts by W. A. 
Mozart, libretto (concocted of Oriental 
fairy-^alc and Freemasonry) by E. Schi- 
kanedcr, produced 1791. T amino 
(Tenor), seeing a picture of Pamina 
(Soprano), the daughter of the evil 
Queen of the Night (Soprano), falls in 
love with her and, on orders of the 
Queen, goes out — accompanied by the 
bird-catcher Papageno (Baritone) — to 
rescue her from the temple of the High- 
Priest Sar astro (Bass) where she is held 
captive, guarded and pestered by the 
Moor Monostatos (Tenor). Sarastro who 
holds Pamina only in order to “guide her 
to wisdom” finds Tamino worthy and 
also promises that Papageno will find a 
companion — Papagena ( Soprano) — but 
various ordeals (injunction against speak- 
ing; passing through fire and water) arc 
necessary before the lovers are united. 

The Zauberfldte^ Mozart’s last opera, 
indicates a decided change in Mozart’s 
approach to opera, a change which, un- 
fortunately, was cut short by his death, in 
1792. The Italian opera buffa idea, which 
prevails in ^Figaro and ^Don Giovanni^ 
is replaced here by a seriousness of pur- 
pose and sincerity of feeling which pre- 
sage Beethoven. On the other hand, the 
process of purification is not carried to 
its full end so that, on the whole, the opera 
would seem to be a somewhat less perfect 
example of its type than is the case with 
Figaro and Don Giovanni, 

Zeitmass [G.]. Tempo. 

Zeitmesser [G.]. Metronome. 

Zeunertanz [G.]. Old German for 
Zigeunertanz, i.c., gypsy dance (in H. 
Newsidlcr, 1535). 

Ziehharmonika [G.]. ^Accordion. 

Ziemlich [G.]. Rather. 

Zigeunermusik [G.]. Gypsy music. 

Zimbalon. See *Cimbalom. 

Zingaresa, Alla [It.]. In the style of 
gypsy music. 


Zink(en). German for the ♦cornett. 

Zirkelkanon [G.]. Circular canon. 

Zither, (i) A modern instrument used 
chiefly by the Bavarian and Austrian 
peasants (and their imitators), consist- 
ing of a flat wooden soundbox over which 
from 30 to 45 strings are stretched. Four 
or five melody strings, nearest to the 
player, can be stopped on a fretted finger 
board and are plucked by a plectrum. 
The other strings are plucked by the fin- 
gers and are used for accompaniment. 
Cf. Ch. Maclean, in ZIM x. — (2) Sci- 
entific name for a large class of stringed 
instruments also called ^Psalteries [see 
^Instruments IV, A, i (a)]. Illustrations 
on p. 823. — (3) Sometimes wrong spell- 
ing for ^cither. 

Zitternd [G.]. Trembling. 

Znamenny chant. Name for the chant 
of the Russian Church, as used from the 
i2th through the 17th century. The 
name is derived from znamia^ i.e., sign, 
neume. The oldest extant musical monu- 
ments date from c, 1200, and are notated 
in signs which are very similar to those 
of the early Byzantine notation. Later 
sources (nth to 17th centuries) are writ- 
ten in the so-called kriuki (or znamenny) 
notation, a system including over 90 dif- 
ferent signs for single notes as well as 
for stereotyped melodic formulae. They 
have not yet been deciphered. Eventu- 
ally the number of signs was reduced and 
certain auxiliary symbols were added, usu- 
ally in red ink (hence the name Cinna- 
bar letters), by Schaidurov (i6th cen- 
tury). At about the same time the simple 
outlines of the original chant were ampli- 
fied into rich and ornamental contours, 
and the two types were distinguished as 
“lesser” and “greater” chant. Beginning 
with the 17th century there were abuses 
[see *Anenaiki] which finally led to the 
decline of the chant. Sec also ^Russian 
music I. 

Lit.: A, J. Swan, “The Znamenny 
Chant of the Russian Church” (MQ xxvi; 
also in PAMSy 1938); ReMMAy 97!! 
(bibl. p. 435); P. Panoff, Die altslavische 


[ 822 ] 





ZOGERND 


ZYMBEL 


KirchentnusH^ (in BuHM)\ WoHN i, 
89; O. V. Ricsemann, Die Notation des 
altrussischen Kirchengesangs (1909); 
AdHM i, 141. 

Zogernd [G.]. Hesitating. 

Zopf, Zopfstil fG., pigtail]. A derog- 
ative term applied to the conventional 
style of the period in which pigtails were 
the fashion, i.e., particularly the later part 
of the 1 8th century. 

Zoppa, alia [It., in a limping manner]. 
Italian term for the inverted dotted 
rhythm [see ^Dotted notes III]. The 
term Zoppa also occurs for 17th-century 
dance movements in syncopated rhythm, 
by Vitali [cf. ^Editions II, 7]. 

Zortziko. A Basque folk dance in 
quick %-time and in dotted rhythm. 
The Castilian *rueda is also in quintuple 
time, but without dotted notes. Cf. the 
examples in LavE 1.4, 2363. 

Zuffolo [It.]. General name for primi- 
tive shepherd pipes, shawms, flageolets, 
etc. 

Zug [G.]. Slide. Zugposaune, slide 


tromjbonc, the ordinary trombone. Zug- 
trompetCy slide trumpet. 

Zunge [G.]. Reed. Zungenpfeifcy reed 
pipe. 

Zuriickhalten [G.]. To hold back. 

Zutraulich [G.]. Confiding. 

Zwerchflote [from old G. zwerchy 
across]. Old name for the transverse 
flute. 

Zwischensatz [G.]. The middle sec- 
tion in ternary form, also used for the 
development section in sonata-form. 

Zwischenspiel [G.]. Interlude, par- 
ticularly the instrumental interludes be- 
tween the stanzas of a song [ritornello], 
or the tutti sections in a concerto. Also 
denomination for fugal episodes [sec 
*Durchfuhrung], or the episodes in 
rondo-form. 

Zwolftonsystem [G.]. Sec ♦Twelve- 
tone technique. 

Zyklische [G.]. ♦Cyclic, always in the 
sense explained under ( i ) . 

Zymbel [G.]. ♦Cymbal, 



ADDENDA AND CORRIGENDA 
TO ORIGINAL ENTRIES 


Accidentals. The sign for the double- 
sharp is used in Giov. M. Trabaci’s II 
secondo libro de ricercare . . , of 1615. 

Acoustics. Lit.: Charles A. Culver, 
Musical Acoustics (1941). 

Aesthetics of Music. Ill (b): An early 
“autonomist” is M. de Chabanon, who in 
1785 published De la musique consideree 
en elle me me. 

Affektenlehre. Lit.: E. Katz, Die mu- 
sihjilischen Stilbegriffe des //. Jahrun- 
derts (1926). 

Ambrosian hymns. Lit.: Emilio Gar- 
bagnati, Gli inni del breviario ambrosiano 
(1897). 

American music. P. 34, col. 2: /or 
Schumann read Schuman. 

Anche. Also reed instrument, e.g., in 
Trio d* anche s. 

Aria. Lit.: L. Torchi, “Canzoni ed arie 
. . . nel secolo XVII” {RMI\). 

Arpeggio. P. 53, col. i, ex. 2, measure 
2: first quarter note on each staff should 
be dotted. 

Ars nova. P. 56, col. 2: /or Li^ge read 
Liege. 


Alfred Hill (b. 1870), Roy Agncw (b. 
1893), Margaret Sutherland (b. 

1897). Fritz Bennicke Hart (b. 1874 in 
England) settled in Australia in 1909 and 
is now director of the Melbourne Con- 
servatory. Australia’s most outstanding 
contribution in the field of music has been 
made by Mrs. Louise B. Dyer through the 
foundation of the Lyre Bird Press. The 
magnificent and invaluable publications 
of this press include, among others, the 
complete edition of the Montpellier Codex 
[see ^Sources, no. 4], and the complete 
works of Francois Couperin. Cf. Marks 
Levine, “Musical Life in Australia and 
New Zealand” (in Pierre Key’s Music 
Year Boo\, 1926/27, p. 178); V. A. Ru- 
croft, “A Survey of Music in New Zea- 
land” (PM A, 1943, p. 56); Dai-kong 
Lee, “Music Down Under” (MM xxii, 
no. 4). 

B-A-C-H. Correct: W. Piston, Chro- 
matic Study on the Name of Bach. Add: 
A. Casella, Due Ricercari sul nome di 
Bach. 

Ballet. II. Adolphe Ch. Adam wrote a 
number of ballets, the most successful of 
which was Giselle (1841). Danish ballets 
were written by J. P. E. Hartmann (VaU 
\yrien, ThrymsJ{viden) and his son E. 
Hartmann (Fjeldstuen). 

III. P. 70, col. 2, lines 11-12: for Marc 
Blitzstcin read Arthur Bliss. 


Auffiihrungspraxis. Lit.: H. Al- Barbershop harmony. P. 73, col, 2, 
brecht. Die Auffiihrungspraxis der ita- musical example: insert figure 8 beneath 
lienischen Musih^ des 14. Jahrhunderts the treble clef. 

(Diss. Berlin, 1924); F. Dorian, The His- 
tory of Music in Performance (1^42). Basse danse. All the early sources, 

theoretical as well as practical, clearly 
Australia. Composers of Australian indicate that the basse danse is in slow 
descent include Percy A. Grainger (b. triple meter. Only in the latest sources do 
1882, now a citizen of the United States), examples in duple meter occur. 

[825] 



ADDENDA AND CORRIGENDA 


Cancionero. An important recent pub- 
lication is R. Mitjana, J. Bal y Gay, and 
L Pope, Cancionero de Upsala (Mexico, 

» 944 )- 

Canon. Change the first sentence to 
read as follows: “A polyphonic composi- 
tion in which one part is imitated strictly 
and for its entire length in another part, 
or in all the parts.” The term canon is 
also used for the short “canonic” imita- 
tions properly termed *stretto. 

Cantiga. Lit.: J. Ribera, ’fLa musica 
de las cantigas {1922); G. Sunyol, Can- 
tigues de Montserrat , . . {Public acton es 
del Monasterio de Montserrat), 

Canzona. (5): Instrumental canzonas 
(though not named thus) occur in the 
works of Obrecht and Isaac. Cf. HAM, 
nos. 78, 88. 

Carnival of Venice. Omit reference to 
Liszt. 

Chamber music. Lit.: H. Mersmann, 
Kammermusi\ (4 vols., 19301!). 

Chapel. P. 132, col. i: jor Gratton read 
Grattan. 

Chinese music. Lit.: C. Sachs, The 
Rise of Music (1943), pp. 105!!. 

Chorus. Add: (3) Same as refrain. 

Chroai. Cf. C. Sachs, The Rise of Music 

(1943)- 

Clarin trumpet. Lit.: Joh. Ernst Al- 
tenburg, Versuch einer Anleitung zur 
heroisch-musihalischen Trompeten und 
Paulsen Kunst (1795, new ed. 1912); W. 
Mcnke, History of the Trumpet of Bach 
and Handel (1934). 

Classicism. F. Torrefranca, “Le Ori- 
gin! dello stile mozartiano” {RMI xxvii, 
xxxiii, xxxiv, xxxvi). 

Clausula. P. 156, col. i, line 27: for vers 
read verse. 


Clavichord. The “bundfreie” clavi- 
chord is expressly called for in the preface 
to Johann Speth’s Ars Magna Consoni et 
Dissoni of 1697. 

Color and music. Lit.: Arthur Lange, 
Spectrotone System of Orchestration 
(1943)5 A. Ldszl 6 , Die Farblichtmusik, 
(1925); id., '\Kompositionen fiir Klavier 
und Farblicht (1926). 

Comic opera. Lit.: F. Vatielli, “Opere 
comiche di G. B. Martini* {RMI xxxix). 

Composition. P. 169, col. i: for Ernst 
Bloch read Ernest Bloch. 

Concerto. Lit.: H. Engel, Die Entwicl^- 
lung des KlavierJ^onzerts von Mozart bis 
Liszt (1927); Th. Stengel, Die Entwicl^; 
lung des Klavier \onzerts von Liszt bis 
zur Gegenwart (1931); C. M. Girdle- 
stone, Mozart et ses concerts pour piano 
(1939); Brusotti, “Di alcuni inediti 
‘Klavierkonzerte* di J. Haydn’* {RMI 
xxxviii). 

A violin concerto by Schumann has 
recently been discovered. 

Copyright. P. 187, col. i, line 18: for 
proclamation read proclamations. 

Coronation Concerto. There are two 
Coronation Concertos by Mozart, K. V. 
459 in F major (1784) and K. V. 537 in 
D major (1788); the latter is the more fa- 
mous. Both were played by Mozart at the 
coronation of the Emperor Leopold at 
Frankfurt in 1790. 

Council of Trent. Lit.: H. Leichten- 
tritt, in MQ xxx, no. 3. 

Counterpoint. Lit.: J. J. Fux, Steps to 
Parnassus (1944; transl. by A. Mann of 
the Gradus ad Parnassum of 1725); R. O. 
Morris, Introduction to Counterpoint 
(1944); id.. Contrapuntal Technique in 
the Sixteenth Century (1922). 

Courante. Cf. C. Sachs, World History 
of the Dance (1937), pp. 36iff. 


[826] 



ADDENDA AND CORRIGENDA 


Ecole d’Arcueil. The followers of 
Satie never actually convened in his home 
at Arcueil. 


J. Stainer, fEar/y Bodleian Music, 2 vols. 
(1901); Ch. van den Borren, Sources of 
Keyboard Music in England (1913). 


Editions, Historical. V. 50: J. Georg 
Kiihnhausen, Deutsche Mattheus-Passion. 

— 51: Lambert de Sayve, Deutsche Lied- 
Icin. — 52: Augustin Pfleger, Passions- 
musik. 

XXIII A. Plain-song and Mediaeval 
Music Society, Selection of publications; 
numbering (chronological) not original, 
(i) The Musical Notation of the Middle- 
Ages (facsimiles), — (2) A Collection 
of (English) Songs and Madrigals . . . 
of the . . . 15th Century. — (3) Madri- 
gals by English Composers of the . . . 
15th Century. — (4) Graduate Sarisburi- 
ense (facsimile, ed. W. H. Frere). — (5) 
Early English Harmony, 2 vols. (facs. and 
transcr., ed. H. Hughes). — (6) Anti- 
phonale Sarisburiense (facs., ed. W. H. 
Frere). — (7) Theodoric Petri, Piae can- 
tiones ecclesiasticae et scholastic ae , 1582 
(Swedish source, ed. G. R. Woodward). 

— (8) Worcester Mediaeval Harmony 
(ed. A. Hughes). — (9) Missa 0 quam 
suavis (ed. H. B. Collins). — (10) The 
Old Hall Manuscript, 3 vols, (ed. A. 
Ramsbotham) . — ( 1 1 ) Anglo-French Se- 
quelae (ed. H. M. Bannister). 

XXV. 10: Das Madrigal als Formideal 
(H. Schultz). — ii: Die drei- und vier- 
stimmigen Notre-Dame Organa (Hus- 
mann). 

XXVI A. Smith College Archives, (i) 
Geminiani, 12 Sonatas for violin and 
pianoforte (R. L. Finney; I). — (2) J. }. 
Fux, Costanza e Fortezza (G. P. Smith; 
Op). — (3) L. Boccherini, Concerto for 
Cello (M. DeRonde; I). — (4) Andrea 
Antico (publ.), Canzoni Sonetti Stram- 
botte et Frottole, Lib, 30, 1517 (A. Ein- 
stein; V). — (5) The Chansons of Jacques 
Arcadelt, vol. I (E. B. Helm; V). 

Eg3rptian music. Lit.: C. Sachs, The 
Rise of Music (1943), pp. 7ifl. 

English music. Lit.: Correct: Early 
English Harmony, vol. i, facsimiles, by 
H. E. Wooldridge (1897); vol. ii, trans- 
scriptions, by H. V. Hughes (1913). Add: 


Estampie. There also exist two-voice 
examples of estampie (or ductia); cf. 
HAM, no. 41. Monophonic examples are 
given in HAM, no. 40. 

Ethos. Lit.: C. Sachs, The Rise of Music 

(1943)- 

Exotic music. Cf. G. Knopf, “Essai 
d’harmonie exotique” {RMI xxxviii). 

Exposition. The term is also used for 
the subsequent imitative sections of a 
fugue. See the explanation under *Fugue 
I (d), (f). 

Film music. Lit.: L. L. Sabaneev, 
Music for the Films (1935); K. London, 
Film Music (1936). 

Flemish school. P. 269, col. i, line 15: 
for Adriaen read Adrian. 

Flute. Lit.: D. C. Miller, Catalogue of 
Boo\s , , . Relating to the Flute (1935). 

Folia. See below under Passamezzo. 

Form. K. Westphal, Der Begriff der 
musi\alischen Form (1933). 

Fourth. P. 280, col. i: for successive 
fourths read superimposed fourths. 

Frottola. The full refrain (ripresa) is 
given only at the beginning of the poem, 
while between the stanzas (piedi) it oc- 
curs in a shortened form (volta), con- 
sisting of the first half of the initial 
ripresa: 

Ripresa Piedi Volta Piedi Volta . . , 
Text: rr sss r sss r ... 

Music: ab aab a- aab a- ... 

a- indicates a coda-like extension of a. 
Frequently the second half of a (music 
for the second single line) is identical 
with the first half of b (third single line). 
In the case of eight-line stanzas (s s s s) 
their musical scheme is a a b b. 


[ B27] 



ADDENDA AND CORRIGENDA 


Goliard songs. A number of the songs 
arc preserved with decipherable melodies 
in the sources of Notre Dame [see 
•Sources, no. 3]. 

Gregorian chant. II: An invaluable 
help for the study of the Gregorian texts 
is C. Marbach, Carmina Scripturarum 
(1927), which gives the sources for all 
the Scriptural texts of the Gregorian 
chant. 

IV. (a): In the tracts the repetitions are 
essential to the form. — Lit.: G. Stevens, 
“Gregorian Chant” (MQ xxx, no. 2). 

Ground. Lit.: L. Propper, Der basso 
ostinato (Diss. Berlin, 1926). 

Harmonic rhythm. P. 319, col. 2, musi- 
cal example, measure 4, last chord; bot- 
tom note should be f-natural. 

Heterophony. For examples of hetero- 
phonic style see HAM, nos. 2 (Japanese) 
and 3 (Siamese). 


in early music, see under •Ensemble. Cf. 
also L. Hibberd, in MQ xxii, no. 2. 

Invitatorium. P. 366b, lines 3 and 6, 
read “Office of the Dead” for “Requiem 
Mass.” 

Japanese music. Lit.: C. Sachs, The 
Rise of Music (1943), pp. 1051!. 

Jewish music. P. 382, col. 2, line 16: 
for Spickler read Spicker. 

Lit.: C. Sachs, The Rise of Music 
(1943), pp. 79^.; O. Kinkeldey, “A Jew- 
ish Musician of the 15th Century” (A. S. 
Freidus Memorial Volume). 

Keyboard. P. 386, col. 2, example i: 
the key (C) at the right end of the dia- 
gram should be notched to indicate the 
adjoining black key. 

Keyboard music. Lit.: E. Bodky, Der 
Vortrag alter Klaviermusi\ (1932). 


Hindu music. Lit.: C. Sachs, The Rise 
of Music (1943), pp. 15811. 

A survey of the historical development 
is given in Fox-Strangway, pp. 83^. Cf. 
also HAM, no. 4. 

History of music. P. 339, col. i, lines 
6-8: Of the Historical Anthology of Music 
by A. T. Davison and Willi Apel, Vol. I 
was published in 1946; Vol. II is in prep- 
aration (1947). 

Hydraulis. Lit.: H. Degering, Die Or- 
gel . . . bis zur Karolingerzeit 

Hymn, English. Lit.: H. W. Foote, 
Three Centuries of American Hymnody 
(1940); W. H. Frere, Hymns Ancient 
and Modern; with Introduction (1909). 

Imitation. P. 349, col. 2, example 2: the 
last note in the lowest voice in measure 4 
should be connected by a slur with the 
first note in the same voice in measure 5. 

Instrumental music. Regarding the 
problem of instrumental versus vocal style 


Krakowiak [G.], Cracovienne [F.]. A 
Polish dance named after the city of Cra- 
cow. The music is in 2/4-timc and em- 
ploys simple syncopated patterns. The 
krakowiak was danced by large groups, 
with shouting, improvised singing, and 
striking of the heels together. It was in 
vogue in the early part of the nineteenth 
century and became known all over the 
world through the stage performances of 
Fanny Elssler. Chopin wrote a “Krako- 
wiak” for. piano and orchestra (op. 14). 

Lamentations. Omit sentence p. 392b, 
lines 3 and 2 from bottom, “The . . . 

(1474V’ 

Latin America. Lit.: N. Slonimsky^ 
Music of Latin America (1945). 

Lauda. P. 395, col. i, line 4: for Lauda 
read Laude, 

Leonora Overtures. Cf. H. Braun- 
stein, Beethoven s Leonore-Ouvertiiren 

(1927)- 


[828] 



ADDENDA AND CORRIGENDA 


Libraries. P. 403b, insert: 

Oxford, Bodleian Library and Christ 
Church Library, Catalogue of MSS, by 
G. E. P. Arkwright (1915); of printed 
music, by Aloys Hiff (1919). 

Lied. Additional lit. in MoML, 452. 

Liturgical books. Add under Proces- 
sionale: The Processionale monasticum 
, . . Ordinis Sancti Benedicti (1893) con- 
tains many important responsoria, e.g., 
the Aspiciens a longe mentioned on p. 
610. 

Madrigal. Lit.: G. Cesari, “Le Origin! 
del madrigale cinquecentesco*’ {RIM 
xix). 

Lit.: E. H. Fellowes, The English 
Madrigal Composers (1921); id,, The 
English Madrigal (1925), 


national Congress of Musicology [New 
York, 1939], 1944). 

To B: O. Strunk, in Papers Read at the 
International Congress of Musicology 
[New York, 1939 (1944)], niakes a very 
interesting attempt to distinguish between 
various types of 16th-century motet on 
the basis of a textual classification. 

Music criticism. I. No less important 
than Schumann is E. T. A. Hoffmann 
(1776-1822), whose reviews, written for 
the Allgemeine musiJ{alische Zeitung 
(Leipzig, 180911.), include some admir- 
able analyses of Beethoven’s C-minor 
Symphony, Coriolan Overture, Trios op. 
70 and Egmont (cf. the cpl. ed. by W. 
Harich, vol. xii). — Lit.: I. Kolodin, The 
Critical Composer (1940); T. Stege, 
Bilder aus der deutschen MusikXritik, 
(1936). 


March. W. D. Allen, Our Marching 
Civilizati on (i 943 ) . 

Mass. P. 427, col. I, line 2: for mSssa 
read messa. 

Mechanical composition. Lit.: J. Ph. 
Kirnberger, Der allezeit fertige Polonoi- 
sen' und Menuettenkpmponist (1757); A. 
Laszld, The Dice Composer (1941). 

Mechanical instruments. Lit.: R. 
Mosoriak, The Curious History of Music 
Boxes (1943). 

Metamorphosis. Omit the last sen- 
tence. 

Middle Ages. Lit.: G. S. Bedrock. 
“The Nature of Mediaeval Music” {ML 
xxvi, no. 2). 

Monody. Lit.: O. Kinkeldcy, Orgel und 
Klavier im 16, Jahrhundert (1910). 

Motet. Lit. A: H. Tischlcr, “The Motet 
in 13th-Century France” (unpubl. diss. 
Yale, 1942); id,, in MQ xxx — Lit. B: 
O. Strunk, “Some Motet-Types of the 
1 6th Century” {Papers Read at the Inter- 


Music education. Lit.: Ch. W. 
Hughes, Chamber Music in American 
Schools (1933). 

Mute. Muted cellos and double-basses 
are used very effectively at the beginning 
of Stravinsky’s Firebird Suite. Mutes are 
also made with two or five prongs. 

National Anthems. “God Save the 
King” is definitely not by H. Carey. Cf. 
P. A. Scholes, God Save the King (1942). 

Neapolitan School. Cf. E. J. Dent, 
“The Nomenclature of Opera” {ML 

XXV ). 

Notation. Lit.: }. Wolf, Geschichte der 
Mensuralnotation (3 vols., 1904). 

Ode-symphonie. The term is also used 
for other French compositions employing 
an orchestra and a chorus, e.g., Bizet’s 
Vasco da Gama, 

Opera. Lit. A: J. Towers, Dictionary- 
Catalogue of Operas . . . (1910). — Lit. 
B: Ernest Newman, Stories of Great Op- 
eras (1928; 2d vol. 1943). — Lit. E: E. J. 
Dent, “Nomenclature of Opera” {ML 
xxv). 


[829] 



ADDENDA AND CORRIGENDA 


Oratorio. Lit.: C. H. Bitter, Beitrdge 
zur Geschichte des Oratoriums (1872). 

Orchestra. P. 520b: Handers “piccolo** 
is, of course, a small recorder, not the 
modern piccolo flute. — Lit.: A. Carse, 
The Orchestra in the i 8 th Century 
(1940). 

Organ. Lit.: Adlung, Musica mecha- 
nica organoedi (1768; new cd. 1931); H. 
Degering, Die Orgel . . . bis zur Karo- 
lingerzeit (1905). 

Organ chorale. Lit.: Stainton de B. 
Taylor, The Chorale Preludes of /. S. 
Bach (1942); H. E. Huggler, /. 5 . Bach's 
Orgelbuchlein (Diss. Bern, 1930). 

Organ Mass. Cavazzoni’s organ Masses 
are not completely for the organ, but for 
alternating organ and choir. 

Oriental music. Lit.: C. Sachs, The 
Rise of Music (1943). 

Ornamentation. For the example 
given on p. 546 the writer of this article 
is indebted to W. Landowska, Music of 
the Past (1924), p. i3iff. 

Ostinato. A modern example of the 
tonic-dominant ostinato exists in Chopin*s 
Berceuse. For another example of so- 
prano ostinato in English 16th-century 
music (Taverner) see HAM, no. 112. 

Parthenia. Rimbault’s edition is not 
made from the original plates. A fac- 
simile edition of the original appeared in 
1943. 

Partial signature. Cf. also E. E. Lo- 
winsky, in MQ xxxi, no. 2. 

Partimento. De Nardis, "^Partimenti 
dei maestri Cotumacci . . . (Ricordi, 

1933)- 

Passamezzol According to some schol- 
ars (O. Gomtosi, M. F. Bukofzer) the 
“theme** used for numerous passamezzos 


is to be found, not in the melody, but in 
the bass line: G-F-D-B flat-F-G (C-D-) 
G. The same remark applies to the Folia 
and the Romanesca. Cf. O. Gombosi, 
“Italia: Patria del basso ostinato’* (LRM 
vii). 

Phonograph and recorded music. 
P. 572, col. I, line 17: for Kilpeinen read 
Kilpinen. 

Lit.: D. Hall, The Record Boo\ (1940). 

Piano duet, (a): Beethoven wrote sev- 
eral piano duets, e.g., a Sonata op. 6, 
Three Marches op. 45, and op. 134, a 
four-hand arrangement of his Great 
Fugue in B-flat for string quartet (op. 
133). — (b): Hindemith and Stravinsky 
each wrote a sonata for two pianos (1942, 
1944). — Lit.: A. Rowley, Four Hands, 
One Piano (1940); K. Ganzer and L. 
Kusche, Vierhdndig (1937). 

Pianoforte. The first American piano- 
fortes were built by John Brenet in Phila- 
delphia, r. 1774. 

Polymetric. The term is also used for 
modern editions of 16th-century vocal 
music in which the bar-lines are placed in 
irregular intervals, according to the re- 
quirements of the musical and textual 
phrases. 

Prelude. A considerable number of prel- 
udes from the Buxheim Organ Book and 
from Kleber’s tablature are reproduced 
in MfM 1888/89, Beilage. 

Primitive music. Lit.: C. Sachs, The 
Rise of Music (1943). 

Psalm tones. P. 612, col. 2, musical 
example: first words of verses i, 2, 10, and 
II are, respectively, Deus canticum; Qui 
das; Gloria; Sicut. 

Publishers, Music. United States: for 
Schumann read Schuman. 

Add: A. P. Schmidt Company, Boston 
(MacDowcll). 


[830] 



ADDENDA AND CORRIGENDA 


Quer-. P. 620, col. 2: after Querflote in- 
sert comma, and delete comma at end of 
line. 

Quodlibet. The term is also used for 
pieces whose only distinction is a some- 
what nonsensical text, e.g., one dealing 
with the different kinds of “noses.” 

Ranz des vaches. A Kuhreigen of 1710 
is reproduced in the B.-H. edition of 
Franz Liszt, Pianoforte Werf^e, vol. iv, 
p. iv. It shows the augmented fourth 
which is another characteristic trait of 
these melodies. 

Resonance. P. 638, col. i, line 4: for M. 
Seiffert read A. Seiffert. 

Retrograde. For another retrograde 
minuet, by C. P. E. Bach, cf. NageVs 
Musi\ Archiv Nr. 65 (O. Vrieslander), 
no. 6a. 

Ricercare. The *neo-classical movement 
of the 20th century has led to a revival of 
the riccrcare, e.g., in B. Martinu’s Tre 
Ricercari and in A. Casella’s Due Ricer- 
cart sul nome di Bach, 

Romanesca. F. Liszt wrote a modern 
composition on the Romanesca theme 
(i860). See remark above under Passa- 
mezzo. 

Rubato. Around 1800 the term rubato 
was used to indicate free modifications, 
not of temporal but of dynamic values, 
e.g., forte-accents on normally weak notes, 
such as the second and fourth beat of a 
4/4-measure (Tiirk, 1789; H. Ch. Koch, 
1808; cf. Lit., Bruck). It is entirely pos- 
sible that Chopin had this manner of per- 
formance in mind when he prescribed 
“rubato” in his compositions. It should 
be noticed that he used this term almost 
exclusively in his mazurkas or for melo- 
dies in the character of a mazurka (F 
minor Concerto, last movement), the very 
nature of which would seem to exclude 
modifications of tempo but readily ad- 
mits unexpected accents on the second 
or third beat. 


Rumanian music. P. 655, col. i: for 
Georg Enescu read Georges Enesco. 

Russian horns. Lit.: Joh. Christian 
Hinrichs, Entstehung, Fortgang und jet- 
zige Bescha§enheit der russischen Jagd- 
musi\ (Petersburg, 1796). 

Russian music. P. 658, col. i, line 17: 
for Montague-Nathan read Montagu- 
Nathan. 

Schneller. Mr. Aldrich’s implied (and 
intended) statement that, in music be- 
fore 1750, the sign (b) always indicates 
the four-note ornament {Pralltriller) , not 
the three-note ornament {Schneller), is 
open to doubt. Aesthetic considerations 
make it difficult to believe that the four- 
note execution should be used in cases 
like J. S. Bach’s Preludes 6 and 12 of Wt, 
CL ii, or the fugal theme of the Toccata 
of his Partita no. 6, or D. Scarlatti’s So- 
nata in F minor (TaAM xi, p. 144). All 
these examples show the sign in question 
on a “detached” note, as in Ex. (c), a 
position which, regardless of the period, 
would seem to call for the “rhythmic” 
Schneller rather than the “melodic” Prall- 
triller. In the fugal theme of Buxtehude’s 
Toccata in G {Orgelkpmpositionen, ed. 
by Spitta, pp. ii6f) the speed of motion 
makes the use of the Pralltriller almost 
impossible. W. A. 

Sequence. P. 674, col. 2, line 3: for de 
St, Adam de Victor read d* Adam de St. 
Victor. 

Sonata. End of II, p. 693b: Sonatas for 
cembalo occur in Gregorio Strozzi’s Ca- 
pricci da sonar e of 1687. Similar compo- 
sitions by Pasquini may well be of an 
even earlier date [cf. M. Seiffert, Ge- 
schichte der Klaviermusi\ (1899), p. 

278]. 

Sonata-form. P. 697, col. 2: for Maria 
Vcracini read F. M. Ver acini. 

The symphony by Mona mentioned in 
the second paragraph of p. .698 is found in 
DTOe xix, i, p. i. It is, however, a less 
perfect example of sonata-form than is the 


[831] 



ADDENDA AND COR^RIGENDA 


first movement of a Trio by Pergolesi (d. 
1736), which is reprinted in H. Riemann’s 
Collegium musicum, No. 30. 

Spanish music. Lit.: P. Aubry’s “Iter 
Hispanicum” articles appeared also as a 
book (1908). 

Style. Lit.: E. Katz, Die musH^alischen 
Stilbegriffe des ly, Jahrhunderts (1926). 

Suite. P. 717b, line 35: read “some of 
the suites” instead of “the suites”; p. 718a, 
lines 6 and 7: Suites with the scheme 
P-A-C-S-O-G (P = Prelude) arc found 
in Draghi’s Six Select Suites of Lessons 
(c. 1700). 

Sumer is icumen in. P. 718, col. 2: for 
Harleyan read Harleian. 

M. F. Bukofzer, in a recent study, 
Sumer is icumen in (1944), has conclu- 
sively shown that the piece dates from the 
early 14th century, approximately 1310. 

Tenebrae. The Improperia do not be- 
long to Tenebrae, but to the Good Friday 
morning service. 

Tetrachord, P. 740, col. 2, line 2: for 
three read two. 

Thorough-bass. Lit.: G. Ph. Tele- 
mann, Sing-, Spiel- und G ener albas su- 
bungen (1734, new cd. by M. Sciffert, 
1914). 

Tromba marina. The tenor, marked 
“Trompettc,” in Pierre Fontaine’s chan- 
son “J’aime bicn celui” (r. 1400) is prob- 
ably written for the tromba marina. Cf. 
P. Aubry, in S/M viii, 526. 

Trouvferes. Lit.: A. Rcstori, “Per la 
storia musicale dei trovatori proccnzali” 
{RMl ii, iii). 

Twelve-tone technique. P. 777, col. i, 
last musical example: the second note 
should be b-flat. 

Lit.: E. Krcnck, “New Developments 
of the Twelve-Tone Technique” (MR 
iv). 


U. C. P. 778, col. \ : for corde read corda. 

Urlinie. In the opening paragraph, re- 
place the sentence “They represent . . . 
patterns of structure” by the following 
one: They are essential elements of Schen- 
kcr’s theory and represent the attempt to 
reveal the organic structure of music by 
showing that every composition ulti- 
mately follows some simple structural 
tone pattern which acts as its secret skele- 
ton and guarantees its continuity and co- 
herence. 

Lit.: H. Schenkcr, MusiXcdische The- 
orien und Thantasieri, vol. 3: Der freie 
Satz (1935); F. Salzer, Sinn und Wesen 
der abendlandischen Mehrstimmigl^eit 
(193?); O. Jonas, Das Wesen des musi- 
i^alischen KunstwerJ(s (i 930 * 

Variations. IV. The composition men- 
tioned at the beginning of this section can 
hardly be considered a theme with varia- 
tions. It is a three-voice rondeau, “Amis 
tout dous,” for the upper part of which 
two ornamented versions have been pre- 
served. The title given in the text, “Di 
molen van Pariis,” actually refers to the 
composer, Pierre Moulins of Paris. Cf. 
F. Kammerer, Die Musi/^stiicf^e des 
Prager Kodex XI E 9 (1931), p. 145. 

Venezuela. Lit.: A collection of Denl{- 
mdler has been started under the title 
Archivo de Musica Colonial V enezolana 

(i942£f). 

Villanella. E. Kiwi, Villanella und Can- 
zonetta im 16. Jahrhundert (Diss. Hei- 
delberg, 1936). 

Violoncello. P. 804, col. 2, line 16 from 
bottom: for 288 read 228. 

Vocal music. Regarding the problem 
of vocal versus instrumental style, in early 
music, see under *Ensemble. Cf. also L. 
Hibberd, in MQ xxii, no. 2. 

Voices, Range of. Cf. A. T. Davison, 
The Technique of Choral Composition 
(1945), p. 17. 



ADDENDA AND CORRIGENDA 

Wa-wan Press. Cf. article by E. Yankee Doodle. Cf. O. G. Th. Son- 
Waters, in G. Rcesc^ A Birthday Present neck, Report on .. . Yan\ee-Doodle 
to C{arl) E(ngel) (1943). (1909)- 

NEW ENTRIES 


Ballad meter. This term is commonly 
employed to designate the most usual po- 
etic meter of English and American bal- 
lads, namely that also known as common 
meter [cf. ♦Ballad, ♦Poetic meter II]. 

Choral music. Cf. A. T. Davison, 
The Technique of Choral Composition 
(1945). 

Choros (properly, Choro, singular). 
The name originally applied to a musical 
ensemble of guitars, flutes, and drums, 
employed for entertainment at popular 
festivals in Brazil, but now meaning the 
music played by choro bands, and re- 
sembling the ♦samba or ♦maxixe. Villa- 
Lobos has extended the meaning of choros 
to designate any piece in the Brazilian 
manner, and has composed twelve Ch6- 
ros, varying from a solo for guitar to a 
choral symphonic poem. 

Conflicting signatures. Same as ♦par- 
tial signatures. 


Convertible counterpoint. Same as 
♦invertible counterpoint. 

Dice music. See ♦Mechanical composi- 
tion. 

Eoliphone [F.j. ♦Wind machine (e.g., 
in Ravel’s Daphnis and Chloe), 

Harpa [It.], (i) Harp. — (2) Harpsi- 
chord, e.g., in Handel’s Concertos for 
. . . Harpa o Organo, 

Limoges, School of. Same as School 
of ♦St. Martial. 

Luftpause [G.].» Breathing rest. 

Orpheoreon, orpharion. An instru- 
ment described by M. Praetorius {Or- 
gano graphia, 1619), and others, similar 
to the ♦pandora. Cf. GD iii, 773. 

Round O. Seventeenth-century Angli- 
cism for ♦rondo. 

Supplying. See under ♦Verset.
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